NEW

TRANSLATION

This volume brings together the three

most original and influential ancient Greek
treatises on literature.
Aristotle's Poetics contains his treatment of
Greek tragedy: its history, nature, and
conventions, with details on poetic diction. Stephen Halliwell makes this seminal
vvork newly accessible with a reliable text
"
and a translation
that is both accurate and
readable. His authoritative introduction
traces the \vork's debt to earlier theorists
(especially Plato), its distinctive argument,
and the reasons behind its enduring relevance.
The essay On the Sublime, usually attributed
to "Longinus" (identity uncertain), was
probably composed in the first century
A.D.; its subject is the appr~ciation of
greatness ("the sublime") in writing, with
analysis of illustrative passages ranging
from Homer and Sappho to Plato and
Genesis. In this edition, Donald Russell has
judiciously revised and newly annotated
the text and translation by W. Hamilton
Fyfe and provides a new introduction.
The treatise On Style, ascribed to an (again
unidentifiable) Demetrius, \vas perhaps
composed during the second century B.c.
It seems to reflect the theoretical energy
of Hellenistic rhetorical works now lost,
and is notable particularly for its theory
and analysis of four distinct styles (grand,
elegant, plain, and fprceful). Doreen Innes'
Continued on back flap

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

FOUNDED BY JAMES LOEB
EDITED BY

G. P. GOOLD
PREVIOUS EDITORS
T. E. PAGE

E. CAPPS

W. H. D. ROUSE

L. A. POST

E. H. WARMINGTON

ARISTOTLE
XXIII
LCL 199

sl,

~-~-~

--------------------------------~

ARISTOTLE
POETICS
EDITED AND TRANSLATED BY
STEPHEN HALLIWELL

LONGINUS
ON THE SUBLIME
TRANSLATION BY W. H. FYFE
REVISED BY DONALD RUSSELL

DEMETRIUS
ON STYLE
'

EDITED AND TRANSLATED BY

DOREEN C. INNES
BASED ON W. RHYS ROBERTS

HARVARD UNIVERSITY PRESS

CAMBRIDGE, MASSACHUSETTS
LONDON, ENGLAND

1995

Jl!JliJI~ J!JJ!lUllU!Jillll

--~

~ ~

~'\ ~

,'

Copyright 1995 by the President and Fellows

of Harvard College
All rights reserved

Libra-ry of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Aristotle.
[Poetics. English]
Poetics I Aristotle; edited and translated by Stephen Halliwell.
On the sublime I Lon gin us; edited and translated by
'\iV. Hamilton Fyfe; revised by Donald Russell.
On style I Demetrius; edited and translated
by Doreen C. Innes; based on the translation by W. Rhys Roberts.
p.
em.- (Loeb classical library; Ll99)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-674-9956.3-5
_ 1. Greek literature-Translations into English.
2. Greek literature-History and criticism-Theory) etc.
3. Style, Literary-Early works to 1800.
4. Literary forn1-Early works to 1800.
5. Aesthetics, Ancient.
6. Sublime, The.
PA362l.A75
1995
94-5113
808.2-dc20

Typeset by Chiron, Inc, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Printed in Great Britain by St Edm,undsbury Press Ltd,
Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, on acid-free paper.
Bound by Hunter & Foulis Ltd, Edinburgh, Scotland.

CONTENTS
POETICS
Introduction
Text and Translation

1
3
27

ON THE SUBLIME
Introduction
Text and Translation

143
145
159

ON .STYLE
Introduction
Text and Translation

309
311
343

INDEX TO POETICS
INDEX TO ON THE SUBLIME
INDEX TO ON STYLE

527
530
532

ARISTOTLE
POETICS
EDITED AND TRANSLATED BY
STEPHEN HALLIWELL

INTRODUCTION

Aristotle's Poetics occupies a highly special, indeed

unique, position in the long history of Western attitudes
to literature. It is, in the first place, the earliest surviving
work to be exclusively concerned with the discussion and
analysis of poetry as an art, and this fact has turned it into
a document standing apparently near the very beginning
of, and effectively inaugurating, an entire tradition of literary theory and criticism. In part, this is the result of
considerable ~ontingency, since there had been earlier
Greek authors who had devoted writings (now lost) to the
subject of poetry, as well as thinkers, above all Plato, who
had examined literary wor.ks in relation to differently
defined sets of concerns (philosophical, historical, biographical, etc.). Moreover, if the Poetics inaugurated a
tradition of thought, it is far from obvious that it did so in
virtue of any direct or persistent influence upon subsequent critics of antiquity. In the ancient world itself, the
treatise seems never to have been widely known or read,
though that is not to deny the existence of recurrent elements of Aristotelianism within the development of
Greco-Roman literary criticism. 1 What may now look to
1 This

Aristotelianism may have stemmed partly from Ar. 's

published dialogue On Poets, as well as from the writings of Peripatetics such as Theophrastus and Neoptolemus ofPariurn.

INTRODUCTION

our retrospective gaze to be the "inaugural" significance

of the Poetics owes much to the way in which the work
was rediscovered, disseminated, and established as
canonical by certain sixteenth-century Italian theorists
and their successors elsewhere in Europe. In that sense,
the book's uniqueness is far from being a pure reflection
of its original creation or purpose, and is intimately bound
up with its involvement in the construction of competing
views of literary criticism since the Renaissance.
Yet it would, for all that, be superficial to suppose that
the status of the Poetics is irredeemably a consequence of
historical accident and arbitrariness. We need only consider that even since its decline from the preeminence
and authority with which, as late as the eighteenth century, it had been endowed by neoclassicists, it has continued tenaciously to provide a valuable point of reference
within the debates of literary criticism and theory-even,
often enough, for those . who have found its contents
uncongenial. At the very least, therefore, we need to
recognise that the work's own character, despite the many
difficulties which it has always posed for interpreters,
lends itself with peculiar force to use (and abuse) in
urgent, continuing disputes about the nature, form, and
value of literature. To try to understand this character,
we need to approach it against the background of the
work's historical setting.
The Poetics, like virtually all the extant works of Aristotle, represents something in the nature of teaching
materials or "lecture notes," produced not as a text for
private reading by anyone interested, but for instructional
use in an educational context. In view of this circumstance, with its implication of a less than tidy occasion of
4

INTRODUCTION

composition (still less, ~~publication"), it is not surprising

that we cannot safely date the work to a single point in
Aristotle's career. An indefinite amount of revision and
redrafting is readily conceivable, especially given some of
the work's many loose ends; and certain sections may
originally have been compiled at appreciably different
times from one another. Chs. XX-XXII, for example,
which discuss "diction," lexis, in terms that are more linguistic than stylistic, are closely related to bk. III of the
Rhetoric and to De I nterpretatione, both of which there is
some reason to suppose were of relatively early date. But
other elements in the Poetics, such as the views on the
relation between action and character in ch. VI, might
suggest a more mature stage of Aristotle's thinking-in
this particular case, a stage reflected in some of the ideas
of the ethical treatises. We can be fairly confident that
the Poetics was mostly compiled later than both the dialogue On Poets (to which 54bl8. is probably a reference)
and the six-book discussion of interpretative difficulties in
Homer, Homeric ProblemS (of which Poetics ch. XXV
appears to provide a summary). All in all, it is highly plausible that the Poetics, whatever its history of composition,
was at any rate available for use during the final phase of
Aristotle's career, after the founding of his own school,
the Lyceum, at Athens in 335.2
Why should Aristotle, whose supreme intellectual
interests lay elsewhere, have concerned himself philosophically with poetry? We can identify, to begin with,
both a general and a more specific impetus behind his
2

Halliwell (1986), appendix 1, collects views and evidence on

the date of the Poetics.

INTRODUCTION

decision to address (and, indeed, to help define) the subject: the first, a response to poetry's vital, long established
importance within Greek culture and education, and its
consequent interest for a philosopher widely concerned
with the forces influencing the life and mind of his society; the second, a reaction to the passionate critique-by
turns, moralistic, psychological, political, and religiouswhich Plato had directed, especially in bks. 2-3 and 10 of
his Republic, against both Homeric epic and Athenian
drama. Within the immediate context of Athenian culture, where he was first a member of Plato's Academy
(367-47) and later the head of the Lyceum (335-23),
Aristotle even came to develop a documentary interest in
the history of Attic drama. Whatever the relationship of
the Poetics to the works which he compiled on theatrical
records, 3 it is clear that he discerned an importance in
drama: which prompted him to make it, together with the
two great Homeric epics,. the basis of a fresh and distinctive approach to "poetry in general" (47a8 )-an approach
which expresses not 'only his divergences from Plato=-s and
other earlier thinkers' views on the subject, but also the
concepts, methods, and tendencies of his own philosophical outlook.
In attempting to characterise what was distinctive
about the Poetics, we cannot do better than concentrate
on what might be called its "foundational" strategy. By
this I mean its explicit attempt to scrutinise poetry in a
systematic and analytic manner-beginning, in typical
Aristotelian fashion, from what are taken to be the most
fundamental propositions about the field of enquiry
3

Details in DFA 2, pp. 70-71.

INTRODUCTION

("first principles," 47al2-13); developing an argun1ent

whose main stages are carefully signalled, often by the
introduction and definition of key tenns, and whose progressive plan is highlighted by a large number of cross references; and striving, if less than perfectly (at any rate in
the surviving state of the text), to make the connections
between its basic tenets and its individual judgements as
tight as possible. This foundational quality, with its
implicit faith in a rational procedure of criticism, has
elicited admiration in some readers, and discomfort in
others. What is pertinent here is that it is this aspect
more than any other which, so far as we can tell, marked
off Aristotle's undertaking from those of his predecessors,
and which has made the Poetics an abiding paradigm of
the application of intellectual method and conceptual
precision to the interpretation of literature.
If we seek to clarify what is entailed by Aristotle's
attempt to construct a stable fr-amework for the understanding of Greek poetry, at least three essential elerrtents
in his perspective can be isolated. The first is the placing
of poetry, alongside the visual arts, music, and dancing,
within a general category of artistic n1imesis or representation. This dimension of the work, which gives its
thought a breadth of reflectiveness that was not lost on
post-Renaissance developers of n1imeticist aesthetics, is
initially prominent in the principles and distinctions set
out in chs. I-IV. But it recurs at a number of later points,
including the repeated analogies between poetry and
painting, and the pregnant remarks on the multiple relationship of mimetic art to "life'' in ch. XXV. Ideas of
mimesis had been active in a great deal of earlier Greek
thinking about poetry and other arts. Aristotle has debts

INTRODUCTION

to this tradition; his account of mimetic modes in ch. III,

for example, is closely related to Plato Republic 3.392d ff.
But unlike Plato, or indeed any other predecessor of
whom we know, Aristotle perceives a function for mimesis which does not threaten to reduce it to a static or
inflexible model of artistic activity. Without ever offering
a definition of the term (a perhaps sagacious reticence),
Aristotle employs mimesis as a supple concept of the
human propensity to explore an understanding of the
world-above all, of human experience itself-through
fictive representation and imaginative "enactment" of
experience. His views are sketched, not fully elaborated,
but we can see that they hope to connect art to a vital part
of human nature (48b5 ff) and that they discern in poetry
a capacity to convey ideas whose depth Aristotle regards
as reaching towards the significance of the ''universar,
(ch. IX).
The second distinctive element in the Poetics, perspective is the recognition that poetry has a history of its
own, and that this history is indispensable for the interpretation of certain conventions and possibilities of poetic
practice. Literary criticism and literary history are here
simultaneously delineated and conceptually intertwined.
This aspect of Aristotle,s approach is particularly obvious
in chs. IV-V, where he reconstructs the patterns of cultural evolution which saw tragedy and comedy emerge
from the earlier branches of serious and humorous
poetry. It must be added that, somewhat ironically (given
his own comments, in chs. IX and XXIII, on the chronicle-type character of history), Aristotle,s perspective on
poetic history is hardly straightforward or ne~trally factual. It is, on the contrary, permeated by an interpretative

INTRODUCTION

vision-a VISion of poetic history as an area in which

"nature," working of course through human nature
(48b4-5) yet promoting practices which have a dynamic
of their own (49al5, 24, 60a4), brings into being the distinct cultural forms, the poetic kinds or genres, which
count as the primary material for Aristotle's analysis of
poetry.
The mention of genres brings us to the third, and in
some ways the most important, element of the Poetics
which deserves to be highlighted in an introduction. The
establishment and deployment of a concept of genre lies
at the basis of Aristotle's enquiry; the main purpose of the
scheme of mimetic media, objects, and modes in chs.
I-III is precisely to suggest how genres can be delimited
in terms of their particular combinations of these features. It is also the steadiness of focus upon genres which
was to be subsequently responsible for a large part of the
work's appeal to, and influence <Jn, neoclassical trends of
thought. By organising discussion around juxtaposed and
interlinked consideration of his chosen "species" of
poetry, Aristotle aims to ensure that the judgement of
particular poems is controlled by standards which refer to
the character and goals of a shared generic "nature" (cf.
49al5).
This quasi-naturalistic framework, which we have
already seen to be associated with Aristotle's view of literary history, is reinforced by a central emphasis on form
and structure as fundamental to the understanding of
poems as "objects" in their own right. This point, which
contrasts so strongly with the overtly moral and political
approach to poetry typically urged by Plato, should be
perceived on a theoretical not a practical level. Aristotle
9

INTRODUCTION

does not in fact undertake anything like a close analysis of

any individual work; uexplication de textes~~ is scarcely
glimpsed in the Poetics. What he does do, in a way which
itself epitomises what I have called his foundational strategy, is to assert the significance of formal design and unity
for both the co1nposition and the appreciation of literary
works, and to offer a conception of artistic form which
relates it to the organic forms crucial to his understanding
of nature (50b34-5la6).
In one sense, therefore, it might seem tempting to call
the Poetics' perspective ~~formalist." But this term inevitably brings with it implications of views which treat form
as guaranteeing a self-sufficient and autonomous nature
for literary works. This, indeed, is the kind of view which
has often been overtly ascribed to Aristotle. Yet it
rernains vital to see that the formal emphases of the treatise are coupled with concepts which make it hard to sustain such a reading of its author~s position: such concepts
include the "necessity and/or probability" which provide
criteria of what makes coherent sense in the dramatic
depiction of human life (5lal2-13, etc.); the "universals~'
which poetry has the potential, according to ch. IX, to
convey or intimate; and the emotions, pity and fear in the
case of tragedy (and epic too), which help to define the
essential nature of particular genres. Given all this, it
seen1s appropriate to suggest that Aristotle's concern with
form is with nothing less than the shaping and structuring
of poetic meaning.
In each of the three respects I have picked out-the
general or "aesthetic" category of artistic mimesis; the
sense of poetry's history/evolution; the centrality of concepts of genre and form-there were partial antecedents
10

INTRODUCTION

in Plato and others for Aristotle's attitudes and emphases. 4 But the Poetics combines these and other salient
concerns with a new argumentative firmness and detail,
and the result is a work which demarcates poetry as an
independent subject for study, and does so in a manner
copious, if sometimes frustratingly unclear, in philosophical and conceptual implications. Aristotle's original plan
(49b21-2) was evidently to elaborate his argument by
concentrating on each of three genres: epic, whose surpassing Homeric achievements made it an inescapable
focus of attention; and both of the branches of Attic
drama, tragedy and cornedy. But this intention has, from
the point of view of modern readers, been overshadowed
by two factors: one, the loss of the discussion of comedy,
which belonged to what some ancient critics called the
Poetics' "second book";5 the other, Aristotle's decision to
make the treatment of epic (chs. XXIII-XXV) subordinate to that of tragedy, on the grounds that tragedy could
be judged to have carried to superior fulfiln1ent certain
goals which had been powerfully adumbrated, but not
wholly crystallised, in the poetry of Homer. 6 The combined result of these two factors, one contingent and one
conceptual, is that the Poetics now stands as above all a
treatise on tragedy; and it is to the discussion of this genre
4

Lucas pp. xiv-xxii and Halliwell (1986) pp. 6-27 summarise

the Poetics' relation to earlier Greek writings on poetry.
5 The most recent attempt to reconstruct parts of the second
book is that of Janko (1987) pp. 43-55 (\vith notes, pp.159-74),
building on the more specialised treatment in Janko (1984). The
subject re1nains inevitably speculative and controversial.
6
See esp. 49b9-20, and the comparison of the two genres in
ch. XXVI.

11

INTRODUCTION

(VI-XXII) that some further introductory remarks must

therefore be devoted.
Modern attitudes to tragedy, especially in the wake of
such German theorists as Hegel, Schopenhauer, and
Nietzsche, have been predominantly influenced by metaphysical and existentialist inclinations to identify a dark
essence, an irreducible conception of "the tragic," at the
heart of the matter. Such attitudes were in a sense prefigured by Plato, who, as an opponent of the psychological
power of tragedy (within which, like Aristotle after him,
he sometimes included Homeric epic), saw in it an
expression of corrosive despair over the possibility of true
happiness. 7 Aristotle's distance from this Platonic view,
as well as from many later theories of tragedy, can perhaps best be regarded as part of a more general disinclination to discover a single core of significance in Greek
tragic drama. Aristotle's treatment of tragedy has many
facets, and is not the formulation of one dominant insight
into the genre. It combines, as does the whole work,
descriptive and prescriptive elements. It brings to bear,
above all in identifying the six "components" of tragedy
(ch. VI), the analytic method which functions throughout
Aristotle's approach to poetry. It contains many principles-such as the priority of action over character (ch.
VI), the requirements of structural unity (chs. VII-VIII),
and the criteria of necessity and probability (e.g. ch.
IX)-whose applicability is much wider than tragedy as
such. We should not, therefore, expect the Poetics to
yield a neatly circumscribed account of the quintessentially tragic.
7

12

See esp. Republic 10.605c-6b.

INTRODUCTION

Rather than the identification of a hard kernel of tragic

meaning, Aristotle's goal can best be seen as the progressive demarcation of an area of possibilities which simultaneously codifies existing achievements of the tragedians,
and legislates for the ideal scope of tragedy. This demarcation is initially embodied in the definition of the genre
(49b24-8), which accentuates two features peculiar to
tragedy (and to its Homeric adumbration): the structure
of an "elevated" action, and the arousal of ''pity and fear."
The first of these features, both of which are elucidated
and refined in the subsequent chapters, represents partly
a generic gravity of tone, but also (or at the same time) a
matter of ethical intensity. "Elevated," spoudaios, is the
term used to denote the typical level of characterisation
found in tragedy and epic (chs. II-III); the subject matter
of serious in contradistinction to comic poetry (48b34,
49bl0); and the quasi-philosophical universality of
poetry, as opposed to history's particularity (51b6). As the
definition indicates, the elevation of tragedy is a quality
principally of its action, and a quality which will arise, in
Aristotle's terms, from events involving and determining
the lives of characters who can be generally regarded as
striving for both practical success and ethical virtue. 8
But "elevation," with its implications for tone and ethical interest, delimits the range of tragic action in only the
broadest fashion. Aristotle narrows this range further
by employing a model-deeply embedded in Greek
8 Ar.'s

views leave no real room for tragedies that hinge

around seriously corrupt characters: this is the cumulative implication of 48al6-18, 52b36 ff, 54al6-17. Only 56a21-23, a very
obscure passage, appears to contemplate plays whose central figures have substantial vices.

