Pro 2:

a. We see easily that a+b2 (a,b Z) is a ring because under original operation that
has commutative, associative properties. It has 0 and 1 is identity of additive and
multiplicative operation. Note that: (a + b2)+(c+d2)=(a+b)+(c+d) 2 and
(a + b2).(c+d2)=(ac+2bd)+(ad+bc) 2.
But it is not a field because there is a element that is not invertible. Example is
2+2. indeed, there is c,d Z such that (a + b2).(c+d2)=1 then
2c+2d=1 (imposible) and 2d+c=0.
b. likely part a. we have a+b2 (a,b Q) is a ring. and it is a field. Indeed, we will
show that every a+b2 (a,b Q and a2+b2>0 ) is invertible. That means there exist
c,d Q such that (a + b2).(c+d2)=1 or ac+2bd=1 and bc+ad=0. determinant
=a2-2b20 because a,b Q and 2 is not belong to Q so a2-2b2=0 iff a=b=0. so
every nonzero element is invertible so the ring is a field.
c. The set A={a+ b32, a,b Q } is not a ring because it is not closed with
multiplicative operation. Indeed, with 2 elements a+ b32 and c+ d32 with bd0
then (a+ b32)(c+ d32)= (ac+bd 34)+(ad+bc)32 does not belongs to A because
ac+ bd 34 does not belong to Q with bd0.
d. We can check easily that the set contain the matrices has given form has a close
set with original operations and has commutative and associative properties. And
has identity for addition and multiplication. Therefore it is a ring.
We need to show that ervery nonzero element is invertible, that means for a,b Q
not all=0 then there exist c,d such that ac+2bd=1 and ad+bc=0 ( that is deduced
from multiplication matrix) but following part b. then the LED has solution in Q.
So the set is a field.
Pro 5:
a.
with a Z/nZ. If a is a nilpotent then there exists m>0 Z such that [a]m=0 so n|
am.
so if p is prime divisor of n then p|am then p|a (qed)
b.
we have 72=23.32
from part a then there are nilpotent of Z/72Z is [2],[22],[23],[2.3],[22.3],[23.3],
[2.32],[22.32],[23.32]
c. assume the Z/nZ has a nilpotent is [a] deduce there exists m>0 Z / n|am
(where 0<a<m)
If n has not perfect square divisor then n=p1p2pk where pi is prime and pipj for
every ij.
Because pi|n then pi|am so pi|a for every i
Deduce a >= p1p2...pk=m (contradiction)
So n must have perfect square divisor.
Pro 6:
a. x is nilpotent. So xm=0
m=1 then x=0
m=2 then 0=xm=x.xm-1 so x is a zero divisor.
b. R is commutative Ring
(rx)m=rm.xm=0 so rx is nilpotent.
c. we have x is nilpotent,from part b. then x is also nilpotent.
1=1-(-x)m= (1-(-x))(1+(-x)++(-x)m-1)

1= (1+x)( 1+(-x)++(-x)m-1). So 1+x is invertible therefore 1+x is a unit (qed)

d. assume that a is a unit and x is a nilpotent. Deduce there exists b and m> 0 Z
such that ab=1 and xm=0 and form part b. then b(-x) is also nilpotent. we have
1=(ab)m-(b(-x))m=bm(am-(-x)m)=bm(a-(-x))(am-1++(-x)m-1)
1=(a+x)bm(a-(-x))(am-1++(-x)m-1)
So a+x is invertible so a+x is a unit.(qed)
Pro 8:
+> it is easy to see that |H|=9 because a,b {0,1,2}
And we easy to see that is a commutative ring with 2 identity elements for addition
and multiplication. We only need to show that every nonzero elements of H is invertible.
Indeed, for a,b Z/3Z we will prove that there exist c,d such that
a b x c d = 1 0
-b a
-d c
0 1
That means ac-bd=1(mod 3)
And bc+ad=0(mod 3)
But the LEQ has determinant = a2+b2=0 (mod 3) iff a=b=0 (mod 3) so if a b not all = 0
then the LEQ has solution in Z/3Z. So every nonzero element is invertible.
So it is a field
+> we consider H={H/{0}} with multiplication has 8 element
Consider element
a = 1 2
-2 1
a2

0 1
; a3 = 1 1
; a4 = 2 0
-1 0
-1 1
0 2
5
6
7
a = 2 1
;a = 0 2 ; a = 2 2
-1 2
-2 0
-2 2
a8 = 1 0
0 1
So C(a) is a cyclic group that is generated by a is a subgroup of H and has 8 elements, so
H=C(a)
So H is a cyclic group. QED
=

Pro 9:
- if the set A of nonzero element which are not unit of is empty QED
- if A has a 0 A (of course a 1)
We will prove that an A for every n
+ n=1 true
+ assume that it is true for n that mean an A
If an+1 does not belong to A, that mean there exists b / an+1b=1 so an(ab)=1 so an is
invertible so an does not belong to A (contradiction)
So an A for every n (1)
- we prove that am an for every m n.
Indeed if exist m<n such that am=an then am(am-n-1)=0 because a 0 so am-n =1
If m-n =1 then a =1 (contradiction)

So m-n >1 therefore a.am-n-1=1 or a is invertible so a A (contradiction)

So am an for every m n (2)
Form (1) and (2) we have A is infinite QED
Pro 12:
a. we need to prove that R is closed that with operation
for a,b R then v(a+b)min {v(a),v(b)} 0 so a+b R
v(ab)=v(a)+v(b) 0 so ab R
now, we only need to show that 1 R or v(1) 0.
We have v(ab)=v(a)+v(b)
Choose a=1 then v(1)+v(b)=v(b) so v(1)=0 so 1 R. QED
b. we have v(x.x-1)=v(x)+v(x-1)=v(1)=0
therefore v(x) 0 or v(x-1) 0 so x R or x-1 R . QED
c. ()if x is unit of R therefore there exists x -1 R / xx-1=1,
Because x,x-1 R then v(x),v(x-1) 0 but 0=v(1)=v(x.x-1)=v(x)+v(x-1) so v(x)=v(x-1)
=0 (qed)
() if v(x)=0, consider x-1 K ,x.x-1=1, we need to prove that 1 R
We have v(x)+v(x-1)=v(x.x-1)=v(1) = 0 so v(x-1)=0 so x-1 R so x is invertible in R.
So x is unit of R (qed)