Caste System

Caste meaning Varna or colour to the Aryans was the logical distinction between the
conquerors (Aryans) and the conquered (Dasas and Panis). It was in about 1,000 B.C. that
the Aryans settled between the Indus and Gangetic regions; it was here that they learnt the
art of cultivation. With the coming of agriculture, greater division of labour came into
existence and thereby different occupations.

Sreni (Guilds): a Unique Social Innovation of Ancient India

By Manikant Shah & D.P. Agrawal
Ancient Indian guilds are a unique and multi-faceted form of organisation, which
combined the functions of a democratic government, a trade union, a court of justice
and a technological institution. The trained workers of the guilds provided a congenial
atmosphere for work. They procured raw materials for manufacturing, controlled
quality of manufactured goods and their price, and located markets for their sale.
Though seen through the Eurocentric blinkers they have been misunderstood. It was
believed that the IndianGuild system also followed the European feudal or the
manorial system of the high Middle Ages, due mainly to sudden increase in trade.
These European guilds identified as Merchant Guilds and Craft Guilds lasted in some
places until the nineteenth and the twentieth century, though probably their golden age
was in the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. The Craft Guilds being the direct
producers were more important than the Merchant Guilds. But the Indian guilds were
far more important and complex institutions than the European examples.
Ancient Indian guilds have been a subject of some debate, both about their real
character and antiquity.
goods and their price, and located markets for their sale. Though seen through the
Eurocentric blinkers they have been misunderstood. It was believed that the
IndianGuild system also followed the European feudal or the manorial system of the
high Middle Ages, due mainly to sudden increase in trade. These European guilds
identified as Merchant Guilds and Craft Guilds lasted in some places until the
nineteenth and the twentieth century, though probably their golden age was in the
thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries. The Craft Guilds being the direct producers
were more important than the Merchant Guilds. But the Indian guilds were far more
important and complex institutions than the European examples.
o
o

Monetization of economy was a significant feature of the post Mauryan period. The Indo- Greek rulers issued gold
coins. Menander was the last Indo-Greek king to issue gold coins. The Kushanas also issued several gold coins.
Gold mines existed in Sind as well as in Dhalbhum. Satavahanas issued lead and copper coins.

The smaller republican dynasties issued silver and copper coins. The Nagas, Yaudheyas, Kunindas, Mitra rulers of
Kaushambi, Mathura, Avanti and Ahichhatra also issued their own coins. Many nigamas issued copper coins and
bronze. Money had penetrated deep into the life of common man during the post-Mauryan period. Monetization of
economy was a significant feature of the post Mauryan period. The Indo- Greek rulers issued gold coins. Menander
was the last Indo-Greek king to issue gold coins. The Kushanas also issued several gold coins. Gold mines existed in
Sind as well as in Dhalbhum. Satavahanas issued lead and copper coins.

The smaller republican dynasties issued silver and copper coins. The Nagas, Yaudheyas, Kunindas, Mitra rulers of
Kaushambi, Mathura, Avanti and Ahichhatra also issued their own coins. Many nigamas issued copper coins and
bronze. Money had penetrated deep into the life of common man during the post-Mauryan period. Monetization of
economy was a significant feature of the post Mauryan period. The Indo- Greek rulers issued gold coins. Menander
was the last Indo-Greek king to issue gold coins. The Kushanas also issued several gold coins. Gold mines existed in
Sind as well as in Dhalbhum. Satavahanas issued lead and copper coins.

The smaller republican dynasties issued silver and copper coins. The Nagas, Yaudheyas, Kunindas, Mitra rulers of
Kaushambi, Mathura, Avanti and Ahichhatra also issued their own coins. Many nigamas issued copper coins and
bronze. Money had penetrated deep into the life of common man during the post-Mauryan period. Monetization of
economy was a significant feature of the post Mauryan period. The Indo- Greek rulers issued gold coins. Menander
was the last Indo-Greek king to issue gold coins. The Kushanas also issued several gold coins. Gold mines existed in
Sind as well as in Dhalbhum. Satavahanas issued lead and copper coins.

The smaller republican dynasties issued silver and copper coins. The Nagas, Yaudheyas, Kunindas, Mitra rulers of
Kaushambi, Mathura, Avanti and Ahichhatra also issued their own coins. Many nigamas issued copper coins and
bronze. Money had penetrated deep into the life of common man during the post-Mauryan period. Monetization of
economy was a significant feature of the post Mauryan period. The Indo- Greek rulers issued gold coins. Menander
was the last Indo-Greek king to issue gold coins. The Kushanas also issued several gold coins. Gold mines existed in
Sind as well as in Dhalbhum. Satavahanas issued lead and copper coins.

The smaller republican dynasties issued silver and copper coins. The Nagas, Yaudheyas, Kunindas, Mitra rulers of
Kaushambi, Mathura, Avanti and Ahichhatra also issued their own coins. Many nigamas issued copper coins and
bronze. Money had penetrated deep into the life of common man during the post-Mauryan period. The largest

Indian partners with their total trade (sum of imports and exports) in millions of US Dollars for
financial year 20122013 are as follows:[1]

Country

All countries

Exports

Imports

Total Trade

Trade Balance

300,400

490,736

791,136

-190,336.00

United Arab Emirates

36,265.15

38,436.47

74,701.61

-2,171.32

China

13,503.00

54,324.04

67,827.04

-40,821.04

United States

36,152.30

24,343.73

60,496.03

11,808.57[2]

Saudi Arabia

9783.81

34,130.50

43,914.31

-24,346.69

1,116.98

29,915.78

31,032.76

-28,798.80

Singapore

13,608.65

7,754.38

21,363.03

5,854.27[2]

Germany

7,244.63

14,373.91

21,618.54

-7129.28

Hong Kong

12,278.31

8,078.58

20,356.89

4,199.74[2]

Indonesia

5,331.47

14,774.27

20,105.75

-9,442.80

Iraq

1,278.13

20,155.94

21,434.07

-18,877.81

Japan

6,099.06

12,514.07

18,613.14

-6,415.01

Belgium

5,506.63

10,087.16

15,593.80

-4,580.53

Switzerland

Country

Exports

Imports

Total Trade

Trade Balance

Kuwait

1,060.80

16,569.63

17,630.43

-15,508.83

Iran

3,351.07

11,603.79

14,954.86

-8,252.72

South Korea

4,201.49

13,461.25

17,662.73

-9,259.76

Rice and Ragi form the staple food in South Karnataka, whereas Jolada rotti, Sorghum is staple to
North Karnataka. Bisi bele bath, Jolada rotti, Ragi mudde, Uppittu,Benne Dose, Masala
Dose and Maddur Vade are some of the popular food items in Karnataka. Among sweets, Mysore
Pak, Karadantu of Gokak and Amingad,Belgaavi Kunda and Dharwad pedha are popular. Apart from
this, coastal Karnataka and Kodagu have distinctive cuisines of their own. Udupi cuisine of coastal
Karnataka is popular all over India.