13

INTRODUCTION
tragedy~s

own language of human experience-- of n1ovement or "transformation" (metabasis) 9 between extreme

poles of fortune: "prosperity" (eutuchia) and ccadversity"
(atuchia, dustuchia). This polarity, first mentioned at the
end of ch. VII (5lal3--14), provides a formula which
attempts to capture the crucial life-affecting shifts in the
status of tragedy's central characters. One striking fact
about Aristotle's use of the formula is that he more than
once appears to leave open the direction in which a tragic
transforn1ation may take place. 10 But although this
involves him in the perhaps problematic preference for
plays of averted catastrophe in ch. XIV (54a4-9), its general import is not as paradoxical as might at first appear.
Aristotle assumes that any tragic transformation frotn
adversity to prosperity rr1ust give prominence to the first
of these extremes, and will take place in the context of
events entailing, or threatening, great suffering: at
54al2-13 the 'cfamilies which such sufferings have
befallenn include those whose life histories contain the
plots of averted catastrophe vvhich have just been singled
out for praise. Whatever one may feel about the foregrounding of such plots, they are not an invention of the
Poetics but a fact about the established possibilities of
9

Ar. applies metabasis (52al6-18), vvith its cognate verb, to

the movement of fo1tune \Vhich he reganls as essential to all
tragedy; 1netabole (52a23, 31), "change," also \Vith its cognate
verb (51a14 being an exception), is reserved for the more abrupt
twists which characterise the elernents of the "co1nplex" plot.
But what Ar. means by rnetabasis is often expressed, in tragedy
itself and elsewhere, bvmetabole .
10 See 51a13-14, 52a31 (perhaps), 55b27-8, as well as ch.
XIV's preference for averted catastrophe.
.I

14

INTRODUCTION

Greek tragedy itself.

The centrality of ''transformation,, in Aristotle,s conception of tragedy links up with his estimation of the
"complex', plot (chs. X-XI etc.) as the ideal for the genre.
The elements of the complex plot-recognition and
reversal-are themselves defined in ter1ns of dramatic,
sharp twists in the action. They are, in other words,
hinge-like junctures at which the general tragic pattern of
transformation is encapsulated in a particularly intense
and decisive manner. Accordingly, they exemplify in a
special degree the way in which, within the Poetics,
account of tragedy, the idea of a change of fortune is
closely related to two further elements: on the one hand,
pity and fear; 11 on the other, the exhibition of human fallibility, for which ha1nartia is Aristotle,s chosen expression
inch. XIII.
Pity and fear were traditionally held to be the combination of emotions appropriately -evoked by tragedy, in
life as well as fiction. Aristotle gives his own definitions of
them in Poetics XIII, and much more fully in Rhetoric
11.5 and 11.8. He takes them to be felt for the undeserved
afflictions of those "like ourselves, (53a5-6), and this conclition implies a response to sufferings of kinds to which
we can, implicitly at any rate, imagine ourselves too as
vulnerable. The combination of pity and fear therefore
represents tragedy as tapping a deep and quasi-universai12 sense of human vulnerability-a vulnerability which
11

Both 52a3-4 and 52a36-b3 allude, in effect, to the special

capacity of complex plots to arouse the tragic emotions.
12 Part of the importance of tragic fear, which is focussed on
the dramatic characters (53a4-5) but contains a tacitly selfregarding element, lies in its connection with the "universals,

15

INTRODUCTION

is dramatically projected by events in which transformations of fortune, and thus great swings in the potential
happiness 13 of the central agents, are dominant. Tragedy,
on this view, contains patterns of suffering which explore
the experience of limitations upon human control of life.
But it enlarges and heightens this experience by focussing
it upon events that are typically ''awesome" 14 in scope
and impact, and by connecting it with characters who,
while "like us" in their basic nature, are nonetheless "better than our normal lever~ (48a4) in the heroic scale and
sweep of their lives.
When, therefore, in Poetics XIII Aristotle prescribes
that the tragic agent should fall into adversity not
"because of evil and wickedness, but through some kind
of error (hamartia)" (53a8-10), it is not easy to see how
hamartia, repeated a few lines later, can serve as much
more than a token for the various sources of fallibility
which could activate a tr-agic calamity, while still falling
short of serious ethical culpability on the character~s own
part. Hamartia can perhaps most readily be construed as
involving a piece of profound ignorance, particularly
given the requirements of a complex plot (for reversal
that poetry has the power to intimate (5lb6-7): to regard tragic
agents as "like ourselves" is to move towards perceiving the universal significance latent in their stories.
13 Ar. does not take tragedy to be concerned with all the
details of "happiness," eudaimonia, which he examines in his own
ethical writings. But he does see it as concerning itself with the
decisive impingement of material circumstances, "prosperity"
and "adversity," upon the possibilities for realising happiness in
action: see esp. 50al6-20.
14 See on 52a4.

16

INTRODUCTION

and recognition) which Aristotle has in mind in this context (cf. 52b30-32). But neither the larger shape of the
argument, nor the list of examples at 53a20-21, allows
one to restrict hamartia to matters of factual ignorance;
elements of limited culpability on the agenfs part, including certain deeds of passion, cannot be ruled out. 15
Rather, in any case, than a precise formula for a quintessential tragic causality, hamartia can best be understood as designating a whole area of possibilities, an area
unified by a pattern of the causal yet unintended implication of tragedy's characters in the pitiable and terrible
"transformation'' of their own lives. Hamartia, in short,
embraces all the ways in which human vulnerability, at its
extremes, exposes itself not through sheer, arbitrary misfortune (something inconsistent with the intelligible plot
structure which Aristotle requires of a good play), but
through the erring involvement of tragic figures in their
own sufferings.
The Poetics repeatedly emphasises that the exhibition
of tragic vulnerability or mutability is the ground of pity
and fear. Only once, yet that in the definition of the
genre, does Aristotle add that the experience of these
emotions conduces to catharsis ("through pity and fear
accomplishing the catharsis of such emotions,'' 49b27-8).
In these circumstances, it is not surprising that the Greek
term katharsis, whose senses include "cleansing," ~~purifi
cation," and "purgation," has long been the most vexed in
the entire work. Opinion has been divided over the
extent to which interpretative help can be found in Poli15

See Stinton's article, the most thorough and cogent modem contribution to the longstanding argument over hamartia; cf.
also Nussbaum (1986), pp. 382-3.

17

INTRODUCTION

tics VIII. 7, where Aristotle mentions catharsis in connection with certain kinds of music, associates it with both
religious and medical forms of experience, and promises
further elucidation of it "in my treatment of poetry.'' It is
not inconceivable that this cross reference is to part of the
lost second book of the Poetics, but more likely that it is to
the early dialogue On Poets, where Aristotle may have
explicitly introduced catharsis to block the Platonic
charge that the arousal of en1otions by tragedy tended
dangerously to increase susceptibility to the same emotions in life.l6 If catharsis was conceived in anything like
this spirit, then we should expect its function to emphasise resistance both to the idea of emotions as dangerous
and to the notion of increased susceptibility.
Such dissension from Plato's position would draw on
Aristotle's general and positive view, as revealed especially in his ethical writings, that emotions are cognitively
based responses to exper.ience, and can correspondingly
be justified if the judgements which occasion and underlie them are the1nselves appropriate to the objects of the
emotions. 17 It is evident throughout the Poetics that pity
and fear are regarded as apt and indeed necessary emotions to be felt towards the suffering characters of
tragedy. This alone makes it difficult to sustain what was
for long the dominant modern view that catharsis is
purely a matter of emotional outlet and release (the
16

The attribution of a statement on catharsis to On Poets is

accepted by e.g. W. D. Ross, Aristotelis Fragmenta Selecta
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1955), p. 69, fr. 5. The Platonic doctrine in question is developed especially at Republic 10.603c-6d.
17 This aspect of Ar.'s moral psychology is discussed by N ussbaum (1992).

18

INTRODUCTION

extreme "purgation'' view) . 18 Such a function would be a

contingent by-product of tragedy, not the essential element which ought to explain its presence within ch. VI's
definition. While, in the absence of an Aristotelian elucidation of the term for tragedy, the significance of catharsis
cannot be conclusively established, we are more likely to
approximate to the truth if we keep in view the ethical
importance of emotions for Aristotle, the Poetics' treatment of tragic pity and fear as the basis of a special form
of pleasure (53bl0-13), and, finally, the wider principle
that the pleasure derived from mimetic works of art rests
on an underlying process of comprehension. This configuration of factors allows us, however tentatively, to make
of catharsis a concept which is interconnected with various co1nponents in Aristotle's theory of tragedy, and
which in some sense completes his account of the genre
by fra1ning the experience of it as psychologically rewarding and ethically benencial. Tragedy, on this reading, may
revolve around the exhibition of sufferings which sten1
from profound human fallibility, yet by engaging the
understanding and the emotions in contemplation of
these phenomena it succeeds in affording an experience
which deeply fulfils and enhances the whole mind.
The selective and highly compressed survey of some
major features of the Poetics has taken us from an initial
concern with the systematic and "foundational" strategy
of the work, to the discussion of ideas-most notably>
hamartia and catharsis-which, not least by their intriguing elusiveness, provide material for ongoing controversy.
It may now be worth drawing the explicit moral that this
18

For this and other interpretations of catharsis, see Halliwell (1986) ch. 6 and appendix 5.

19

INTRODUCTION

combination of the methodical and the suggestive, the

analytic and the elliptical, is surely one of the main reasons why the treatise has recurrently stimulated such
interest and such sharp reactions, both positive and negative, from literary critics and theorists between the
sixteenth century and the present. Partly because of its
frequent terseness, partly on account of the damaged
state in which it has reached us, the Poetics is a document
which somewhat offsets its intellectually orderly and progressive approach with elements which have the effect of
encouraging an indefinite process of reflection and reinterpretation. For this and other reasons the treatise has,
since its late Renaissance "rediscovery'' in Italy, maintained a persistent status as a conspicuous point of reference-a repeatedly cited model (whether for good or
bad, depending on the interpreter's own allegiances) of
certain kinds of assumptions and judgements about the
nature of literary works, yet a model which never quite
permits the reading of its arguments to reach a point of
equilibrium.

No other document has had a history parallel to that of

the Poetics: a canonical text for neoclassical thinkers, and
in fields beyond those of literature itself, over a period of
two and a half centuries; a locus of keenly contested
debate, as well as a certain amount of revisionist interpretation, during the rise of Romantic conceptions of art; and
a sporadically cited work even in the heavily ideological
era of modern hermeneutics and literary theory.l9 It is
19

I have discussed aspects of the Poetics' reception in three

publications: Halliwell (1986) ch. 10, (1987) pp. 17-28, and the
Epilogue in Rorty (1992), pp. 409-424.

20

INTRODUCTION

tempting to say that this long, sometimes fraught story

has left its scars on the work's standing. But it has also
marked it out as a somewhat indomitable "survivor,"
whose historically formative role and continued salience
no one interested in the development of Western attitudes to literature can afford to ignore.

Text and translation

The text printed has been broadly based on the edition by
Rudolf Kassel, Aristotelis de Arte Poetica Liber (Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1965; corr. repr., 1968). But as well as
sometimes preferring different readings from Kassel's, I
have occasionally repunctuated the text and introduced
some additional paragraph divisions. I have also deliberately printed as "clean" a text as possible, minimising such
things as editor-ial brackets.
In keeping with the aims of th~ Loeb series, the apparatus criticus is highly selective; its guiding purpose is not
to give full information about the textual tradition, but to
notify (or remind) interested readers of salient elements
of textual uncertainty. The apparatus is accordingly
limited largely to those contexts where a conjectural
emendation is printed, or where the manuscript evidence
contains variants with substantive implications for the
sense. It should be noted, additionally, that I do not mention places where readings taken from recentiores involve
a practically certain correction of the medieval manuscripts; I do not record differences between A and B
which are inconsequential for the meaning, even where
they may be important for understanding the textual tradition as such; and I cite the medieval Latin translation

21

INTRODUCTION

and the Arabic translation only for a few striking points,

not as supplementary evidence to the manuscripts.
The following abbreviations are used in the apparatus;
the introduction to Kassel's edition should be consulted
for further details:
A: lOth cent. ms., Parisinus gr. 1741.
Arab.: readings implied by the lOth cent. Arabic translation from an earlier Syriac translation of the Poetics.
B: 14th cent. rns., Riccardianus gr. 46 (which has substantial lacunae at 1447a8-48a29, and 146lb3-62al8).
Lat.: readings implied by the Latin translation of
William of Moerbeke, completed in 1278.
rec.: readings of one or more Renaissance ms.
(15th/16th cent.)
The translation printed here was drafted without reference to the version which I published in 1987 (see Bibliography). While subsequent comparison of samples
yielded some silnilarities of wording between the two, in
most cases I have not taken any active steps to remove
these. The present translation aims to give a somewhat
closer rendering than the earlier, though I have continued
to follow the principle of preferring, wherever reasonable, intelligibility in English to a literalness which
requires knowledge of Greek to decode.
The following conventions in the translation should be
noted:

< > = words deemed to be missing from the Greek text

and conjecturally supplied by editors.
( ) =parts of the text conveniently rendered as parentheses; round brackets are used more often in the translation than in the Greek text.

22

INTRODUCTION
[ ] = transliterated Greek terms or translations of such

terms, included to clarify verbal points.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following abbreviated references are used in the
notes to the translation (abbreviations for ancient authors
and works generally follow the Oxford Classical Dictionary, see belo"', though I use Ar. not Arist. for Aristotle).
DFA 2 : Pickard-Cambridge, Arthur. The Dramatic Festivals of Athens, rev. J. Gould and D. M. Lewis. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1968.
DK: Diels, H., and vV. Kranz edd. Die Fragmente der
Vorsokratiker. 7th ed. Berlin: Wiedmann, 1954.
Gigon: Gigon, 0. ed. Aristotelis Opera Ill: Librorum,
Deperditorum Fragntenta. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1987.
Nauck: Nauck, August. Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. 2nd ed. Leipzig: Teubner,J889.
OCD: The Oxford Classical Dictionary, ed. N. G. L.
Hammond & H. H. Scullard. 2nd ed. Oxford: Clarendon
Press, 1970.
PCG: Kassel, R., and C. Austin edd. Poetae Comici
Graeci. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1983-.
PMG: Poetae Melici Graeci, ed. D. L. Page. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1962.
P. Oxy.: The Oxyrynchus Papyri. J_Jondon: Egypt
Exploration Society, 1898-.
TrGF: Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, ed. B.
Snell et al. Gottingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971--.
Rose: Rose, V. Aristotelis qui ferebantur libronun
fragmenta. Leipzig: Teubner, 1886.
West: vVest, M. L. Iambi et Elegi Graeci. 2nd ed.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989-92.
23

INTRODUCTION

The following selection of publications is restricted to

writings in English; works in other languages can be
traced through the bibliographies in many of the items
listed here.

Commentaries
Bywater, Ingram. Aristotle on the Art of Poetry. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1909.
Else, Gerald F. Aristotle~s Poetics: the Argument. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1957.
Lucas, D. W. Aristotle Poetics. Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1968.

Monographs
Belfiore, Elizabeth S. Tragic Pleasures: Aristotle on Plot
and Emotion. Princetop.: Princeton University Press,
1992.
Halliwell, Stephen. Aristotle~s Poetics. London: Duckworth, 1986.
House, Humphrey. Aristotle"s Poetics. London: Rupert
Hart-Davis, 1956.

Translations
The following contain extensive annotation or commentary.
Golden, Leon, and 0. B. Hardison. Aristotle"s Poetics: a
Translation and Commentary for Students of Literature. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1968.

24

INTRODUCTION

Halliwell, Stephen. The Poetics of Aristotle: Translation

and Commentary. London: Duckworth, 1987.
Hubbard, Margaret. <"Aristotle: Poetics." in D. A. Russell
and M. Winterbotto1n. Ancient Literary Criticism.
Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972.
Hutton, James. Aristotle>s Poetics. New York: Norton,
1982.
Janko, Richard. Aristotle Poetics. Indianapolis: Hackett,
1987.

Other works
Cave, Terence. Recognitions: A Study in Poetics. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, 1988.
Gallop, David. "Animals in the Poetics.'' Oxford Studies in
Ancient Philosophy (Oxford), 8 (1990), 145-171.
Halliwell, Stephen. "The Importance of Plato and Aristotle for Aesthetics." in J. J. Cleary (ed.) Proceedings of
the Boston Area Colloquium ih Ancient Philosophy,
vol. 5. Lanham: University. Press of America, 1991, pp.
321-348.
- - "Aristotelian Mimesis Reevaluated." Journal of
the History of Philosophy (Chicago), 28 (1990),
487-510.
Heath, Malcolm. <<Aristotelian Comedy." Classical Quarterly (Oxford), 39 (1989), 344-354.
--"The Universality of Poetry in Aristotle's Poetics."
Classical Quarterly (Oxford), 41 (1991), 389-402.
Janko, Richard. Aristotle on Comedy: Towards a Reconstruction of Poetics II. London: Duckworth, 1984.
Kennedy, George A., ed. The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism val. 1: Classical Criticism. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1989.
25

INTRODUCTION

Lear, Jonathan. ''Katharsis.~~ Phronesis (Oxford), 33

(1988), 297-326.
Nussbaum, Martha C. The Fragility of Goodness: Luck
and Ethics in Greek Tragedy and Philosophy. Cambridge: Ca1nbridge University Press, 1986.
- - "Tragedy and Self-Sufficiency: Plato and Aristotle
on Fear and Pity." Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy (Oxford), 10 (1992), 107-159.
Richardson, Nicholas. "Aristotle~s Reading of Homer and
Its Background." in Lamberton, R. W., and J. Keaney
edd. Homer s Ancient Readers. Princeton: Princeton
University Press, 1992, 30-40.
Rorty, Amelie Oksenberg, ed. Essays on Aristotle s Poetics. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Stinton, T. C. W. "Hamartia in Aristotle and Greek
Tragedy." Classical Quarterly (Oxford), 25 (1975),
221-254.
7

26

ITEPI ITOIHTIKH~

JllJJliiiJJJJ!JU!llJLIIli~Jl
-~

--

ITEPI ITOIHTIKH~

ITEpt 1TOLYJ'TLK~~ av'T~~ 'TE Kat TWV El8wv av'T~~' ijv

1447a
I

~/
e/
TLVa OVVafLLV
EKaO"'TOV

'

TOV~

10

fLV'8 OV~

'

EL

/\ \
f.LEJ\1\EL

>I

EXEL,

KaL'

\ '""

~'""
/
DEL
O"VVLO"'TaO"
aL

'""

1TW~

e/ (:

Kai\W~ E~

ELV 'Y]~

, 7TOO"WV
...
...
, ' fLOpLWV,
...
EK
KaL' 7TOLWV
EO"'TL

>I
~'
E'TL
OE
KaL' 7TEpL'

7TOLYJO"L~,

~
...
OfLOLW~

~'

OE

TWV a'A.'A.wv oa-a 'T~~ av'T~~ EO"TL fLE8o8ov,

'A.ywfLEV

aptaf.LEVOL Ka'Ta cPVO"LV 1TpW'TOV a1TO 'TWV 7TpW'TWV.

