Introduction

In the treatment of a continually increasing number of

physical problems, use is at the same time made of the
principles of classical mechanics and electrodynamics, and
of the hypothesis of the quanta, which is in conflict with
them. Through the study of these problems it is hoped to
arrive at some general point of view which may trace the
boundary between the 'classical region' and the 'region of
the quanta'.
One fundamental law stands amidst the theory of
quanta, which is wholly derived from classical foundations:
the Displacement Law of W. Wien on the change of the
distribution of energy over the spectrum involved by a
reversible adiabatic compression of radiation. This fact
deserves our attention. It might be possible that also in
more general cases, when we do not restrict ourselves to
harmonic motions, the reversible adiabatic transformations
should be treated in a classical way, whereas in the
calculation of other processes (e.g. an isothermal addition
of heat) the quanta come into play.
From this point of view I started in some papers in
which on the one hand I studied Planck's hypothesis of
energy elements*, and on the other tried to extend this
hypothesis to more general motions.
In these researches I especially made use of the following
hypothesis,
to
which
Einstein
gave
the
name
'Adiabatenhypothese'.
If a system be affected in a reversible adiabatic way,
allowed motions are transformed into allowed motions.
Suppose that for some class of motions we, for the first
time, introduce the quanta. In some cases the hypothesis
fixes completely which special motions are to be considered
as allowed: this occurs if the new class of motions can be
derived by means of an adiabatic transformation from some
class for which the allowed motions are already known
(especially if the new motions can be derived from
harmonic motions of one degree of freedom).
In other cases the hypothesis gives restrictions to the
arbitrariness which exists otherwise in the introduction of
the quanta.
In these applications of the adiabatic hypothesis the
socalled adiabatic invariants are of great importance, i.e.

those quantities which may have the same values before

and after the adiabatic affection. Especially I have shown
before that arbitrary periodic motion (of one or more
degrees of freedom) possess the adiabatic invariant

2T

( ,frequency; T , mean with respect to time of the kinetic

energy), which in the case of harmonic motions of one
degree of freedom reduces to
/

The object of the considerations of this paper is:

(1) To formulate as sharply as possible the adiabatic
hypothesis, at the same time showing what is wanting in
sharpness, especially for non-periodic motions.
(2) To demonstrate the importance of the adiabatic
invariants for the theory of quanta. In this respect the

discussion of the invariant 2T mentioned above gives the

connexion between the adiabatic hypothesis and the
formulae by which Planck, Debye, Bohr, Sommerfeld and
others have introduced the quanta.
(3) To indicate the difficulties which arise in the application
of the hypothesis, if the reversible adiabatic transformation
leads through singular motions.
(4) To indicate the connexion between the adiabatic
problems and the statistical-mechanical roots of the Second
Law of Thermodynamics. Boltzmann's deduction of this law
is based upon a statistical principle which has been
destroyed by the introduction of the quanta. At the present
time we possess a statistical deduction of this law for some
special systems (e.g. for systems with simple harmonic
motions) but not for general systems.*
I take the liberty of publishing my considerations, in the
hope that others may overcome the difficulties which I
could not solve. Perhaps on closer examination it will
appear that the adiabatic hypothesis is not generally valid ;
in any case, the correctness of Wien's displacement law
seems to indicate that the reversible adiabatic processes
take a prominent place in the theory of quanta - it seems
that they may be treated in a 'classical' way.

1. Definition of a reversible adiabatic affection of a

system.
Motions
(a)
and
(a')
which
are
adiabatically related to each other
Let the coordinates of the system be denoted by q1 ... qn .
The potential energy may contain besides the coordinates
q certain 'parameters' a1 , a2 , the values of which can
be altered infinitely slowly. The kinetic energy T

may be a

homogeneous quadratic function of the velocities

the coefficients of which are functions of the
be of the

a1 , a2 ,

and may

By changing the parameters from the

values a1 , a2 , to the values

way, a given motion

q1 ... qn

(a)

a1 ' , a2 ' ,

in an infinitely slow

may be transformed into another

motion ( a ' ) . This special type of influencing upon the

system may be called 'a reversible adiabatic affection', the
motions ( a ) and ( a ' ) 'adiabatically related to each
other'.
Remarks.
A. If some of the motions considered are distinctly nonperiodic (e.g. the hyperbolic motion in the case of a
Newtonian attraction), the addition 'reversible' loses its
original meaning.
B. The definition given above must be generalized in a
suitable manner, if the system is affected by an (infinitely
slowly increasing) magnetic field (Zeeman effect), or if the
mechanical system is replaced by an electrodynamical one
(reversible adiabatic compression of radiation)
2. Formulation of the adiabatic hypothesis for
systems with periodical or quasi-periodical motions
Consider the system first when the parameters have some
given values a10 , a20 The theory of quanta will not allow
every motion ( a0 ) which is possible with these values of
the parameters according to the equations of the classical
mechanics, but only some distinct special motions.
Consequently we speak of the 'allowed' motions

{ a0 }

belonging to the values

a10 , a20

of the parameters. To any

other values a1 , a2 belong other 'allowed' motions { a } .

Now our hypothesis asserts:
For general values a1 , a2 of the parameters, those and
only those motions are allowed which are adiabatically
related to the motions which were allowed for the special
values a10 , a20 (i.e. which can be transformed into them,
or may be derived from them in an adiabatic reversible
way).
Remarks. A. Whether it be possible to extend the
hypothesis to non-periodic motions, and how this should be
done, I am not able to tell on account of some difficulties,
which are mentioned in 9.B. Some forms of adiabatic
affections may be realized physically - for instance, the
strengthening of an electric or a magnetic field surrounding
an atom (Stark and Zeeman effect). Others have more the
character of a mathematical fiction (e.g. the change of a
central field of force).
3. The adiabatic invariants and their application
Each application of the adiabatic hypothesis forces us to
look for 'adiabatic invariants' - that is, for quantities which
retain their value during the transformation of a motion
{a}
into a motion { a' } related adiabatically to the
former. Indeed, from the hypothesis follows immediately the
property:
If an adiabatic invariant for the 'allowed' motions
, belonging to the special values

a10 , a20

{ a0 }

, possesses the

''

distinct numerical values ' , , it possesses exactly

the same values for the 'allowed' motions belonging to
arbitrary values of the parameters a1 , a2
4. The adiabatic invariant

2T /

for periodic motions

and / especially for harmonic motions*

Suppose that the system under consideration possesses the
following properties: For arbitrarily fixed values of the
a1 , a2
parameters
all the motions that have to be
considered are periodic, independently of the phases

( q 10 q n 0 , q 10 q n 0 , ) the motion starts with. The period

may

depend in some way or other on the a\, a<i... and on the

beginning phase.
Then the integral with respect to time of twice the kinetic
energy, extended over one period, is an adiabatic invariant:
p
d'/2Tdt = 0.
(3)o
In this formula d' denotes the difference in value for two
infinitely near, adiabatically, related motions of the system.
(For the demonstration of form. 3 the reader is referred to
the original paper f, Proc. Acad. Amsterdam 19 (1917) 576).
Putting the reciprocal of the period P equal to the frequency
v, and denoting the mean of T with respect to the time by T,
form. 3 expresses:
2T\v = adiabatic invariant. (4)