E7T07TOLLa 8~ Kat ~ T-Yj~ TpayqJ8a~ 7TOLYJO"L~ E'TL

KWfL([J~La Kat ~ 8L8vpaf.Lf307TOLYJ'TLK~ Kat T~~ aVAYJTL15

K-Yj~ ~ 1r AEtO"TYJ Ka'i Kt8apta-rtK1j~ traa-at rvyxavova-tv

ofJa-aL fL"fL~O"EL~ TO a-vvo'A.ov 8~,a>pova-L
TpLa-tv, ~ yap T~

v 1 ETEpoL~

8 d'A'A ~'A.wv

fLLfLEta-8aL ~ T~ ETEpa ~

' ' '

''
/
e/
'
T([J,....~,.
E'TEpW~ KaL fLY} 'TOV aV'TOV 7p01TOV.
W0"1TEp
yap
KaL'

XPWfLaO"L Kat a-x~fLaO"t

7TOAAa fLLfLOVV'TaL 'TLVE~ a1TEL-

KU,OVTE~ ( ol fLEV 8La TEXVYJ~ ol

20

ETEpot
/

TEXVaL~

8ta O"VVYJ8Eta~)'

8ta T-Yj~ >wv~~' ovTw Kav Tat~ ElpYJfLEVat~

e/
a1Taa-aL

'
fLEV

'""
1TOLOVVTaL

'
TYJV

/
fLLfLYJO"LV

'

EV

pv8fL~ Kat AoyqJ Kat apfLOVLft, 'TOV'TOL~ 8' ~ xwpt~ ~

1

v Forchhammer: yvEL A

A major genre of choral lyric, performed in honour of

Dionysus; cf. 49al0-ll for its relation to tragedy.
a

28

POETICS

We are to discuss both poetry in general and the

capacity of each of its genres; the canons of plot construction needed for poetic excellence; also the number and
character of poetry~s components, together with the other
topics which belong to the same enquiry-beginning, as
is natural, from first principles.
Now, epic and tragic poetry, as well as comedy,
dithyramb,a and most music for aulosh and lyre, are all,
taken as a whole, kinds of mimesis. c But they differ from
one another in three respects: namely, by producing
mimesis in different media, of different objects, or in different modes. Just as people (some by formal skill, others
by a knack) use colours and shapes to render mimetic
images of many things, while others again use the voice,d
so too all the poetic arts mentioned produce mimesis in
rhythm, language, and melody, whether separately or in
reed pipe (akin to an oboe) used to accompany parts of
drama and some other forms of poetry, but also for purely instrumental music; cf. 48a9, 6lal8, b31.
c The foundational aesthetic concept of the Poetics; my translation generally retains the Greek noun, but sometimes, to avoid
awkwardness, I use the verb "represent." See the Introduction.
d For vocal mimicry, including that of actors; cf. Rh.
1404a21-3.
bA

29

ARISTOTLE

25

1447b

10

15

fLEfLtyp.ivotc; oiov apfLOVLC?: fLEV KaL pv()!Lfi? XPWfLEVat

/
' \
.,,
fLOVOV
YJ~~ 'TE a VI\
Y}'TtKY)' Kat' YJe Kt {) apUT'TtKY)' KaV
Et~~ 'TtVEc;
E'TEpat rvyxavwa-tv oila-at 'TOtavrat 1 'TTJV 8vvaJ.LtV,
otov ~ rwv a-vpiyywv, avrfi? 8 rfi? pv()J.Lfi? 2 xwptc;
app.oviac; ~ 3 'TWV opxYJ(T'TWV ( KaL yap O~'TOt Dta 'TWV
a-XYJJ.La'Tt,OJ.LEVWV pv{)p.wv fLtfLOVV'Tat KaL ~{)YJ Kat
naOYJ KaL npa~Etc;). ~ 8 4 J.LOVOV 'TOLe; 'Aoyotc; t./-nAoLc; Tj
'TOLe; p.i.rpotc; KaL 'TOV'TOtc; llrE J.Ltyvva-a J.LE'T' aAA rr}Awv
e /
/
/
'"'
/
'
/
5
Et~'(}' EVt
'TtVt yEvEt
XPWfJ-EVYJ
TWV
J.LErpwv
avwVVJ.LOc;
rvyxavEt oila-a 6 J.LEXPt 'TOV vvv ov8f.v yap av exot'
/
'
'~/.rh
'~--
/
J.LEV ovoJ.Laa-at
Kotvov
rove;
~w~povoc; Kat t:::..Evapxov
' ~
' 1\0yovc:;,
\/
'~'
~'
p.tp.ovc; Kat' rove;
~wKpartKovc;
ovoE
Et~~ rtc; ota
rptp.erpwv Tj EAEYELWV Tj 'TWV aAAwv 'TtVWV 'TWV 'TOtOV'"'
' J.LLJ.LY)a-tv.
/
\ ' ote~'(}
rwv nototro
TYJV
7ri\Y)V
av pwnot/ yE a-vvanrovr~c; rfi? fLE'TpqJ 'TO 7rOtELV EAEyEt07rOtovc; rove; 8
E7r07T"Otovc; OVOJ.LU,OV(TtV, . ovx we; Ka'Ta 'TTJV J.LLfJ-Y)(TtV
' al\1\a
'\ \ '
7rOtY)'Tac;
KOLVYJ'"' Ka'Ta' 'TO' fLE'TpOV npoa-ayopEVOV'TEc; KaL yap av larptKOV Tj cpva-tKOV 7 'TL 8ul. 'TWV
/
'.rh/
~~
\'"'
'/(}
,~,
~'
fLE'TpWV
EK~Epwa-tV, OV'TW Kai\ELV ELW aa-tv OVOEV OE
Kotvov ea-rtv eOJ.LrrJP(fJ Kat 'EJ.LnE8oKAEL nAT]v ro
/

1 rotavrat
2

rec.: om. A
pvOfL<i! fLLfLOVvrat A: fLLfL. del. Spengel (om. Arab.)
3 ~ rec.: oi A
4 8 enonotia A: en. del. Ueberweg (om. Arab.)
5 aVWVVfLO~ add. Bernays (Arab.)
6 rvyxavEt o-oa-a Suckow: rvyxavova-a A
7 cPVO"tKov Heinsius (Arab.): fLOVa-tKov A

30

POETICS 1
combinations. That is, melody and rhythm alone are used
by music for aulos and lyre, and by any other types with
this capacity, for example music for panpipes; rhythm on
its own, without melody, is used by the art of dancers
(since they too, through rhythms translated into movements, create mimesis of character, emotions, a and
actions); while the art which uses either plain language or
metrical forms (whether combinations of these, or some
one class of metres) remains so far unnamed.b For we
have no common name to give to the mimes of Sophron
and Xenarchusc and to Socratic dialogues; nor even to any
mimesis that might be produced in iambic trimetersd or
elegiac coupletse or any other such metres. Of course,
people attach the verbal idea of "poetry" [poiein] to the
name of the metre, and call some ~~elegiac poets," others
"epic poets.,, But this is not to classify them as poets
because of mimesis, but because of the metre they share:
hence, if writers express something medical or scientific
in metre, people still usually apply these terms. But
Homer and Empedoclesf have nothing in common except
Or perhaps "sufferings."
h Ar. notes the lack of a collective name for mimesis in prose
or metre, and rejects the standing equation of "poetry" with
verse.
c Sicilian authors, father (late 5th cent.) and son, of prose
mimes, i.e. comic sketches; cf. Ar. On Poets, fr. 15 Gigon/72
Rose. Sophron allegedly influenced Plato's dialogues: e.g. D. L.
3.18, P. Oxy. XLV 3219 fr. 1.
d The metre both of some "iambic" poetry (e.g. Archilochus;
cf. 48b31-2) and of dialogue in drama (49a21-28).
e Used mostly in "elegiac" poetry such as that ofTheognis.
f E. (c. 495-35) composed two philosophical!scientific works,
On Nature and Purifications, in hexameters.
31
a

rI

ARISTOTLE
~
~/
f.LE"TpOV, OtO
TOV f.LEV 1TOt'Y}TYJV OtKatOV
Kai\EtV, TOV
/

'

,./.,.

'

'

'

'

""' \ \

.,,

\f'Vo-tOI\OYOV f.Lai\1\0V YJ 1T0t'Y}TYJV.

20

~I

'

a1TaVTa

'Ta

,
Ka (} a1Tp

JL7pa

f.LtYVVWV

X atp'Y}f.LWV
'

e .It ~/
pao/rpotaV

'C

'

f.LE7prp,
""'

ij

wo-1Tp

'~/

Eto-t 0

ro'i~ ElpYJf.LEVOt~, A.f.yw

25

""'
'TWV

'
1Tpt' J.LEV

'TOV'TOV 'TOV Tp01TOV.

.,,

'

1TOtOtTO

f.Ltf.L'Y}o-tV

K'EVTavpov

";'
OVV

'
f.LtK'TYJV

Kat'

'
1TOt'Y}'T'Y}V

~
'(} W
OtWpto-

/
TOVTWV
(.\

Tt~

TYJV

'
f.LETpWV,

''

0 KaV Et

~~

o~

!".

!".

at 1Tao-t XPWVTat

TtV~

oiov pvOf.Lfi! Kat

f.LEAEt

Kat

'TWV 8tOvpaJL/3tKWV 1TOLY](Jt~ Kat ~

~~

'

""'

'

~ '

'

Of.LOtW~

' '
1TOt'Y}o-E

e
'
a1TaV'TWV

/
1Tpoo-ayopVT0V.
!".

!".

~/

'

~/

,/... /

'TWV VOf.LWV Kat YJ T rpayq_Jota Kat YJ KWJLq_JOta Ota\{-1-

povo-t

OTt at f.LEV af.La 1Tao-tv at

KaTa f.LEpo~.

ravra~ f.LEV o.Ov AEyw ra~ 8tacpopa~ TWV TEXVWV EV

oi~ 1 1TotovvTat 'TTJV f.LLf.L'Y}o-tv.

II
1448a

'E1rEt 8
avayK,YJ
( ra yap

1rpaTTovra~,
TOVTOV~ ~ o-1Tov8aiov~ ~ cpavAov~ Elvat
f.Ltf.Lovvrat

ot

f.Ltf.LOVf.LEvot

~(}YJ o-XEOov a~t 'TOVTOt~ aKoAov8Et f.LOVOt~,

KaKLft yap Kat a pEri} Ta

~(}YJ Otacpf.povo-t 1TaVT~)'

~rot /3EATiova~ ~ Ka(}' ~/La~ ~ XEipova~ ~ Kat Totov-

~~

'TOV~,

Wo-1Tp Ot

rov~,

/
IT avo-wv

EtKa,Ev.

8-ryA.ov

A-.""'

ypao/Et~
~'

II\'
. 01\VYVWTO~

A
/
utovvo-to~

oE

XEtpov~,

oTt Kat Twv

'

f.LEV yap KpEt'T~'

oE

e
/
Of.LOtov~

AEX0Eto-wv EKao-TYJ

f.Ltf.L~o-EWV E~Et ravTa~ ra~ 8tacpopa~ Kat EO"Tat ETEpa

rfi! ETEpa f.Ltf.LE'ia-Oat rovTov Tov rp61rov. Kat yap E.v
1

oi~ Vettori: ai~ A

4th cent. tragedian (Rh. 1413bl3, TrGF I no. 71); Centaur

was probably a polymetric dran1a, perhaps meant only for recital
(hence "rhapsody," elsewhere used of epic recitals). Cf. 60al-2.
a

32

II

POETICS 2

their metre; so one should call the former a poet, the

other a natural scientist. Equally, even if someone should
produce mimesis in a medley of all the metres (as
Chaeremona did in composing his Centaur, a hybrid
rhapsody containing all the metres), he ought still to be
called a poet. In these matters, then, we should make discriminations of this kind. There are also some arts which
use all the stated media-rhythm, melody, metre-as do
dithyramb and nomes,b tragedy and comedy. They differ
in that some employ all together, others use them in certain parts. So these are the distinctions between the arts
in the media in which they produce mimesis.
II
Since mimetic artists represent people in action, and
the latter should be either elevatedc or base (for characters almost always align with just these types, as it is
through vice and virtue that the characters of all men
vary), they can represent people better than our normal
level, worse than it, or much t.he same. As too with
painters: Polygnotus depicted superior people, Pauson
inferior, and Dionysius those like ourselves.d Clearly,
each of the kinds of mimesis already mentioned will manifest these distinctions, and will differ by representing
b N omes

were traditional styles of melody, for string or wind

instrument, to which various texts could be set; by Ar.'s time the
term covered elaborate compositions closely related to dithyramb: cf. 48al5.
c See on 49b24.
d Polygnotus: major mid-5th cent. wall painter; cf. 50a27,
with OCD s.v. Pauson (cf. Pol. 1340a36): identity uncertain; a
painter of caricatures? Dionysius: more than one painter of this
name is known; perhaps D. of Colophon (Ael. VH 4.3).

33

-ARISTOTLE

10

15

III

20

opxf]cret Kat av'A TJCTEt Kat Kt8aptCTEt ECT'TL yeva-8aL

' ,
'
'
' \
~'
TaVra~ ra~ aVOJ.LOtO'TYJTa~, Kat 1TEpt 'TOV~ 1\0')IOV~ 0
'
,f~ \
/
'e'
~'0
' Q \ /
Kat' 'TYJV
\f'ti\OfLE'TpLaV,
OLOV
J.LYJpO~ J.LEV fJEJ\'TtOV~,
~'
e /
eHYYJJ.LWV
/
~'
e S aa-to~
/
e '
\ ,../..,..., 0
K 1\0\{JWV
OJ.LOtOV~,
0 0
0 Ta~
~/
/
,. .,
/
'
1rapcpota~ 1TOLYJCTa~ 1rpwro~
Kat' N tKoxapYJ~
oe TYJV
A
\
/~
/
e
/
~'
'
'
'
~ f)
/
Ll.Eti\Laoa
XELpov~ OJ.LOLW~ oE Kat 1TEpL rov~ oL vpaJ.LQ
'
'
'
/
"'
'
1 K/
\
tJOV~ Kat 1TEpt TOV~ VO!J-OV~, WCT1TEp yap
VKJ\W1Ta~
Tt~-to8Eo~ Kat <Pt'Ao~EVO~ p.,tp.,Tjcratro av 'Tt~. EV avriJ
8 ri} tnacPopfi- Kat T] rpaycpSia 1rpo~ rT]v KWJ.LcpSiav
~ /
'
'
/
e ~' Q \
/
,...,
otECTTYJKEV"
YJe J.LEV
yap
XEtpov~ YJ oe tJEA'TLOV~ J.LLJ.LELcr8at (3ov'AeraL rwv vvv.
!)/E
~'
/
/
~
,../..
'
e
"'
/
rt oE
rovrwv
rptrYJ
ot-ao/opa
ro' w~
EKacrra
rov/
!)/
'
,
,....
,
,....
'
'
TWV J.LtJ.LY}CTatTO
av
'Tt~.
Kat' yap
EV 'TOL~ aV'TOt~ Kat ra
' '
,. . f)
!)/
e '
'
'
/\ \
.,, ~~
avra
J.LLJ.LEtaat ECT'TtV
O'TE J.LEV a1TayyEJ\J\OV'Ta YJ E'TEpov 'Tt YLYVOJ.LEVOV WCT1TEp "'OJ.LYJPO~ 1TOtEL, ~ w~ 'TOV
' '
Q /\ \
/
e
/
avrov
Kat' J.LTJ' J.LETatJaAI\OVra,
YJ.,, 1ravra~
w~ 1Tparrovra~ Kat E:vepyovvra~ rov~ J.LLJ.LOVJ.LEVov~. E:v rpta-t 87]
/
,../..
,.... ' e
/
/'
e
!)/
,
TaVTaL~ Otao/opat~ YJ J.LtJ.LY}CTt~ ECT'TtV, W~ EL1TOJ.LEV KaT
' / '
'e'
'
"'
' e0 aV'TO~
''
apxa~,
EV OL~
'TE Kat' "a' Kat' "W~.
WCT'TE
'TYJ,.... J.LEV
av ELY] J.Lt!J-Y]'TTJ~ eOJ.LTjpcp ~OcPOKAfj~, J.LtJ.LOVV'TaL yap
!),
/
,....
,
'A
/
/
a~-to/W CT1TovoaLov~, TYJ oE
ptcrroo/avet, 1rparrovra~
'
,....
~
,....
!)/
,../..
~
/
yap
J.LtJ.LOVVTaL
Kat' opwvra~
aJ.Lo/W.
o~'f) ev Kat' opa,....
\'"'f)/
, /,../..
~-tara
Kai\Etcr
at TLVE~ avra
o/acrtv, O'Tt p.,tJ.LOVV'Tat
8pwvra~. Sto Kat avrt1TOtovvrat rfj~ 'TE rpaycp8ia~
/

25

,..~..

,..~..

~~

yap Vahlen: yiis A: raA.are[a~ Kat Eden

Minor tragic poet; cf. 58a20 and Rh. 1408al5.

b Probably late 5th cent.; cf. OCD s.v.
a

34

III

POETICS 3

different objects in the given sense. In dancing too, and

in music for aulas and lyre, these variations can occur, as
well as in prose writings and metrical works without
melody: for example, Homer represented superior people, Cleophona those like ourselves, Hegemon of Thasosh
(the first composer of parodies) and Nicocharesc (author
of the Deiliad) inferior characters. Likewise with di thyrambs and names: for one could represent Cyclopses as did
Timotheus and Philoxenus.d This very distinction separates tragedy from comedy: the latter tends to represent
people inferior, the former superior, to existing humans.
I
There is, beside these, a third distinction-in the
mode of mimesis for these various objects. For in the
same media one can represent the same objects by combining narrative with direct personation, as Homer does;
or in an invariable narrative voice; or by direct enactment
of all roles. These, then, are the three distinctions underlying mimesis, as we said at the qutset: media, objects,
modes. Accordingly, in one respect Sophocles could be
classed as the same kind of mimetic artist as Homer, since
both represent elevated characters, but in another the
same as Aristophanes, since both represent people in
direct action. Hence the assertion some people make,
that dramas are so called because they represent people
in action. e Thus, the Dorians actually lay claim to
late 5th cent.: Deiliad is a mock-epic title (cf. e.g.
Iliad), "tale of a coward."
d Timotheus, c. 450-360; his Cyclops: PMG nos. 780-83.
Philoxenus, roughly contemporary; see PMG nos. 815-24. Both
were musico-stylistic innovators.
e The noun drama derives from the verb dran, "do" or "act"
(cf. 48bl).
c Probably

35

ARISTOTLE
30

Kat r-YJ~ Kw,..uySia~ ol ~wptEt~ ( T-Yj~ fLEV yap KWfLq_JOta~

OL MEyapEt~

OL

EVTavOa w~ E1Tt T-Yj~ 1Tap' aVTOt~

TE

DYJfLOKpaTta~ YEVOfLEVYJ~ Kat ol EK '!.tKEAta~, EKEt0Ev

yap ~v 'E1TtXapfLO~
1TOt'Y}T~~ 1TOAAfl? 1TpoTEpo~ CiJv
1\:'

l\1

,-.,
\:'I
X _tWVtOOV Kat lV ayV'YJTO~ Kat\ T'YJ~
Tpayq_Jota~ EVtOt
""
)
II1\01TOVV'Y}(T'Cf)
\
TWV
EV
1TOtOVfLEVOt Ta OVOfLaTa
:!/

35

""
(T'TjfLEtOV"

'
\1
\
\
aVTOt fLEV yap

KWfLa~

KaAEtV cpao-tv, , A0YJVatov~ 2

I

\1

1\:'

Ta~

1TEpLOLKLOa~

S D'YjfLOV~, w~ KWfLq_JOOV~

I'

'

KaTa

-":II

\\

KWfLa~ 1TI\aVYJ aTLfLa~::,OfLEVOV~ EK TOV ao-TEW~ Kat TO

1TOLEtV

aVTOt

fLEV

Spav,

, AO'Y]vaiov~

1TpaTTELV

1Tpoo-ayopEvEtv.
I'
\I
1roo-aL KaL TLVE~

1TEpt p.,f.v oiJv Twv Dtacpopwv Kat

""
I'
'I(}
""
T'YJ~ f.LLf.LYJo-Ew~ ELpYJo- w TavTa.

yEvv-Y}o-aL fLEV o'Aw~ T~V 1TOLYJTLK~V

'EotKao-L

IV
)

\:'1'

aLTLaL OVO

'

'

AEx0vTa~ a'A'Aa Tfj

OVK a1TO TOV KWfLU,EtV

1448b

'

TLVE~

rf..._

'e'

I'

KaL avTaL 'PV(TLKaL. TO

TE

""

yap f.LLfLEL-

a-OaL o-vp.,cpvTOV TOt~ av0pw1TOL~ EK 1Tai8wv E(TTL KaL

TOVTqJ OLacpf.povo-L TWV a'A'Awv '~wv OTL fLLf.L'YJTLKWTaTOV f.o-Tt Kat Ta~ fLaO'Yja-Et~ 1TotEtTat Sta fLLfL'Yja-Ew~
\

I'

Ta~

(TY]fLEtOV

10

\\

1TpWTa~,

I'

KaL TO xaLpELV

,-.,

TOL~

fLLfLYJfLaO"L

I'

1TaVTa~.

TOVTOV TO o-vfLf3a'ivov E1Tt TWV E.pywv

yap avTa AV1TYJPW~ opwfLEV, TOVTWV Ta~ ElKova~ Ta~

fLUALo-Ta ~Kpt{3WfLEVa~ XatpOfLEV
(}'Y]ptwv
l
2

fLOpcpa~ TWV

0EwpovvTE~, oiov

aTLfLOTUTWV

Kat

VEKpwv.

avro'i Spengel: O'VTOt AB

'AOYJvaiovc; anon. Oxon., Spengel: -a'Lot AB

Mid-6th cent., much earlier than the introduction of comedy into dramatic festivals at Athens (cf. 49bl-2).
a

36

_IV

POETICS 4

tragedy and comedy (comedy being claimed by the

Megarians both here on the mainland, contending it
arose during their democracy, a and in Sicily, the homeland of the poet Epicharmus, a much earlier figure than
Chionides and Magnes;h and tragedy being claimed by
some of those in the Peloponnese) ;c and they cite the
names as evidence. They say that they call villages komai,
while the Athenians call them demoi; their contention is
that comic performers [komadoi] got their name not from
revelling [komazein] but from wandering through villages
when banned from the city. And they say their own word
for acting is dran,d while the Athenians~ is prattein. So
much, then, by way of discussion of the number and
nature of the distinctions within mimesis.
IV
It can be seen that poetry was broadly engendered by
a pair of causes, both natural. For it is an instinct of
human beings., from childhood, to engage in mimesise
(indeed, this distinguishes them from other animals: man
is the most mimetic of all, and it is through mimesis that
he develops his earliest understanding); and equally natural that everyone enjoys mimetic objects. A common
occurrence indicates this: we enjoy contemplating the
most precise images of things whose actual sight is painful
to us, such as the forms of the vilest animals and of
b C.

and M. were, between them, active at Athens in the 480s

and 470s (see on 49b3); E.'s dates are disputed: his career probably spanned the late 6th and early 5th cent.
c Cf. the "tragic choruses" at Sicyon, Hdt. 5.67.
d See on 48a28.
e Here a genus of activities including imitative behaviour and
artistic "image-making" as two of its species.

37

ARISTOTLE
~E'

3/

at/TtOV

'

Kat TOVTOV,

1 ('/

(} ,

'

1'"1

OTt fLaV aVEtV OV fLOVOV

TOt~

cPLAOO"OcPOL~ 7}8ta-TOV aA.A.a Kat TOL~ aA.A.ot~ OfLOLW~,

d'AA.' E7Tt (3paxv KOtVWVOVO"tV aVTOV. Ota yap TOVTO

15

'

3/

Q'

xatpOVO"t Ta~ EtKOVa~ opWVTE~, OTt O"VfLfJatVEt

1'"1

('/

(j

EW-

poVVTa~ fLaveavEtv Kat a-vA.A.oyi,Ea-(Jat TL EKaa-Tov,

'?'
('/
OtOV
OTt

'?'
OVTO~

KW~, ovx 2

Yi

'
1'"1
EKEtVo~

'

'

E7TEL

EaV fLY} TVXYJ 1TpOEwpa'

'

'

8ul

fLLfLYJfLa 1TOt-r}a-Et TTJV Y,8oVTJV aA.A.a

TTJV U1TEpyaa-iav ~ TTJV xpotav ~ Ota TOtaVTYJV TtVa

3/\ \

'

aAAYJV atTtav.
Kara cPVa-tv

20

ovro~ iJfL'iv Tov fLLfLE'ia-(Jat Kat T-i]~

apfLOVLa~ Kat TOV pv(JfLOV ( Ta yap fLETpa OTt fLOpta

TWV pv(JfLWV EO"Tt cpavEpov) E~ apx-ry~ oi 3 1TEcPVKOTE~
'

1Tpo~

4 avTa
' ' fLal\tO"Ta
'\
'
KaTa' fLtKpov
'

VYJO"aV TYJV 1TOLYJO"LV

, (j YJ
0"1TaO:

25

~'

OE

'1'"1

EK

1rpoayovTE~
~

'

TWV aVTOO"XEOtaO"fLaTWV.

'
KaTa' Ta' OLKEta
YJ3/(jYJ YJ~
1'"1

1TOLYJO"t~

OLE-

'
Ot~ fLEV

yap O"EfLVOTEpot ra~ ~aA.a~ EfLLfLOVVTO 1Tpa~ElS KaL

'

Ta~

TWV TOLOVTWV, Ot~

1'"1

~'

OE

EVTEI\EO"TEpOt
'

'

Ta~

TWV o.paV1'"1

AWV, 1TpwTov lfloyov~ 1TotovvTE~, wa-1TEp ETEpot

Kat EYKWfLLa.

A.ov~, U1TO

OE

0 MapyLTYJ~

..,./....

vfLVov~

TWV fLEV oilv 1Tpo ~OfL-r}pov ovOEvo~

EXOfLEV EL1TELV TOLOVTOV 1TOLYJfLa, ELKO~

30

' /
EYEV-

OE

Eivat

1TOA-

~OfL-r}pov ap~afLEVOt~ EO"TtV, oiov EKELVOV

Kat TU TOtavra.

EV or~ KaTa TO apfLOT-

TOV Kat TO lafL{3E'Lov ~A.(JE fLETpov-Oto Kat lafL{3E'Lov

2 ovx DEllebodius:
Lat.: TOVTO A
3 oi B: om. A
4 1rpo~ B: Kat A
1 TOVTOV

ovxt AB

I.e. in a portrait-a deliberately rudimentary instance of an

interpretative process which could take more complex forms.
a

38

POETICS 4

corpses. The explanation of this too is that understanding

gives great pleasure not only to philosophers but likewise
to others too, though the latter have a smaller share in it.
This is why people enjoy looking at images, because
through contemplating the1n it comes about that they
understand and infer what each element means, for
instance that ''this person is so-and-so."a For, if one happens not to have seen the subject before, the image will
not give pleasure qua mimesis but because of its execution or colour, or for some other such reason.
Because mimesis comes naturally to us, as do melody
and rhythm (that 1netres are categories of rhythms is
obvious), in the earliest timesh those with special natural
talents for these things gradually progressed and brought
poetry into being from improvisations. Poetry branched
into two, according to its creators, characters: the more
serious prod1,1ced mimesis of noble actions and the
actions of noble people, while the more vulgar depicted
the actions of the base, in the first place by composing
invectivesc (just as others produced hymns and encomia).d Now, we cannot name such an invective by any
poet earlier than Homer, though probably many poets
produced them; but we can do so from Homer onwards,
namely the latter,s Margitese and the like. In these
poems, it was aptness which brought the iambic metre too
Lit. "from the beginning": the point is a priori rather than
strictly historical.
c Satirical lampoons on individuals.
d Poems in praise of gods and outstanding humans.
e A (lost) burlesque epic, named after its crass "hero," composed in a mixture of hexameters and iambic trimeters. It is not
now, and was not always in antiquity, attributed to "Homer."
b

39

ARISTOTLE

35

1449a

Ka'AliraL vvv, OTL f.v r0 p.,irpq_J TOVTq_J lap.,{3L,OV a'A'A"f/'Aov~. Kat f.yivovTo rwv 1TaAatwv ol p.,f.v T]pwtKwv ol
~'
, / (3WV 1TOLYJTaL./ W0"1TEp
~'
~'
~ ,. .
OE
Lap_,
OE
KaL' Ta' 0"1TOVOaLa
p.,a'Ata-Ta 1TOLYJT~~ ~'Op.,YJpo~ ~v (p.,6vo~ yap ovx art EV
'\ \ '
~
' E1TOLYJO"EV
'
), OVTW~
~'
a/\1\a
KaL' P.,LP.,YJO"EL~ opap_,aTLKa~
KaL'
ra 1 rij~ KWp_,qJ8ta~ a-x"f/p.,ara 1Tpwro~ V1TEDELtEv, ov
t/Joyov a'A'Aa TO yEAOLOV 8pap_,aT01TOL"f/a-a~ 0 yap
MapytTYJ~ ava'Aoyov EXEL, W0"1TEp 'I'Ata~ Kat Y]
'0 OVO"O"ELa
~ /
' Ta~
' rpayq_JoLa~,
~/
~'
'e'
'
1rp0~
OVTW
KaL' OVTO~
1rp0~
'
~/
,../....
~'
,....
~/
'
Ta~ KWP.,q_JOLa~.
1Tapa'PaVELO"YJ~ OE TYJ~ rpayq_JoLa~ KaL
KWp_,qJ8ta~ oi f.cp' EKaTipav TTJV 1TOLYJO"LV opp.,wvTE~
KaTa ri}v olKEtav cpva-Lv oi p.,f.v avTt Twv lap.,{3wv
~
'
'
/
~'
'
'
,....
'
,....
KWP.,q_J001TOLOL
E'YEVOVTO,
OLc OE
aVTL
TWV
E1TWV
Tpayq_J8o8t8aa-KaAot, 8ta To p.,Ei'w Kat f.vrtp.,orEpa Ta a-x"f/1'
,.....
'
/
p_,ara ~LVaL TaVTa EKELVWV.
TO J.LEV oilv E1TUYK01TE~V Et apa EXEL ~DYJ T] rpayq_J/
,....
c
,....
.,,
3/
'
/
iJ'
c '
OLa TOL~ ELOEO"LV LKaVW~ YJ OV, aVTO TE Kau aVTO
KptvaL 2 Kat 1Tp0~ ra Oiarpa, aAAo~ Aoyo~. YEVOP.,EVYJ3 8' oVv a1r' apxi}~ avToa-xE8LaO"TLKij~ (Kat aVTTJ
,
c
,
c
,
,
'
,....
'C
'
'
KaL YJ KWP.,q_JOLa, KaL YJ P.,EV a1TO TWV Es apxovTWV TOV
8t0vpap.,{3ov, Y] 8 U1TO TWV Ta cpaAALKa
ETL Kat vvv
/

10

3/~

~,

. . . a-xYJ/ fLU TU AL at.: TO' . . . a-xYJ"' fLU B

2
Kp'ivat- Forchhammer: KptvETat- ~ va[ A: KptvETat- Eivat- B
3
YEVOfLEVYJ rec.: -EVYJ<; AB
1 TU'

Cf. on 47bll.
b See on 49b24.
c I.e. containing tnuch direct/personative speech; cf. 48a212, 60a5-ll.
a

40

POETICS 4

into use-precisely why it is called ~~iambicn now, because

it was in this metre that they lampooned [iambizein] one
another. a Of the older poets some became composers of
epic hexameters, others of iambic lampoons. Just as
Homer was the supreme poet of elevatedh subjects (for
he was preeminent not only in quality but also in composing dramaticc mimesis), so too he was the first to delineate
the forms of comedy, by dramatising not invective but the
laughable: thus Margites stands in the same relation to
comedies as do the Iliad and Odyssey to tragedies. And
when tragedy and comedy had been glimpsed,d those
whose own natures gave them an impetus towards either
type of poetry abandoned iambic lampoons to become
comic poets, or epic to become tragedians, because these
newer forms were grander and more esteemede than the
earlier.
To consider whether or not tragedy is even now sufficiently developed in its types-judging it intrinsically and
in relation to audiences-is a separate matter. f Anyhow,
when it came into being from an improvisatory origin
(that is, both tragedy and comedy: the former from the
leaders of dithyramb,g the other from the leaders of the
d I.e.

potentially, within the nature of Homer's poetry.

e This applies principally to Athens, and to creation of new
works rather than abstract estimation of poems.
fA curious remark, in view of 14-15 below; but the emphasis
here may fall on "types" (cf. 55b32) rather than tragedy's essential "nature."
g See on 4 7a14. Ar. probably assun1es that the Athenian
Thespis took the crucial step, c. 534 B.C., of adding an individual
voice (the first actor) to the traditional chorus of dithyramb: cf.
TrGF I 62, T6.

41

ARISTOTLE

EV 1TOAAais TWV 1TOAEWV s~ap.i.vE~ VOfL~'OfLEVa), KaTa

fL~Kpov YJV~~(}YJ 1TpoayovTWV oa-ov f.yiyvETO cpavEpov
avTij~ Kat 1TOAAa~ fLETaj3oAa~ fLETaj3aAova-a

15

~/

ycpo~a

E1Tava-aTO,

'

:J/

E1TE~ Ea-XE

'

,...

,../... /

aVTYJ~ 'f'va-~v.

TYJV

i} Tpa'

Ka~

TO

Twv v1ToKp~Twv 1r'Aij8o~ ~ f.vo~ El~ 8vo 1rpwTo~

Ala-xv'Ao~ ~yayE Kat ra TOV xopov TjAaTTW(TE Kat TOV
A.6yov 1TpwTaywv~a-TE'iv 1 1TapEa-Kevaa-Ev TpE'i~ 8 Kat
a-KYJvoypacpiav '!.ocpoKAij~. ET~ 8 TO fLEYEOo~ EK
,...
"(}
' \ (;
\
~ '
' ,
fL~KpWV f.LV WV Ka~ 1\E~ EW~ YEI\O~a~ o~a TO EK a-aTVp~KOV fLETa{3aAELV ol/J a1TE(TEfLVVV8YJ, TO TE fLETpov EK
rErpafLETpov laf.Lf3E'iov f.yf.vETo. To f.LEV yap 1rpwTov
TETpafLETPCf? f.xpwVTO 8~a TO a-aTvp~KTJV Kat opxYJa-T~/
.-;'
"
\ "C
~'
"
KWTEpav
E~Va~ TYJV 1TO~'Y](T~V.
1\E~ EW~
OE YEVOfLEVYJ~
aVTTJ Y] cpva-~~ TO olKELOV fLETpov EfJpe f.LaA~a-Ta yap
AEKT~Kav Twv fLETpwv To laf.Lf3E'iov ea-T~v a-YJfLELOV 8

rE

20

25

/
\""'
' ' (.}""' \ '
'
,...~
TOVTOV,
1TI\E~a-Ta yap ~Uf.LfJE~a 1\EYOf.LEV EV TYJ O~aAEKTC!} Ti]1Tp0~ d'AA~Aov~, f.~afLETpa 8 oA.~yaK~~ Kat
'f3 a~VOVTE~
/
,. . \
,. .
(
/
~'
EK
TYJ~ 1\EKT~KYJ~ apf.LOV~a~.
ET~ OE E1TE~(T:J/

1 Trpwraywvurrliv

Sophianus: -urriJv AB

Sung to accompany processional carrying of phallic icons in

ritual contexts; normally obscene and scurrilous: cf. Aristoph.
Ach. 241-79.
b Not consistently, as his surviving plays show, but in broad
relation to his predecessors.
c The third actor was probably introduced in the 460s, early
in Soph.'s career; it is required in Aesch. Oresteia of 458. Scene
painting: decoration of the stage building (skene), to give it an
active dramatic status.
a

42

POETICS 4

phallic songsa which remain even now a custom in many

cities), it was gradually enhanced as poets developed the
potential they saw in it. And after going through many
changes tragedy ceased to evolve, since it had achieved its
own nature. Aeschylus innovated by raising the number
of actors from one to two, reduced the choral component,b and made speech play the leading role. Three
actors and scene painting came with Sophocles. c A further factor was grandeur: after a period of slight plots and
laughable diction, owing to development from a satyricd ethos, it was at a late stage that tragedy acquired
dignity, and its metre became the iambic trimeter instead
of the trochaic tetrameter. e To begin with they used the
tetrameter because the poetry was satyric and more associated with dancing; but when spoken dialogue was
introduced,f tragedy's own natureg discovered the appropriate metre. For the iambic trimeter, more than any
other metre, has the rhythm of speech: an indication of
this is that we speakh many trimeters in conversation with
one another, but hexameters only rarely and when diverging from the colloquial register. Further changes cond I.e.

with the tone of a satyr play. Did Ar. connect this tone
with the early dithyrambs from which tragedy developed
(49al0-ll)?
e Trimeter: see on 47bll; trochaic tetrameter: apparently the
main metre of early tragedy, used sporadically by later tragedians; cf. 59b37, Rh. 1404a30-31.
fAr. seems to imply that in the earliest tragedy everything
was musically accompanied.
g Cf. 49al5 above; see 60a4 for "natural" appropriateness of
metre to genre.
h Sc. unintentionally.

43

ARISTOTLE
o8iwv 7rA~8TJ.

Kat Ta a'A'A' w~ EKa(J"Ta KO(J"JL'Y}Oi]vat

'

.,,

AeyETat E(J"TW T,JLLV ELPYJJLEVa 7roAv yap av

30

:Jf

t(J"W~

~'
Epyov Et'Y} OtEs tEVat Ka (j' EKa(J"TOV.
3/

3/

~H

,./....

(;

EL7rOJLEV JLLf.LT}(J"t~

KWJL(f)8ia E(J"Ttv W(J"7rEp

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'1"1

OV JLEVTOt KaTa 7ra(J"aV KaKtaV,

aAAa TOV al(J"xpov f(J"Tt TO yEAo'iov f.LOptov.

TO yap

yEAo'iov f(J"TtV Uf.LUPTTJf.LU Tt Kat ai(J"xo~ avw8vvov Kat

35

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OV 'P apTtKOV,
'

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e,

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ov AE'A~Oa(J"tv,

1449b

r,

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olf;
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/

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\
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/

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Kat

ifJ6pfLL') AB: 'E.

K.

ifJ.

secl.

Susemihl (om. Arab.)

Early tragedy's plots were shorter, less complex (cf. "slight
plots," 49al9).
h 48al 7-18; cf. 48b26.
c Aischros, "shameful," also covers "ugly," and is so translated
in the next sentence.
a

44

POETICS 5

cemed the number of episodes.a And we shall take as

read the ways in which other features of tragedy are said
to have been embellished; it would no doubt be a large
task to discuss them individually.
V
Comedy, as we said, b is mimesis of baser but not
wholly vicious characters: rather, the laughable is one category of the shameful.c For the laughable comprises any
fault or mark of shame which involves no pain or destruction: most obviously, the laughable mask is something
ugly and twisted, but not painfully. Now, tragedy,s stages
of development, and those responsible for them, have
been remembered, but comedy,s early history was forgotten because no serious interest was taken in it: only at a
rather late date did the archon grant a comic chorus;d
previously performers were volunteers. It is from a timee
when the genre already had some formal features that the
first named .poets of comedy are remembered. Who
introduced masks, prologues, v~rious numbers of actors,
and everything of that kind, has been lost. The composition of plots originally came from Sicily; of Athenian
poets Crates was the first to relinquish the iambic manner
and to create stories and plots with an overall structure. f
d The

archon (a major magistrate) chose plays, and arranged

funding, for official production at the City Dionysia festival: this
happened first for comedy only in 48 7/6; tragedies had been so
performed since the late 6th century.
e The 480s/70s, the era of e.g. Chionides and Magnes; see on
48a34.
f Sicily was home of Epicharmus (see on 48a33). Crates was
active in the 440s and 430s; "iambic manner" implies satire of
individuals (cf. 48b31-2). "Overall structure," katholou, is the
same term used for "universals" at 51 b 7.

45

ARISTOTLE

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25

p.,v 1 Tov

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5 TrafJYJfLUTwv B: fLafJYJfLUTwv A Lat.

46

'

fLET pov

POETICS 6

VI

Epic matches tragedy to the extent of being mimesis

of elevated mattersa in metrical language; but they differ
in that epic has an unchanging metre and is in narrative
mode.b They also differ in length: tragedy tends so far as
possible to stay within a single revolution of the sun, or
close to it, while epic is unlimited in time span and is distinctive in this respect (though to begin with the poets followed this same practice in tragedy as in epic). Epic and
tragedy have some components in common, but others
are peculiar to tragedy. So whoever knows about good
and bad tragedy knows the same about epic, as epic's
resources belong to tragedy,c but tragedy's are not all to
be found in epic.
We shall later discuss the art of mimesis in hexameters,d as well as comedy.e But let us now discuss
tragedy, taking up the definition of its essence which
emerges fro~ what has already been said. Tragedy, then,
is mimesis of an action which is elevated, complete, and
of magnitude; in language embellished by distinct forms
in its sections; employing the mode of enactment, not narrative; and through pity and fear accomplishing the
a Or "characters";

for "elevated" see on 49b24.

b Cf. the distinctions in chs. I-III; Homer's combination of
narrative with personation (48a21-2) is here left aside.
c Cf. 62al4-15.
d I.e. epic; cf. 59al7.
e The discussion of comedy is lost; cf. on 62bl9, and see the
Introduction at n. 5.
f Spoudaios, the same adj. used for characters at e.g. 48a2; it
denotes ethical distinction and gravity of tone. Cf. the Introduction.

47

ARISTOTLE
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30

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35

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post TLvac; seq. 1rec/JvKEV atTLa 8vo Twv 7rpatEwv Eivat,
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2

3 T-ryc;

48

B: om. A

POETICS 6

catharsis a of such emotions. I use uembellished~~ for language with rhythm and melody, and udistinct forms" for
the fact that some parts are conveyed through metrical
speech alone, others again through song. Since actors
render the mimesis, some part of tragedy will, in the first
place, necessarily be the arrangement of spectacle;b to
which can be added lyric poetry and diction, for these are
the media in which they render the mimesis. By
"diction"c I mean the actual com~osition of the metrical
speech; the sense of "lyric poetry" is entirely clear. Since
tragedy is mimesis of an action, and the action is conducted by agents who should have certain qualities in
both character and thought (as it is these factors which
allow us to ascribe qualities to their actions too, and it is
in their actions that all men find success or failure), the
plot is the mimesis of the action-for I use ccplot" to
denote the .construction of events, cccharacter" to mean
that in virtue of which we ascribe certain qualities to the
agents, and ccthought" to cover the parts in which, through
speech, they demonstrate something or declare their
views. Tragedy as a whole, therefore, must have six components, which give it its qualities-namely, plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle, and lyric poetry. The
media of the mimesis are two components, its mode one,
and its objects three;e there are no others. Now, these
The term (the most controversial in the work) is never
defined; cf. the Introduction.
b I.e. the visual aspects of the
action, esp. the appearance of the agents; cf. the end of ch. VI
and the start of ch. XIV.
c Lexis: see chs. XIX-XXII.
d Melopoiia covers the sung parts of tragedy.
e This matches
the components with chs. I-III's scheme: media = diction, lyric
poetry; mode = spectacle (i.e. enactment); objects =plot, character, thought.
49
a

ARISTOTLE
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3 1rpagew~ A: -ewv B
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50

'

1rpo~

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Bywater
2

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KaL OLaVOU!: EV

~'\

01\W~

POETICS 6

have been used by a majority of poets as their basic

elements, a since practically every drama has items of
spectacle, character, plot, diction, lyric poetry, and
thought, alike. The most important of these things is the
structure of events, because tragedy is mimesis not of
personsh but of action and life; and happiness and unhappiness consist in action, and the goalc is a certain kind of
action, not a qualitative state: it is in virtue of character
that people have certain qualities, but through their
actions that they are happy or the reverse. So it is not in
order to provide mimesis of character that the agents act;
rather, their characters are included for the sake of their
actions. Thus, the events and the plot are the goal of
tragedy, and the goal is the most important thing of all.
Besides, without action there could be no tragedy, but
without character there could be: in fact, the works of
most of the recent poets are lacking in character, and in
general there are many such po~ts (as with Zeuxis' relationship to Polygnotus among painters: Polygnotus is a
fine depicter of character, while Zeuxis' painting contains
no character). d Again, if someone lays out a string of
speeches that express character and are well composed in
diction and thought, he will not achieve the stated function of tragedy; much more successful will be a tragedy
which, though deficient in these other elements, has a
plot and structure of events. In addition, tragedy's most
Text and sense are here greatly disputed; cf. 52bl4.
b I.e. not of personal qualities per se.
c Of either drama or life: Ar. may mean both.
d Zeuxis (late 5th cent.) pioneered new techniques of realism;
cf. 6lbl2 (idealisation of human form). Polygnotus: see on 48a5.
a

51

ARISTOTLE
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52

AB : 017"0La
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71.8

L at.

POETICS 6

potent means of emotional effect are components of plot,

namely reversals and recognitions.a A further pointer is
that apprentice poets can achieve precision in diction and
characterisation sooner than structure the events, as likewise with almost all the early poets.
Plot, then, is the first principle and, as it were, soul of
tragedy, while character is secondary. (A similar principle
also holds in painting: if one were to cover a surface randomly with the finest colours, one would provide less
pleasure than by an outline of a picture.) Tragedy is
mimesis of action, and it is chiefl~ for the sake of the
action that it represents the agents. Third in importance
is thought: that is, the capacity to say what is pertinent
and apt, which in formal speeches is the task of politics
and rhetoric. The earliest poets made people speak politically, present day poets make them speak rhetorically.
Character is .that which reveals moral choice-that is,
when otherwisec unclear, what ~inds of thing an agent
chooses or rejects (which is why speeches in which there
is nothing at all the speaker chooses or rejects contain no
character); while thought covers the parts in which they
demonstrate that something is or is not so, or declare a
general view. Fourth is the diction of the spoken sections: as stated earlier, I define diction as expression
through choice of words-something which has the same
capacity in both verse and prose. Of the remainder, lyric
poetry is the greatest embellishment, while spectacle
See ch. XI for definitions.
b The same principle as 50al6-17.
c Sc. from the action; cf. 54al7-19.
a

53

ARISTOTLE

20
VII

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VI

POETICS 7

is emotionally potent but falls quite outside the art and is

not integral to poetry: tragedy,s capacity is independent of
performance and actors, and, besides, the costumier,sa art
has more scope than the poefs for rendering effects of
spectacle.
nr
Given these definitions, let us next discuss the
required qualities of the structure of events, since this is
the principal and most important factor in tragedy. We
have stipulated that tragedy is mimesis of an action that is
complete, whole, and of magnitude (for one can have a
whole which lacks magnitude). A whole is that which has
a beginning, middle, and end. A beginning is that which
does not itself follow necessarily from something else, but
after which a further event or process naturally occurs.
An end, by contrast, is that which itself naturally occurs,
whether necessarily or usually, after a preceding event,
but need not pe followed by anything else. A middle is
that which both follows a preceding event and has further
consequences. Well-constructed plots, therefore, should
neither begin nor end at an arbitrary point, but should
make use of the patterns stated. Besides, a beautiful
object, whether an animal or anything else with a structure of parts, should have not only its parts ordered but
also an appropriate magnitude: beauty consists in magnitude and order, which is why there could not be a be autiful animal which was either minuscule (as contemplation
of it, occurring in an almost imperceptible moment, has
no distinctness) or gigantic (as contemplation of it has no
cohesion, but those who contemplate it lose a sense of
a

Responsible, above all, for mask-making.

1 8~

Bywater: 8 AB

55

ARISTOTLE

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The ref. is obscure, but Ar.'s rejection of contingent conventions is clear.

a

56

'

POETICS 8

VIII

unity and wholeness), say an animal a thousand miles

long. So just as with our bodies and with animals beauty
requires magnitude, but magnitude that allows coherent
perception, likewise plots require length, but length that
can be coherently remembered. A limit of length referring to competitions and po\vers of attention is extrinsic
to the art: for if it were necessary for a hundred tragedies
to compete, they would perform them by water clocks, as
they say happened once before.a But the limit that conforms to the actual nature of the matter is that greater
size, provided clear coherence remains, means finer
beauty of magnitude. To state the definition plainly: the
size which permits a transformation to occur, in a probable or necessary sequence of events,h from adversity to
prosperity or prosperity to adversity, c is a sufficient limit
of magnitude.
A plot is not unified, as some think, if built round an
individual. d Any entity has invumerable features, not all
of which cohere into a unity; likewise, an individual performs many actions which yield no unitary action. So all
those poets are clearly at fault who have composed a Heracleid, a Theseid, and similar poems: they think that,
since Heracles was an individual, the plote too must be
unitary. But Homer, in keeping with his general superiority, evidently grasped well, whether by art or nature, this
Probability and necessity: Ar.'s recurrent criteria of what
makes "natural" sense within human lives.
cOn alternative directions of "transformation," see esp. chs.
XIII-XIV.
d I.e. unity of "hero" is not a sufficient (or even necessary)
condition for unity of plot.
eSc. of H.'s life.
b

57

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IX

POETICS 9

point too: for though composing an Odyssey, he did not

include every feature of the hero~s life (e.g. his wounding
on Parnassus, or his feigned madness in the call to arms),a
where events lacked necessary or probable connections;
but he structured the Odyssey round a unitary action of
the kind I mean, and likewise with the Iliad. Just as,
therefore, in the other mimetic arts a unitary mimesis has
a unitary object, so too the plot, since it is mimesis of an
action, should be of a unitary and indeed whole action;
and the cornponent events should be so structured that if
any is displaced or removed, the sense of the whole is disturbed and dislocated: since that whose presence or
absence has no clear significance is not an integral part of
the whole.
IX
It is also evident from what has been said that it is not
the poet's function to relate actual events, but the kinds of
things that might occur and are possible in terms of probability or necessity. The differenc~ between the historian
and the poet is not that between using verse or prose;
Herodotus' work could be versified and would be just as
much a kind of history in verse as in prose. No, the difference is this: that the one relates actual events, the other
the kinds of things that might occur. Consequently,
poetry is more philosophical and more elevatedh than history, since poetry relates more of the universal, while history relates particulars. c "U niversar~ means the kinds of
things which it suits a certain kind of person to say or do,
described, but only as recollection, at Od.
19.392-466. The Od. never mentions Odysseus' madness,
feigned to avoid joining the Trojan expedition.
h Of greater ethical import (by philosophical standards); see
on 49b24.
cOn history and particulars cf. 59a21-9.
a Wounding:

59

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60

Welcker: av8H AB

Names denote particulars.

POETICS 9
in terms of probability or necessity: poetry aims for this,
even though attaching namesa to the agents. A "particular" means, say, what Alcibiades did or experienced. In
comedy, this point has by nowh become obvious: the
poets construct the plot on the basis of probability, and
only then supply arbitrary names; they do not, like iambic
poets, write about a particular person. c But in tragedy
they adhere to the actuald names. The reason is that the
possible seems plausible: about the possibility of things
which have not occurred we are not yet sure;e but it is evident that actual events are possible-they could not otherwise have occurred. Yet even in some tragedies there
are only one or two familiar names, while the rest are
invented; and in certain plays no name is familiar, for
example in Agathon~s Antheus/ in this work, events and
names alike have been invented, yet it gives no less pleasure for that.. So adherence to the traditional plots of
tragedy should not be sought at all costs. Indeed, to seek
this is absurd, since even the familiar subjects are familiar
only to a 1ninority, yet nonetheless please everyone. It is
clear from these points, then, that the poet should be
more a makerg of plots than of verses, in so far as he is a
poet by virtue of mimesis,h and his mimesis is of actions.
So even should his poetry concern actual events, he is no
less a poet for that, as there is nothing to prevent
b Some

time in the mid-4th cent.: see the Introduction.

c See on 49b8.
d I.e. supplied by the traditional myths (cf. 5lb24-5); Ar.
treats this, by simplification, as synonymous with historical fact.
e The sentence characterises an ordinary mentality.
f Nothing else is known about this work (TrGF I 161-2);
Agathon was active c. 420-400.
g Poietes means both
"maker" and "poet."
h Cf. 47bl5.

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Elo-t 8 TWV JLV()wv OL fLEV a1TAOL ol 8 1TE1TAEYJLEvot Kat yap al 1Tpa~Et~ CiJv fLtJL~a-Et~ ol JLVOoi Ela-tv
V1Tapxovo-tv Evev~ ova-at 'TOtavrat. A.yw 8 a1TAYJV
\

1"\

35

1452a

'

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1"\

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10

,,

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.,,

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a1rAwv AB (om. Arab.): arEAwv Essen

v1ToKptrac; AB: Kptrac; rec.
3 8 A: om. B
4
fLaA.urra Ka'i fLaA.A.ov AB: Ka'i fL del. Ellebodius
2

62

'

t:!

POETICS 10

some actual events being probable as well as possible, and

it is through probability that the poet makes his material
from them.
Of simplea plots and actions, the episodic are worst.
By "episodic'' I mean a plot in which the episodes follow
one another without probability or necessity. Such plays
are composed by bad poets through their own fault, and
by good poets for the sake of the actors: for in composing
show pieces,h and stretching the plot beyond its capacity,
they are often forced to distort the continuity. Given that
the 1nimesis is not only of a complete action but also of
fearful and pitiable matters, the latter arise above all
when events occur contrary to expectation yet on account
of one another. The awesomec will be maintained in this
way more than through show of chance and fortune,
because even among chance events we find most awesome those which seem to have happened by design (as
when Mitys' statue at Argos killed the murderer of Mitys,
by falling on him as he looked at it:d such things seem not
to occur randomly). And so, such plots are bound to be
finer.
X.
Plots can be divided into the simple and complex,
since the actions which plots represent are intrinsically of
these kinds. I call sin1ple" an action which is continuous,
The term is defined in ch. X; its occurrence here has been
questioned.
b Works designed to lend themselves to histrionic brilliance.
c Awe (or "wonder") will be aroused by something astonishing and suggestive of deeper significance: cf. 60all-18.
d Or "when he was visiting the festival"; the story is otherwise
unknown, but M. (if the same) is mentioned at Dem. 59.33.
a

63

ARISTOTLE
f.LEV 7Tpa~LV ,ryr:; YLVOf.LEVYJr:; WfT7TEp wpta-TaL a-vvExovr:;

15

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20

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TUDE.
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EV 7~ OlDL7TODL f.'A.Owv wr:; Evcppavwv TOV 0lDL7TOVV Kat
25

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30

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3 EO"T~V w~ 01TEp

64

G ornperz:

Spengel:

om. B

EO"TtV W0"1TEp

POETICS 11

i'

in the sense defined, a and unitary, but whose transformationh lacks reversal and recognition; "complex," one
whose transformation contains recognition or reversal or
both. And these elements should emerge from the very
structure of the plot, so that they ensue from the preceding events by necessity or probability; as it makes a great
difference whether things happen because of, or only
after, their antecedents.
Reversal is a change to the opposite direction of
XI
events, as already stated,c and one in accord, as we insist,
with probability or necessity: as when in the Oedipus the
person who comes to bring Oedipus happiness, and
intends to rid him of his fear about his mother, effects the
opposite by revealing Oedipus, true identity. d And in the
Lynceus,e the one figure is led off to die, while Danaus
follows with the intention of killing him, yet the upshot of
events is Danaus, death and the other,s survival. Recognition, as the very name indicates_, is a change from ignorance to knowledge, leading to friendship or to enmity, f
and involving matters which bear on prosperity or adversity. The finest recognition is that which occurs simultaneously with reversal, as with the one in the Oedipus .g
There are, of course, other kinds of recognition too, since
what has been statedh occurs, after a fashion, in
Inch. VII's schema of beginning, middle, end.
h Between prosperity and adversity; see on 51a13-14.
c An unclear back ref.: 52a4, "contrary to expectation," is the
likeliest point.
d Soph. OT 924-1085; Ar. refers to two stages
in the scene (cf. 989 ff, esp. 1002-3).
e Probably Theodecf See on 53bl5.
g Unclear: the revertes'; see on 55b29.
sal begins at Soph. OT 924 (cf. 52a24-6); Jocasta sees the truth
by 1056, Oedipus only in the lead-up to 1182.
h I.e. in the
preceding definition.
a

65

ARISTOTLE
35

1452b

w~ 01rEp ELPYJTat a-v!Lf3atvEL, Ka'i EL 1rE1rpay 'TL~ ~ ILTJ

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10

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2 EKEivov

66

Bywater: -w AB

,...,

~I

POETICS 12

1
:
1

~II

relation to inanimate and even chance things, and it is

also possible to recognise that someone has or has not
committed a deed. But the kind most integral to the plot
and action is the one described: such a joint recognition
and reversal will yield either pity or fear, just the type of
actions of which tragedy is taken to be a mimesis; besides,
both adversity and prosperity will hinge upon such circumstances. Now, because recognition is recognition
between people, a some cases involve only the relation of
one party to the other (when the other,s identity is clear),
while in others there is need for double recognition: thus,
Iphigeneia was recognised by Orestes through the sending of the letter, but for Iphigeneia to recognise his relation to herself required a further recognition. b
These, then, are two components of the plot-reversal
and recognition. A third is suffering. Of these, reversal
and recognition have been explained, and suffering is a
destructive or painful action, such as public deaths, physical agony, woundings, etc.
We spoke earlierc of the components of tragedy that
must be used as basic elements; but its formal and discrete sections are as follows: prologue, episode, exodos,
choral unit (further divisible into parodos and stasimon).
These are common to all plays, but actors, songs and kommoi are special to some. The prologue is the whole portion of a tragedy prior to the chorus, parodos; an episode
a

Ar. ignores recognition of inanimate objects, mentioned

above.

IT 727-841.
c Cf. esp. 50a9-14.

b Eur.

67

ARISTOTLE
20

EUTODLOV

DE

fLEpoc; oA.ov rpaycpDtac; TO fLETa~v oAwv

xopLKWV J.LEAWV, E~oDoc;

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25

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DEL EVAa/3ELa-{}at,
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30

ElpYJfLEVoLc;.

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J.LEra{3aA.A.ovrac; c/)aivEa-()a, ~ EvTvxiac; Elc; Dva-Tv-

35

I
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yap
TOVT
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yap exE" J>v DEL, ovTE yap ~,A.ave pw1Tov ovTE eAEEL-

1453a

vov OVTE cpo{3Epov EO"TLV" ovD' all TOV a-~oDpa 1TOVYJ'

'(; EVTVXLac;
'
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yap

68

.J..\1()

'fJLAav pw1rov

~~

EXOL

,,

av YJ

TOLaVTYJ

a-va-Taa-Lc;

w~ EtOEo-L rec.: om.

oAYJ Susemihl: oA.ov AB

Usually accompanying their entrance onto the scene.

AB

POETICS 13

is the whole portion of a tragedy between complete

choral songs; the exodos is the whole portion of a tragedy
following the final choral song. Of choral units, the parodos is the first complete utterancea of the chorus; a stasimon is a choral song without anapaestic and trochaic
rhythms;h a kommos is a dirge shared between chorus
and actors. We spoke earlier of the components of
tragedy that must be used as basic elements, while its formal and discrete sections are the ones given.
XIII
Next, after the foregoing discussion, we must consider
what should be aimed at and avoided in the construction
of plots, and how tragedy's effect is to be achieved. Since,
then, the structure of the finest tragedy should be complex not simple, c as well as representing fearful and
pitiable events (for this is the special feature of such
mimesis), it is, to begin with, clear that neither should
decent men be shown changing from prosperity to adversity, as this is not fearful nor yet pitiable but repugnant, d
nor the depraved changing from adversity to prosperity,
because this is the least tragic of all, possessing none
of the necessary qualities, since it arouses neither
fellow-feelinge nor pity nor fear. Nor, again, should
tragedy show the very wicked person falling from prosperity to adversity: such a pattern might arouse fellowfeeling, but not pity or fear, since the one is felt
h Both

do in fact occur in stasima; Ar. may be thinking of

"recitative" units, such as the marching anapaests of choral parodoi, or trochaic tetrameters (see on 49a21).
c In the senses defined in ch. X.
d Cf. 53b39, 54a3.
e Philanthri5pia: a disputed concept; it may entail either a
broadly humane sympathy (even with some forms of merited suffering), or a basic sense of justice~ Cf. 56a21.

69

ARISTOTLE
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15

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20

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Kat

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l:

1\EOS' . . . OfLOLOV Om.

Ha-martia: the term, repeated at 53a16, could cover a range

of possible factors in tragic agency. See the Introduction.
a

70

POETICS 13

for the undeserving victim of adversity, the other for one

like ourselves (pity for the undeserving, fear for one like
ourselves); so the outcome will be neither pitiable nor
fearful. This leaves, then, the person in-between these
cases. Such a person is so1neone not preeminent in virtue
and justice, and one who falls into adversity not through
evil and depravity, but through some kind of error;a and
one belonging to the class of those who enjoy great
renown and prosperity, such as Oedipus, Thyestes, b and
eminent men from such lineages. The well-made plot,
then, ought to be singlec rather than double, as some
maintain, with a change not to prosperity from adversity,
but on the contrary from prosperity to adversity, caused
not by depravity but by a great error of a character either
like that stated, or better rather than worse. (Actual practice too points to this. Originally, the poets recounted any
and every sto!y, but nowadays the finest tragedies are
composed about only a few families, such as Alcmaeon,
Oedipus, Orestes, Meleager, Thyestes, Telephus,d and as
many others as have suffered or perpetrated terrible
things.) So the finest tragedy of which the art permits follows this structure. Which is why the same mistakee is
h T.,

King of Mycenae, was deceived by his brother, Atreus,

into eating his own children; he also committed unwitting incest
with his daughter, Pelopia. Cf. OCD s.v. Atreus.
c The same Greek adj. as "simple" in ch. X; but the context
dictates a separate sense here.
d Alcmaeon: see on 53b24.
Oedipus and Orestes: see e.g. ch. XI. Meleager: killed by the
agency of his mother, Althaea, after he had killed her brother( s).
Thyestes: see on 53all. Telephus: Ar. may have in mind his
unwitting killing of his uncles; cf. OCD s.v.
e As made by those who prefer double plots (53al3).

71

ARISTOTLE
25

30

ort rovro Dp(j. v rat~ rpaycpDtat~ Kat 1 ai 7roAAat

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35

1453b
XIV

ro

Kat ai Knebel: Kat A: ai B

2 OL

72

av Bonitz: av oi AB

POETICS 14

XIV

made by those who complain that Euripides does this in

his plays, and that mosta end in adversity. For this, as
explained, is the right way. And the greatest indication of
this is that in theatrical contests such plays are found the
most tragic, if successfully managed; and Euripides, even
if he does not arrange other details well, is at least found
the most tragic of the poets. Second-best is the structure
held the best by some people: the kind with a double
structure like the Odyssey and with opposite outcomes
for good and bad characters. It is thought to be best
because of the weakness of audiences: the poets follow,
and pander to the taste of, the spectators. Yet this is not
the pleasure to expect from tragedy, but is more appropriate to comedy, where those who are deadliest enemies in
the plot, such as Orestes and Aegisthus,h exit at the end as
new friends, and no one dies at anyone's hands.
Now, what is fearful and pitiable can result from
spectacle,c but also from the .actual structure of events,
which is the higher priority and the aim of a superior
poet. For the plot should be so structured that, even
without seeing it performed, the person who hears the
events that occur experiences horrord and pity at what
Or, on a different textual reading, "many"; it is anyway
unclear why Eur. should be singled out for such criticism.
b Lover of Clytemnestra, Orestes' mother, with whom he
plotted to kill her husband, Agamemnon. Ar. envisages a burlesque treatment which avoids the usual revenge killing of
Aegisthus by Orestes.
c See on 49b33.
d Here, and only here, Ar. uses a verb which literally means to
"shudder" with fear.
a

73

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Soph. OT, as usual; Ar. may have in mind recitation (a common Greek practice), rather than mere plot summary.
a

74

POETICS 14

comes about (as one would feel when hearing the plot of
the Oedipus). a To create this effect through spectacle has
little to do with the poet's art, and requires material
resources.h Those who use spectacle to create an effect
not of the fearful but only of the sensational have nothing
at all in common with tragedy, as it is not every pleasure
one should seek from tragedy, but the appropriate kind.
And since the poet should create the pleasure which
comes from pity and fear through mimesis, obviously this
should be built into the events.
Let us, then, take up the question of what sorts of incidents strike us as terrible or pitiable. Now, such actions
must occur between friends,c enemies, or neutrals. Well,
if enemy acts towards enemy, there is nothing pitiable in
either the deed or the prospect of it, except for the
sufferingd as such; nor if the parties are neutrals. What
tragedy must.seek are cases where the sufferings occur
within relationships, such as brotper and brother, son and
father, mother and son, son and mother-when the one
kills (or is about to kill) the other, or commits some other
such deed. Now, one cannot break up the transmitted
stories (I mean, e.g., Clytemnestra's death at Orestes'
hands, e and Eriphyle's at Alcmaeon's), f but the poet
should be inventive as well as making good use of traditional stories. Let me explain more clearly what I mean
by "good use." First, the action can occur as in the early
Cf. the final sentence of ch. VI.
c Philoi, "friends," here embraces all (esp. kin) who share
strong personal or social ties.
d Defined at the end of ch. XI.
e See on 53a37.
fA. killed his mother (in different versions) either accidentally (in Astydamas, 53b33), or to avenge his father, Amphiaraus.
b

75

ARISTOTLE
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3 To Theod. Rentius, Bonitz: Tov AB

Medea's deliberate killing of her children, in Eur.'s play, was

probably an innovation in the myth.
h Astydamas junior, active 370s-340s; OCD s.v., TrGF I no.
60.
c Apparently a variant title of Soph.'s Odysseus Akanthoplex,
a

76

POETICS 14

poets who made the agents act in knowledge and cognisance (as Euripides too made Medea kill her children).a
Alternatively, the agents can commit the terrible deed,
but do so in ignorance, then subsequently recognise the
relationship, as with Sophocles' Oedipus: here, of course,
the deed is outside the play, but cases within the tragedy
are, for instance, Alcmaeon in Astydamas,h or Telegonus
in Odysseus Wounded. c This leaves a thirdd possibility,
when the person is on the point of unwittingly committing something irremediable, but recognises it before
doing so. These are the only patterns; either the action is
or is not executed, and by agents who either know or do
not know its nature. Of these, the worst is for someone to
be about to act knowingly, and yet not do so: this is both
repugnante and untragic (since it lacks suffering). That is
why no one makes such plots, or only rarely, for instance
with Haemon.and Creon in Antigone/ Next worst is execution of the deed.g Better is the act done in ignorance,
and followed by recognition: there is nothing repugnant
here, and the recognition is thrilling. But best is the last
option:h I mean, for example, in Cresphontesi Merope is
in which Telegonus, son of Odysseus by Circe, unwittingly killed
his father in combat.
d But Ar.'s first possibility, at 27-9, concealed another (about
to act in ignorance, yet failing to do so: see 37-8), yielding four
e Cf. 52b36.
types altogether.
fAt Soph. Ant. 1226-34 the messenger relates Haemon's
abortive attempt to kill his father.
g I.e. in full knowledge.
h Often thought to contradict ch. XIII; yet Ar. sees great
scope for pity and fear in narrowly averted catastrophes.
i Eur.'s: M. recognised her son when on the very point of
killing him in his sleep.

77

ARISTOTLE

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78

POETICS 15

about to kill her son, but recognises him in time; likewise

with sister and brother in Iphigeneia;a and in Helleb the
son recognises his mother when about to hand her over.
Hence, as I said previously, not many families provide
subjects for tragedies. In their experiments, it was not art
but chance that made the poets discover how to produce
such effects in their plots; thus they are now obliged to
tum to the families which such sufferings have befallen.
Enough, then, has now been said about the structure of
events and the required qualities of plots.
XV
As regards characters, four things should be aimed
at-first and foremost, that they be good. c Characterisation appears when, as said earlier, d speech or action
reveals the nature of a moral choice; and good character
when the choice is good. Good character exists in each
class of person: there is a good woman and good slave,
even if the first of these is an inferior class, the other
wholly paltry~ The second aim is appropriateness: there is
courage of character, but it is inappropriate for a woman
to be courageous or clever~ in this way. The third aim is
likeness, f which is distinct from making the character
good and appropriate as indicated. Fourth is consistency:
even if the subject represented is someone inconsistent,
and such character is presupposed, he should still be conEur. IT 727 ff.
b Play unknown.
c Since "elevated" characters are a defining feature of
tragedy; cf. esp. 48al6-18.
d 50b8-10; in fact, the earlier definition was narrower, mentioning only "speech."
e Character encompasses intellectual virtues; cf. Eth. Nic. VI.
f As the rest of the sentence suggests, likeness in basic
humanity: cf. "like us" at e.g. 48a5-6.
a

79

ARISTOTLE

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b A dithyramb by Timotheus (see on 48al5), on the theme of
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the same work.
a

80

POETICS 15

sistently inconsistent. An example of unnecessary

wickedness of character is Menelaus in Orestes;a of inapt
and inappropriate character, Odysseus' dirge in Scylla,b
and the speech of Melanippe;c of inconsistency, the Iphigeneia at Au lis (since the girl who beseeches bears no
resemblance to her later self). d With character, precisely
as in the structure of events, one should always seek
necessity or probability-so that for such a person to say
or do such things is necessary or probable, and the
sequence of events is also necessary or probable.
e( Clearly the denouementsf of plots should issue from the
plot as such, and not from a deus ex machina as in Medeag
and the scene of departure in the Iliad. h The deus ex
machina should be employed for events outside the
drama-preceding events beyond human knowledge, or
subsequent events requiring prediction and announcement; for we .ascribe to the gods the capacity to see all
things. There should be nothing _irrationaF in the events;
if there is, it should lie outside the play, as with Sophocles'
OedipusJ) Since tragedy is mimesis of those superior
In Eur. Melanippe the Wise, frs. 480-88 Nauck; the heroine's speech showed knowledge of intellectual matters (cf.
"clever," 54a24).
d Eur. IA 1211 ff, 1368 ff.
e I place in parenthesis some remarks which are, at the least,
digressive, and perhaps misplaced.
f The term lusis will be technically defined in ch. XVIII; its
use here is comparable, though perhaps not identical.
g Medea escapes in the Sun's chariot: Eur. Med. 1317 ff.
h Il. 2.155 ff: Athena's intervention prevents the Greeks from
abandoning the war.
i I.e. grossly contrary to what is plausible or intelligible.
jAr. alludes to Oedipus' ignorance about the death of Laius:
cf. 60a29-30.
c

81

ARISTOTLE

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opyti\OV~ Kat PC!: VfLOV~ Kat Tai\Aa Ta Totavra EXOVra~ E1TL Twv T]Owv Totovrov~ ovTa~ E1TtEtKE'i~ 1TOtE'iv,
otov rov 'AxtA.A.a dya0ov 1 Kat. 1TapaDEtyJLa 2 a-KAYJporYJTO~ ~'OJLYJpo~. TavTa 8~ 8taTYJpE'iv, Kat. 1rpo~
/
'
'(: avayKYJ~
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\
{) ova-a~
/
rovrot~
Ta' 3 1rapa' Ta~
Es
aKOI\OV
' {) YJO"Et~ TYJ"" 1TOtY}'TtKYJ"
"" Kat' yap
' KaT ' aVTa~
' ' EO"TtV
,,
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/

15

""

'~~
/
\/
(
EKOEOOJLEVOt~ 1\0yot~ tKaVW~.

XVI
20

25

'A vayvwpta-t~
/

' 'Tt/ JLEV

/ EO"TtV,
'
,,
/
EtpYJTat
1TpOTEpov
EL8YJ 8 dvayvwpia-Ew~, 1TpW'TYJ JLEV Tj aTEXVOTUTYJ KaL
1TltUrTYJ XPWVTat 8t' a1Topiav, ~ 8ul. TWV O"YJJLELWV.
rovTwv 8 ra JLEV CFVJLcPVTa, oiov eeltoyxYJv ~v
cpopova-t rYJYEVE'i~" ~ aa-TEpa~ OLOV~ EV T~ 8vEO"TYJ
/
~' ' ./
/
' EV
' TCfJ""
K apKtVO~,
Ta' 0
E1TtK'TYJTa, Kat' TOVTWV
Ta' JLEV
/
1'
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/
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/
1'
'
~/
a-WJLa'Tt,
OtOV
OVI\at,
Ta' OE
EK'TO~, OtOV Ta 1TEptoEpata
KaL. otov v TV Tvpo'i 8ul. ri}~ a-KacpYJ~. Ea-T tv 8 KaL.
'TOVTOt~ xpi}a-Oat ~ f3ATtOV ~ XE'ipov, otov '08va-~

oE

1 ayaOov

B: ayaOwv A: 'AyaOwv rec.

7Tapa8Hyf.La a-KAYJp. ante oiov habent AB: transpos. Lobel
3
rec.:
AB

Ta

82

Tas-

See 48al7-18.

POETICS 16

XVI

to us,a poets should emulate good portrait painters, who

render personal appearance and produce likenesses, yet
enhance people,s beauty. Likewise the poet, while showing irascible and indolent people and those with other
such character traits, should make them nonetheless
decent, as for example Homer made Achilles good though
an epitome of harshness. These things are to be watched,
as also are points arising from the perceptions necessarily
attending the art of poetry: b one can commit many errors
in respect of these; I have discussed them sufficiently in
my published discourses.c
The definition of recognition was stated earlier. d As for
its kinds, first is the least artistic and the one used the
most from uninventiveness: recognition through tokens.
Some tokens are congenital, as with ~~the spear the Earthborn bear,,e or stars like those Carcinusf uses in Thyestes;
others are acquired, and can be divided into the bodily,
such as scars, and external, suc;h as necklaces or the boat
in Tyro .g Even these things can be put to better or worse
The sense of this obscure clause has never been cogently
elucidated; "points arising from" might alternatively mean "contraventions of."
c Presumably in the dialogue On Poets: cf. the Introduction.
d Ch. XI.
e Quotation from an unknown tragedy (fr. adesp. 84 Nauck):
the "spear" is a birthmark of the "earthborn" men sown from
dra?on's teeth by Cadmus.
The 4th-cent. tragedian of this name, OCD s.v. (2); the ref.
may be to a play elsewhere called Aerope: TrG F I 210-11.
gIn Soph.'s Tyro, T. identified her children by the boat in
which they had been placed as infants.
b

83

ARISTOTLE
CTEV~ 8u! rij~ ovA.ij~ aAAw~ aveyvwptCTO?'] V1TO ri}~

rpocpov Kat aAAw~ V1TO TWV CTv{3orwv ELCTL yap at

'
/
,
/
f.LEV
1TUTTEW~
EVEKa aTEXVOTEpat,
Kat' atc: TOLUVTat
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t:/
'
7TaCTat, atc: OE
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1TEpt1TETEta~,
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8u! ri}~ E1TUTToAij~, EKELVO~ 8 avro~ A.yet
{3ovAETat o 1TOL?JTTJ~ aAA' OVX o f.LV(}o~ Du) Tt f.yyv~ rij~
ELP?Jf.LEV?J~ af.Laprta~ ECTTLV, f.~ijv yap av EVLa Kat
E.veyKe'iv. Ka'i E.v r(i> !ocpoKAov~ T?JpE'i i} rij~ KEpKt8o~ cpwv~. i} 2 TPLTTJ Ota f.LV~f.L?J~, r(i> alcr0cr8at rt
l86vra, WCT1TEp i} f.v Kv1rptot~ ro'i~ ~tKatoyvov~,
l8wv yap ri}v ypacpi}v EKAavcrev, Ka'i i} E.v 'AA.Kivov
a1ToAo.y<p, aKOVWV yap TOV KtOaptCTTOV Kat f.LV?'}CT0Et~
EDaKpVCTEV, oOev aveyv(J)ptCTfJT]crav. 'TE'TUPT?'J 8 i} EK
CTvAAoytCTf.LOV, oiov E.v Xo?Jcpopot~, ort Of.LOto~ rt~
EA~Av8ev, Of.LOLO~ 8 ov8e'i~ dA.A.' ~ 'OpECT'TTJ~, OV'TO~
apa EA~AvOev. Ka'i i} IToA.v8ov 'TOV crocptcr'TOV 1TEpt
~~

1"'1

1"'1

30

1"'1

35

1455a

1 'Opa-rYJ~ A: om. B
2
1] rptTYJ Spengel (rptTYJ

1] rec.): 1}rot ri} AB

Od. 19.386 ff (Eurycleia sees the scar when washing Od.),

21.205 ff (Od. shows it to the swineherds for proof).
b I.e. the case of Odysseus and Eurycleia (last note); .. Bath
Scene" was a standard title for this episode (cf. 60a26): the
Homeric poems were not yet divided into books.
c See on 52b6.
a

84

POETICS 16

use (e.g. through his scar Odysseus was differently recognised by his nurse and the swineherds),a since recognitions for the sake of proof, and all of this type, are less
artistic, but those linked to reversal, like the one in the
Bath Scene, b are superior. The second kind are those
contrived by the poet, and hence inartistic. For example,
Orestes in Iphigeneia causes recognition of his identity;
Iphigeneia reveals herself by the letter, but Orestes himself says what the poet, not the plot, wants him to:c so it is
close to the fault I described, as he might even have carried some tokens. Also the voice of the shuttle in Sophocles' Tereus. d The third kind is through memory, when
the sight of something brings awareness, like the case in
Dicaeogenes'e Cyprians (on seeing the painting he
cried), and the one in Odysseus' tale to Alcinous (on hearing the singer he was reminded and wept)/ whence they
were recognised. Fourth is recognition by reasoningsuch as the inference in Choephori that someone like her
has come, no one is like her except Orestes, therefore he
has come.g And the recognition used by Polyidush the
d Philomela

used her weaving to reveal to her sister, Procne,

that she had been raped by the latter's husband, Tereus.
e A late 5th cent. tragedian (TrGF I no. 52): work and context
unknown.
f Od. 8.521 ff: Od. weeps on hearing Demodocus sing of the
sack of Troy.
g Electra's reasoning at Aesch. Cho. 168 ff.
h Identity obscure; a dithyrambic or tragic poet of the same
name is known (TrGF I 248-9). P.'s work may have been a showpiece oration discussing or fictionalising the reunion of Orestes
and Iphigeneia; cf. 55b10-11.

85

ARISTOTLE

rfj~ 'Icf>uyEvEia~ ElKo~ yap EcPYJ 1 rov 'Opia-TYJV a-v'A-

10

'Aoyia-aa-Oat OTt ij r' d8E'Ae/>~ ETV0YJ Ka'i avT~ O"VJ.L{3aivEt OvEa-Oac Ka'i v T~ 8Eo8EKTov Tv8EZ, oTt
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7Tpayp_,aTwv, Tfj~ EK7TA~~Ew~ ytyvoJ.LEVYJ~ 8t' ElKoTwv,
oiov f.v T~ ~ocf>oKAEov~ Ol87To8t Ka'i TD 'Ie/>tyEvEiq_
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15

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20

XVII

''

ecpYJ B Arab.: om. A

(JeaTpov AB: OaTepov Hermann

3 EV'TELVELV
'
'C OV B: Om. A
'TO~
4 yvwa-ea-Oat A: evTeivetv B
5 8t' AB: 8-ry Tyrwhitt
I

86

'

""'

'

POETICS 17

XVII

sophist in Iphigeneia's case: it was probable, he said, that

Orestes should reason that his sister had been sacrificed,
and his fate was to be sacrificed too. Also in Theodectes'a
Tydeus, the reflection that having come to find his son he
was doomed himself. Again, the instance in the
Phineidae:b when the women saw the place, they inferred
it was their destiny to die there, where they had also been
exposed. There is also compound recognition which
depends on the audience's mistaken reasoning, as in
Odysseus the False Messenger:c that he and no one else
could bend the bow is contrived by the poet and a
premise, even if he said he would recognise the bow
which he had not seen; but to have him recognised by this
means~ when he was expected to cause recognition in the
other way, involves false reasoning. Best of all is recognition ensuing from the events themselves, where the emotional impa.ct comes from a probable sequence, as in
Sophocles' Oedipus and the Iphigeneia (where it is probable she should want to entrust a letter).d For only such
recognitions do without contrived tokens and necklaces.
Second-best are those by reasoning.
One should construct plots, and work them out in diction, with the material as much as possible in the mind's
eye. In this way, by seeing things most vividly, as if present at the actual events, one will discover what is appoRhetorician, tragedian, and friend of Ar.'s; OCD s.v. Nothing is known of this play (TrG F I 233).
b I.e. the sons of Phineus (subject of tragedies by Aesch. and
Soph.); but the ref. is opaque (TrGF II 22), and we cannot identify the women mentioned.
c Apparently an unknown tragedy (TrGF II 15), related to the
events of Hom. Od. bk. 21; the following clauses are irredeemably dark.
d Eur. IT 578 ff.
a

87

ARISTOTLE
25

~~
.,,
\
(} /
~
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Kat' YJKtCTTa
av
1\aV
avot Ta' V7rEVaVTta.

Tovrov

o f.nETtfLaTo

KapKivcp.

0 IL~

tEpov dvriEL,

o yap

""
lJ'Y}fLEtOlJ

~E'

'AfLcf>uipao~ f.~

opwvTa l f.AavOavEv,

E71"L 8 T1j~

CTKYJV~~ f.~f-rrEa-Ev 8va-xEpavavTwv Tovro rwv 0EaTwv.

~~

ocra
30

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ovvaTov KaL

TOL~

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vov 7rL0avwTaTOL yap dno Tfj~ 2 avrfj~ cf>va-Ew~ Ot EV

TOt~ naOEcriv ELCTLV, Kat XELfLaLVEt

xaAE7raLVEL

0 opyL,OfLEVO~

0 XELfLa'OfLEVO~

aAY]OtvwTaTa.

Kat

DLO Evc/>v-

ov~ TJ 71"0tYJTLKTJ ECTTtV ~ 3 fLaVLKOV" TOVTWV yap OL fLEV

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1455b

7rE1TOLYJfLEVOV~

~I"\'''
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KaL aVTOV 7rOLOVVTa EKTLI"\

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0Ecr0aL KaOoAov, ElO' ovTw~ E7rELcro8tovv Kat napa~

1\EYW OE

TEtVELV.

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av

(}

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oiov Tfj~ 'Ic/>LyEvEia~ Tv0ELCTYJ~ TLVO~ KOPYJ~ Ka'i dcf>a-

vLcrOE(CTYJ~ a8T]Aw~ TOt~ OvcracrLV, i8pvv0Eia-YJ~

aAAYJV xwpav, EV

nVOJ.!-0~ ~v TOV~ ~EVOV~ OvELV Tij

~
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8 EL~

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T~ d8EAc/J~ crvv{3YJ f.AOEtV Tfj~ tEpEia~, TO 8 OTt

avEtAEV 0 0Eo~ 4 f.AOEtV EKEL Kat f.c/>' 0 Tt 8 E~W TOV
opwvra TOV Beari}v AB: TOV e. sed. Butcher
r1}~ avr1}r; AB: avr1}r; r1}r; Tynvhitt
3 ~ AB: 11-aAAov ~ Tyrwhitt
4 post Beo~ seq. 8uf rt-va alriav E.gw rov Ka86A.ov in AB: Sui
. . . KaB. sed. Christ
1

See on 54b23. Both play and situation referred to are

unknown; TrGF I 211-12.
b The Greek verb implies that the work was hissed off stage;
cf. 56a18-19, 59b31.
a

88

POETICS 17

site and not miss contradictions. An indication of this is

the criticism that was made of Carcinus:a Amphiaraus was
returning from a shrine, which was n1issed by one who
failed to visualise it; in performance the audience was
annoyed at this and the play foundered. b So far as possible, one should also work out the plot in gestures, since a
natural affinity makes those in the grip of emotions the
most convincing, and the truest distress or anger is conveyed by one who actually feels these things.c Hence
poetry is the work of a gifted person, ord of a rnanic: of
these types, the former have versatile imaginations, the
latter get carried away. With both ready-made stories and
his own inventions, e the poet should lay out the generalf
structure, and only then develop the sequence of
episodes. For what I mean by contemplating the general
structure, take the Iphigeneia.g A girl was sacrificed, and
vanished without trace from her sacrificers; settled in a
different country, where it wa~ a custom to sacrifice
strangers to the goddess, she became priestess of this rite.
Later, the priestess> brother happened to arrive there
(that the god>s oracle told him to go there, and for what
cAr. implies that acting out a role will help to induce the concomitant feelings.
d A textual emendation would make this .. rather than," on the
grounds that .. manic" sounds too passionate for the psychology of
composition posited by Ar.
e Cf. 5lbl5-26.
f K.atholou, the same term as .. universal" at 5lb8-9: the sense
is not different here (it refers to the kinds of event), though its
emphasis is more limited than in ch. IX.
g Eur. IT.

89

ARISTOTLE

10

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o8ta, otov

15

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20

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a'A'Aa E1TELa-OCLa.

XVIII
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90

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ov Arab.: om. AB

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30

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***

8Eo-

T]

Tov

'A va-t-~ 2 8' ~

POETICS 18

II

purpose, is outside the plot). Captured after his arrival,

and on the point of being sacrificed, he caused his recognition-whether as in Euripides, or as Polyidusa designed
it, by saying (as was probable) that it was not just his sister's but his own fate too to be sacrificed-and hence was
rescued. The next stage is to supply names and devise the
episodes; but care must be taken to keep the episodes
integral: thus, in Orestes' case, the mad fit that caused his
capture, and his rescue by purification. b Now, in plays the
episodes are concise, but epic gains length from them.
The Odyssey's story is not long: a man is away from home
many years; he is watched by Poseidon, and isolated;
moreover, affairs at home are such that his property is
consumed by suitors, and his son conspired against; but
he returns after shipwreck, allows some people to recognise him, and launches an attack which brings his own
survival and his enemies' destruction. That is the essential core; the rest is episodes.
Every tragedy has both a complicationc and denouement: the complication comprises events outside the play,
and often some of those within it; the remainder is the
denouement. I define the complication as extending
from the beginningd to the furthest point before the
transformation to prosperity or adversity; and the denouement as extending from the beginning of the transformation till the end. Thus, in Theodectes' Lynceuse
the complication covers the preceding events, the
See on 55a6.
hIT 281 ff, 1029 ff.
c Not to be confused with the "complex" plot of ch. X etc.
d Of the imagined "action," not necessarily of the play.
e TrGF I 232; cf. 52a27-9. Theodectes: see on 55a9.

Ava-ts 8' T] rec., Arab.: 8T) (om. Ava-ts) AB

91

ARISTOTLE
a1ro r~~ alrtacrEw~ rov 8avarov fLEXP" rov rf.Aov~.

rpaycp8ia~

EL81J ELCTt 'TECTCTapa ( rocravra yap Kat

ra fLEP1J EAEX()1J ), ~ fLEV 7TE7TAEYJ.LEV1J, ~~ 'TO oAov

'
'
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7TEpt7TE'TELa
Kat'

~
OLOV
OL~I 'TE

1456a

A~'

LaV'TE~

m() LW'TLOE~
/ ~
Kat'

'

'
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Kat' OLc

'I ~LOVE~,
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1J' () LK1J,
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atc

II 1}1\EV~
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c
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'TE'Taprov
1Jc 1 a'lTI\1],

oiov aL 'TE <I>opKi8E~ Kat

0 ITpop.,1]8Ev~

~8ov. p.,alttcrra fLEV oilv a1Tavra

8Et

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EL OE
fL1J, 'Ta fLEYLCT'Ta Kat 1TI\ELCT'Ta,
'

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,./.,.

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VVV CTVKOtpaV'TOVCTLV

~'
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1Je OE
7Ta 8'YJ'TLK1J,

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Kat ocra

EV

7TEtpacr8at EXELV,
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ai\1\W~

'TE Kat
'

c
W~
'

YEYOVO'TWV yap

Ka()' EKacrrov p.,f.po~ dya()wv 7TOL1Jrwv, EKacrrov rov

l8iov dya{)oiJ a~LOVCTL 'TOV EVa V7TEp{3aAAELV.

8iKaLOV

~'
~/
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'
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\
OE
Kat' rpaycpotaV
ai\1\'Y]V
Kat' 'T'Y]V
aV'T'Y]V
1\EYELV
ov8Evt 2 w~ r0 p.,v{)qJ 'TOV'TO 8f., 6Jv ~ avr~ 1TAOK~ Kat
Avert~-. 1roAAot 8 1TAf.tavrE~ Ell Avovcrt KaKw~ 8E'L 8
'1 ,./.,. 3 aEt
' ' KparEtcr
""' 0at . . XP1J' oE
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}/
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07TEp ELP1JTat
'lTOI\1\a/

10

KL~ fLEJ.LV~cr()at Ka.t p.,~ 7TOLELV E1T01TOttKov crvcrr1Jp.,a

~/
,
'
rpaycpotaV-E7T01TOLLKOV

~'
\/
\ / 8OVOE
1\EYW
'TO' 1TOAVfLV
oiov EL 'TL~ 'TOV 'T~~ 'IA.ta8o~ oAov 7TOLOL p.,v8ov. EKEL
fLEV yap 8La 'TO fL~KO~ Aap.,f3avEL ra fLEP1J 'TO 7rpE7TOV

~ U1TAij Bursian: OYJ~ B: OYJ~ A: ol/Jts Bywater

ovDEVL w~ Zeller: ovSev L(TW~ AB
3 af.Lcpw aEt KporEt(J"Oat A (KparEt(J"Oat Vahlen): Uf.LcpOrEpa
aVTtKpOTEL(J"Oat B: afL~OrEpa aprLKpOTEt(TOat Immisch
1

This claim (perhaps spurious) does not match the enumeration of components at 50a7-14. Cf. 59b8-9.
b "Suffering" as defined in ch. XI. Plays about Ajax, such as
Soph.'s, would centre on his suicide; those about lxion, on his
punishment on the wheel in Hades.
a

92

POETICS 18

seizure of the child, and again their * * * , while the

denouement runs from the accusation of murder to the
end. There are four types of tragedy (as that is the number of components we mentioned) :a the complex, whose
essence is reversal and recognition; the kind rich in
suffering,h such as those about Ajax and Ixion; the character-based, such as Phthiotidesc and Peleus;d and, fourth,
<the simple>,e such as Phorcides, Prometheus, and those
set in Hades. Now, ideally one should strive to have all
qualities; failing that, the best and the most, especially in
view of current censure of the poets: because there have
been poets good in various respects, people expect the
individual to surpass the special quality of each of them.
It is right to count plays as different or the same principally by plot: that is, "the same" means having the same
complication and denouement. Many poets handle the
complication 'Yell, the denouement badly: but constant
proficiency in both is needed. As noted several times, the
poet must remember to avoid turning a tragedy into an
epic structure (by "epic,, I mean with a multiple plot), say
by dramatising the entire plot of the Iliad. In epic,
because of its length, the sections take on an apt magnitude, but in plays itf goes quite against expectation.
Women of Phthia, perhaps Sop h.'s play of this name: its subject is unknown; TrGF IV 481-2.
d Both Soph. and Eur. wrote plays about P., father of Achilles.
e The text is badly damaged here; the passage needs a ref. to
the "simple" tragedy (ch. X, cf. 59b9). Phorcides, "Daughters of
Phorcys" (guardians of the Gorgons), may be Aesch.'s work of
that name (TrGF III 361: a satyr play?), as may Prometheus: but
we cannot be sure.
f I.e. a plot of epic scope.
c

93

r
ARISTOTLE

15

/
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', a1TOfJatVEt.
, a /
,. . 0,
~ /
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OO"OL 1TEpcrtV 'I\1\LOV
7ToL7Jcrav Kat p.~ KaTa p.epo~ W(J1TEp Evpt1TLDYJ~, ~ 1
N u5{3YJV Kat fL~ W(J1Tp Al(JxvA.o~, ~ EK1TL1TTOV(JtV ~
,. . '
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EV
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~~
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Kat TOV xopov 0
EVa OEt
V1TOI\afLfJaVELV
'TWV V1TOKpLTWV, Kat p.optov EivaL TOV oAov Kat crvvaywv~'E(J{}at., p.~ W(J1TEp EvpL1TLDYJ dA.A.' W(J1TEp !ocPoKAE'i. TOL~ DE AOL1TOL~ Ta ~OOf.LEVa 3 OV0Ev 4 p.aAAov
'TOV p.vfJov ~ aAAYJ~ 7p~ycyDta~ E(J'TtV" Dto p.{3oALp.a
~~~
/
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c aVTO~ 'A_ya/() WVO~ 'TOV,. . TOLOVTOV.
/
([-OOV(JtV
1TpWTOV
aps
Kat'TOL Tt DLacPEPEL ~ p.f36A.t-p.a 1/:DEtv ~ El pi}crLv ~
\ \
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ITEpt fLEV o:Ov 'TWV aAAwv El8wv 5 ELPYJTaL, Aot1TOV 8E
t:l

20

~'

,...

25

30

'

~~

XIX

t:l \

t:/

'

~~

'

'

t:l

t:l \

~add. Vahlen

r<r Bav11-aa-r<r Castelvetro: Bav11-aa-rwc; AB

cJ,8ofLEVa Arab.: 8t8ofLEVa AB
4 ov8v Arab. (Vahlen): om. AB

94

El8wv B: -ry8' A

IX

POETICS 19

An indication of this is that those who have treated the

entire fall of Troy, rather than part of it (like Euripides), a
or Niobe's whole story (instead of what Aeschylus did),b
either founderc or do badly in competition; even Agathon
foundered through just this flaw. d In reversals and simple
structures of events, poets aim for what they want by
means of the awesome:e this is tragic and arouses
fellow-feeling. f This occurs when an adroit but wicked
person is deceived (like Sisyphus),g or a brave but unjust
person is worsted. These things are even probable, as
Agathon puts it,h since it is probable that many things
should infringe probability. The chorus should be treated
as one of the actors; it should be a part of the whole and
should participate,i not as in Euripides but as in Sophocles. With the other poets, the songs are no more integral
to the plot than to another tragedy-hence the practice,
started by Agathon, of singing interlude odes. Yet what is
the difference. between singing interlude odes and transferring a speech or whole episode from one work to
another?
JX
The other components have now been discussed; it
In Trojan Women.
h We do not know what was distinctive about Aesch.'s treatment of Niobe's suffering (cf. OCD s.v.); TrGF III 265-80.
c Cf. on 55a28.
d Ref. unknown; for Agathon, see 51 b21.
e A difficult sentence; but Ar. apparently allows that "awe"
(see on 52a4) can be achieved by simple as well as complex plots.
f Cf. on 52b38.
g We cannot identify the stories/plays about Sisyphus (OC D
s.v.) which Ar. has in mind.
h Fr. 9 TrGF (I 164); see Ar.'s quotation at Rh. 1402a9-13.
i Sc. "in the action.''
a

95

r
ARISTOTLE
~

\ /(; EW~ KaL'1

1TEpL' 1\E~

OLaVOLa~

'
EL1TELV.

Ta fJ.-EV OVV 1TEpL

1"'1

'

'

'";'

'

r~v 8uivot-av E.v TOt~ 1TEpt PYJTOpt-Kij~ KEia-()w TOVTO

35

yap r8t-ov p.,aA.A.ov EKELVYJ~ Tij~ p.,E()68ov. ea-TL

8 KaTa
OEL 1Tapa-

T~V 8ufvoLav TUVTa, oa-a V1TO TOV Aoyov

l"''

~'

CTKEVaa- YJVUL.

'

fJ.-EpYJ OE TOVTWV TO TE a1TOOELKVVVaL

()

\ /
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( '?
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KaL' TO' 1\VELV
KaL' TO' 1Ta/ () YJ 1Tapaa-KEVal:,ELV
OLOV E/\EOV

1456b

~ cp6(3ov ~ opy~v Kat oa-a TOLaVTa) Kat ETL p.,eyEOoc;

Kat fLLKPOTYJTa~. DijAov

oTL Kat E.v TOL~ 1rpayp.,aa-t-v

DE

U1TO TWV avTWV lDEWV DEL xpija-()aL OTav ~ EAEELVa ~

DE t-va

~ fLEyaA.a ~ ElKoTa DEYJ 1Tapaa-KEva,Et-v 1T A~v

TOO"'OVTOV Dt-acpepEL, OTL Ta fJ.-EV DEL cpatvEa-OaL avEV

Dt-Daa-KaAia~, ra De E.v Tip A.oycp v1ro Tov A.eyovTo~

/'(
(}
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1Tapaa-KEva~:,Ea- at- KaL 1rapa TOV Aoyov yt-yvEa- at-.
/

TL yap av ELYJ TOV A.eyovTO~ pyov, EL cpatVOLTO

~
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10

LV EV

fLEV ECTTLV Ei8o~ 0Ewpa~ TU a-x~p.,aTa Tij~ AEtEw~,

EO"'TLV ElDevaL Tijc;

n
(.\

V1ToKpLTLKij~ Kat TOV T~v TOLaVTYJV

EXOVTO~ apxLTEKTOVLK~V, oiov TL EVTOA~ Kat TL EVX~

Kat DL~YYJO"'Lc; Kat a1TELA ~ Kat E.pwTYJO"'L~ Kat a1ToKpLa-Lc;
~'\
Kat EL~~ TL a/\1\0
TOLOVTOV. 1Tapa yap TYJV TOVTWV yvw'

1"'1

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O"'LV ~ ayvoLav ovDEV ELc; T~V 1TOLYJTLK~V E1TLTLP.,YJP.,a

0 TL

pETaL

15

Ka'i a~LOV 0"1TOVDij~. TL yap av Tl8 V1T0-

A.a{3oL TJfLapTija-()aL
0"' ( } at

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a IIpwTayopa~ E1TLTLfLfi-, OTL EVXE-

E1TLTaTTEL EL1TWV
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1"'1

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yap KEAEva-at, cpYJa-iv, 1TOLELv Tt ~ p.,~ E1TtTa~i~ E.a-TLv.

OLO 1TapEa-()w w~ aA.A. YJ~ Ka'i ov rij~ 1TOLYJTLKijc; ov
0EWPYJfLa.
1 KaL

96

Hermann: ~ AB

fJ 8ot Vahlen: i]8a AB

POETICS 19

remains to speak about diction and thought. The discussion of thought can be left to my discourses on rhetoric, a
for it is more integral to that enquiry. "Thought" covers
all effects which need to be created by speech: their elements are proof, refutation, the conveying of emotions
(pity, fear, anger, etc.), as well as enhancement and be littlement. It is clear that the same principles should also
be used in the handling of events, when one needs to create impressions of what is pitiable, terrible, important, or
probable-with this difference, that the latter effects
must be evident without direct statement, while the former must be conveyed by the speaker in and through
speech. For what would be the point of the speaker, if the
required effects were evident even without speech? As
for matters of diction, one type of study concerns forms of
utterance (knowledge of which belongs to the art of
deliveryb and the person with this mastery )-namely,
what is a command, prayer, narrative, threat, question,
reply, and all the like. Knowledge or ignorance of these
things can support no serious criticism of poetry. Why
should anyone think it is a fault where Protagoras criticises Homer for purporting to pray but giving a command
by saying "Sing, goddess, of the wrath ... "?c (To bid
someone do or not do something, says Protagoras, is a
command.) So, let this study be put aside as part of some
other art, not poetry.
a Whether

or not this means the surviving Rhetoric,

"thought" (dianoia) certainly denotes the general sphere of argumentation in that work (Rh. 1403a36).
b The vocal art of the actor (hupokrites) and orator: cf. 57 a21,
with Rh. 111.1.
c We do not know where P. (c. 490-20) made his pedantic
criticism of Il. 1.1.

97

ARISTOTLE

TYJ~

XX
20

1"1

XELOV
1"1

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Tao~' EfFTt Ta /LEpYJ, fFTOt-

OE 1\ES EW~ a'1TafFYJ~

\

t:

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a-v'A'Aaf3~
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7TTWfFt~ 1\0yo~.

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'3'
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fFTOtXEtOV /LEV OVV
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o/WVYJ
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!)/
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o/WVYJV
aKova-TYJV,
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ytVO/LEVOV aKOVfFTOV, OtOV TO
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3/
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ETt
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Kat' T(f! /LEa-cp 7TEpt WV
Ka (}'
1"1

35

'

EKaa-Tov v To'i~ IL~TptKo'i~ 7rpoa-1}KEt 0EwpE'iv. a-v'A'Aaf3~ 8 Ea-Ttv cpwv~ aa-YJILO~ a-vv8ET~ ~ dcpwvov KaL
A..
'
\
o/WVYJV
EXOVTo~
Kat yap TO rP avEv TOV A a-VJ\'Aaf3~3 KaL /LETa TOV A, otov TO rP A. d'A'Aa KaL TOVTWV 0EwpiJa-at Ta~ 8tacpopa~ TTJ~ ~LETptKTJ~ a-Ttv.
a-vv8Ea-1Lo~ 8 a-Ttv cpwv~ aa-YJILO~ ~ ovTE KwAvEt
3

'

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1"1

1 (J"vv8Er~

Arab.: (J"VVET~ AB
add. Reiz
3 (J"vA.A.a/3~ KaL AB: (?)ov (J"v'AA.af31}, (J"vA.A.a/3~ DE Arab.
2

ro

What follows, in chs. XX-XXI, is not "stylistics" but an outline of grammatical/linguistic categories.
a

98

XX

POETICS 20
XX

The components of all diction are these:a element,

syllable, connective, noun, verb, conjunction, inflection,
statement. An element is an indivisible vocal sound, but
only one from which a compound sound is naturally
formed: for animals too produce indivisible sounds, none
of which do I term an "element. "h The classes of soundc
are vowel, continuant, d and stop. A vowel is an audiblee
sound without oral contact; a continuant an audible sound
with contact (e.g. s and r); while a stopf (e.g. g and d)
involves contact but in itself produces no sound, and
becomes audible by combination with elements that do
produce a sound. Elements are distinguishable by the
mouth shape and the points of contact; by aspiration
and lack of it; by length and shortness;g and also by
acute, grave, and intermediate accent:h detailed study
of these things belongs to discourses on metre.i A syllable
is a non-significantj sound, compounded of a stop and a
voicedk element: gr is a syllable without a, and also with a
(i.e. gra). But the study of these distinctions too belongs
to metrics. A connective is anon-significant sound which
neither prevents nor creates a single semantic utterance
I.e. animals make some vocal sounds, but these do not combine to produce the syllables and words of language.
c From now on "sound," phone, denotes speech sounds.
d Sometimes termed "semi-vowel."
e Sc. in itself (unlike a stop).
f Also known as "mute."
g Of vowels.
h Pitch accent, not dynamic stress.
i Works which treated phonology within analysis of metrical
patterns; cf. Part. An. 660a8.
j I.e. not a semantic unit.
k I.e. (apparently) vowel or continuant.
h

99

ARISTOTLE
1457a

OVTE 1TOtEt cpwv-ryv fLLav

,./...

,. .,

,./...

,. ., 1

'f'WJJWV, 1TE'f'VKVta

O"YJfLaVTtKTJV EK 1TAeu5vwv

'()

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0"

()

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Kat E1TL TOV fLEO"OV, ~v 2 ILTJ apfLOTTEt

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apxfl Aoyov
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aa-YJfLO~ ~ EK 1TAEtovwv fLEV cpwvwv fLtos O"YJf.LaVTtKwv 5

5

1TOtEtV 1TEcPVKEV fLLav O"YJfLaVTtKTJV cpwvr}v.

8'

EO"TL cpwv-ry UO"YJf.LO~ ~ Aoyov apxTJV ~ TEAO~ ~ 8to-

'
~ \ ,. .,
pto-f.LOV
OYJI\.Ot.

aAAa.

10

ap8pov

~
, ,./... '6 Kat' TO' 1TEpt, Kat' Ta'
OtOJJ
TO' af.L'f't

~ cpwv-ry UO"YJfLO~ ~ OVTE KWAVEt OVT 1TOtEL

cpwv-ryv f.Ltav O"YJfLaVTtKTJV EK 1TAEtovwv cpwvwv, 1TEcpv,..,

'() ()
' , ' ,..., ,,
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,...,
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KVta Tt EO" at Kat E1Tt TWV aKpWV Kat E1Tt TOV fLEO"OV.
,,
~,,
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EJJ

yap TOt~ 8t1TAo'i~ ov XPWf.LEOa w~ Kat aVTO KaO' aVTO

lfYJfLa'ivov, otov f.v T~ 8eo8wpo~ 7 TO 8wpo~ ov O"YJ/Laivet. PTJ!La
~

YJ~

15

'~'
OVOEV

cpwv-ry a-vvBETTJ O"YJfLaVTtKTJ fLETa xpovov

'
fLEpo~

'
e
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-:!
'
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O"YJ.fLatJJEt
Ka ()' aVTO,
W0"1TEp
Kat' E1Tt

TWJJ OVOfLUTWJJ" TO fLEV yap avO pw1TO~ ~ AEVKOV ov

o-YJfLaivEt To 1TOTE, To

(3a8i,Et ~ {3E{3a8tKEv 1rpoa--

,
' TOJJ
' 1TapOVTa
,
,
lfYJfLatVEt
TO' fLEV
XPOVOJJ
TO'

~'

'
TOJJ

1 1TE4>vKvta B: -av A
2 ijv ... fLEa-ov (57a3-10) om. B
3 avTr]v TylWhitt (Lat.): avTov A
4 8r] To[ Bywater: YJTOt A
5 a-YJfLUVTtKwv Robortelli: -ov A
6
afL4> Hartung: cPfLt. A
7 8Eo8wpo<; To 8wpo<; Ritter (Arab.): fJEoDwpcp To 8wpov AB

I.e. connective particles, though the definition is corrupt.

Cf. Rh. 1407a20 ff.
a

100

POETICS 20

from a plurality of sounds, usually placed at the ends or in

the middle of a statement, but not on its own at the start
of one: e.g. men, de, toi, de.a Or a nonsignificant sound
which naturally produces a single semantic utterance
from a plurality of sounds that have a single significance.
A conjunction is a non-significant sound which indicates
the beginning, end, or division of a statement: e.g. amp hi,
peri,b etc. Or a nonsignificant sound which neither prevents nor creates a single semantic utterance from a plurality of sounds, normally placed either at the ends or in
the middle. c A nound is a compound, e significant, nontemporal sound, no part of which is independently significant; for in double nounsf we do not employ any part as
independently significant: e.g. in CCTheodorus" the
"-dorus" part has no meaning.g A verb is a compound, significant sound with a temporal force, but no part of which
is independently significant (as with nouns): ccman" or
"white>> does riot signify time, but ccis walking" or cchas
walked"h additionally signify present and past time,
Exx. of prepositions, which do not at all fit the definition.
This is one of several acute difficulties in the passage.
c The baffling replication of the first definition of connective" points to further textual corruption.
d The term covers adjs. too; cf. 57al6.
e As in the following definitions of verb and statement, "compound" qua consisting of more than one phonological "element";
cf. 56b35.
f Cf. 57a32.
g I.e. no functional meaning (as opp. to etymology, from
doran, "gift") in the use of the name; cf. 57a33 f.
h In Greek, both verbs are single-word inflected forms.
h

101

ARISTOTLE
1TTWO""t8 8' Eo-TtV OVOf.LaTo~ ~ PTJ~La
TO~ ~ f.LEV KaT a 1 To TovTov ~ TovTcp D""YJf.La'ivov Kat

1TapEAYJAv06Ta.

20

oo-a TOtaVTa, ~

KaTa TO EVL ~ 1TOAAols, oiov

av0pw1TOL ~ av0pw1TO~, ~
'

'

.,,

'

DE

KaTa Ta V1TOKptTtKa,

(;

'

'

'Q

~~

.,,

EL8YJ

EO""TLV.

OLOV KaT EpWTYJO""LV YJ E1TtTas LV" TO yap EfJaOtO""EV; YJ

f3a8t'E 1TTWO""t~ PrrJf.LaTO~ KaTa TaVTa Ta

'Aoyo~ 8 cpwvT] a-vvfJETTJ D""YJf.LaVTtKTJ 71~ vta f.LEPYJ

e

f)'

'

'

'

Kau avTa D""YJf.LatvEt Tt ov yap

25

~~

a1ra~ J\Oyo~

TWV Kat OVOf.LUTWV o-vyKEtTat, otov

'

PYJf.La-

EK

TOV avO pw1TOV

optO""fLO~, dA.'A' v8EXETat UVEV PYJf.LUTWV Eivat 'Aoyov,

f.LEpo~ f.LEVTOt aE[ Tt O""YJf.Latvov E~Et, otov E.v T~ (3a8-

'Et K'Awv o KA.wv.

e

t.\

O""YJf.LaLVWV, YJ

EV

Et~ 8 o-Tt A.6yo~ 8txw~, ~ yap

e '

.,,

EK

\ 1
~ 1
1'
e
1TI\EtOVWV O""VVOEO""f.L(f), OtOV YJ

o 8 Tov

'I'Ata~ f.LEV a-vv8a-f.Lcp Et~,

30

dvfJpw1rov T~ ~v

O""YJf.La~VEtV.

'Ov6fLaTo~

XXI

'Ayw

of.LTJ EK O""YJf.Latvov~wv o-vyKEtTat, otov yij, To 8

~
Ot1TI\OVV"
TOVTOV
\

EL8YJ TO fLEV a1rAovv, a1rAovv

I"\

~'

TO f.LEV
'

OE

'

'

EK O""YJf.LatVOVTO~

\ ' OVK
''
'"'' /
2
f.LOV, 1TI\Y}V
EV T(f) OVOf.LaTt

f.LOV, TO'

'

'

OE EK

O""Y}f.LatVOVTO~

/
/
O""YJf.LatVOVTWV
o-vyKEtTat.

:>/
EtYJ

Kat aO""YJ'

'

/
Kat' '
aO""YJ~'

.,,
av
Kat'

Tpt1TAovv Kat TETpa1TAovv ovof.La Kat 1ToAAa1TAovv,

35

1457b

otov Ta 1TOAAa TWV Mao-o-aAtWTWV, 3 eEpf.LOKatKO~avJJ

UO~

* * * . 4 a1TaV

1 Kara ro

~~

'

OE

:>/

'

.,,

.,,

OVOf.La EO""TLV YJ KVptOV YJ y 1\WTTa

I"\

Reiz: ro Kara AB
Vahlen: -ro~ AB
3 Maa-ua.A.uvrwv Diels (ex Arab.): fLeyaJuwrwv AB
4 lacunam stat. edd. (cf. Arab.: "supplicans domino caelorum")
2 ovofLaTL

102

'XX1
I

POETICS 21

respectively. An inflection is the feature of a noun or verb

which signifies case C<of him,~~ to him," etc.), or singular
and plural (e.g. ''man,~~ "men"), or aspects of delivery,a
such as question or command ("did he walk?" or "walk!"
are verbal inflections in this classification).b A statement
is a compound, significant utterance, some of whose parts
do have independent significance. Not every statement
consists of verbs and nouns, e.g. the definition of '<man,~~c
but one can have a statement without verbs; yet it will
always have a part with separate significance, e.g. Cleon"
in "Cleon is walking." A statement can be unitary in two
ways, by signifying one thing or by being combined from
a plurality: e.g. the Iliad is unitary by combination, d but
the definition of "man~~ by signifying one thing.
XXI
Nouns can be classed as "single" (by which I mean
those not comprising significant parts, e.g. ge ["earth"])
and "double." The latter can be subdivided into those
formed from both significant and nonsignificant parts
(though this is not their function within the noun),e and
those comprising only significant parts. One could further distinguish "triple," quadruple," and polysyllabic"
(e.g. most Massaliotef terms: Hermocalcoxanthus * * * ).
See on 56bl0.
hAll exx. in this para. again involve single-word inflected forms in Greek.
c I.e. a verbless phrase such as rational, bipedal animal."
d Combination," sundesmos, is the same term as "connective" at 56b38 ff: the word cannot have quite the same sense in
both places, though the second use may imply the first.
e Cf. 57all-14.
f Belonging to the dialect of Massilia (Marseilles): "Hermoca1coxanthus" fuses the names of three rivers in the region of
Phocaea, motherland of Massilia.
a

103

ARISTOTLE

,,

,.,,

,./..

TJ f.LE'Ta'Popa TJ

.,,

.,,_,

TJ 7ff.1TOtTJf.LEVOV TJ f.1Tf.K'Tf.Taf.LE-

KOO"fLO~

vov ~ VcPYJPTJf.LEVov ~ ~TJAAayf.Lvov.

A.yw 8

f.LEV ~ xpwvrat

~ ETEpot. WO"'Tf.

EKaO"'TOt, y Awrrav 8

Kvptov

c/JavEpov ort Kat yA.wrrav Kat Kuptov Eivat 8vvarov

, , f.LTJ'
TO' avro,

"" aVTOt~
, "" Of."
~"
'TOt~

f.LEV Kvptov, TJf.LLV

yA.wrra.

EO"'TtV OVOf.LaTo~ aAAorpiov E1Ttc/>opa

f.LETac/Jopa

' O"tYVVOV
"
K V1Tptot~
,
'TO' yap

~ U1TO 'TOV yevov~ E1TL E18o~ ~ U1TO rov f.t8ov~ E1TL 'TO
/

.,,

yov.

10

~,

Of.

'

'

1"'1

TJ a1TO 'TOV

YEVO~

A.yw 8
(',~,

_,,~

f.tOOV~

'

'

f.1Tt

-;-~

.,,

'

'

'

"\

TJ KaTa 'TO aVal\0-

f.tOO~

a1ro yvov~ f.LEV E1TL E18o~ oiov ~~VTJV~

('/

_,

'

'

1"'1

f.LOt TJO f.O"TTJKf.V " 'TO yap Opf.LEtV f.O"'TtV f.O"'TaVat 'Tt.

a1T' f.t8ov~

E1TL yevo~ e~~ 8~ f.LVpi' '08va-a-ev~

a-OA.a opyEv" ro yap f.Lvpiov 1roAv a-rtv, ({> vvv

dvrt rov
oiov

1roAAov

e.~xaAKCi>

rava~Kf.t
15

KEXPTJTat.

lfivx~v

U1TO

xaAKCi>"

raf.LELV, 'TO

vrq.,v8a

'

'

7rpo~ ro rpirov
.,,)'

~'

"

~
EXYJ ro oEvrEpov
_,,

E1TL EL8o~

apva-a~" 1 KaL
yap

ro

e~'TEf.LWV

f.LEV

apva-at

Taf.LELV apva-at f.LPTJKf.V" CLf.LcPW yap

-'A-.. \
a'Pf.l\f.tv
Tt f.O"TtV. ro
1"'1

a1r' Et8ov~

'

1rpo~

pEt
1"'1

of.

~
/
Of.LOtW~

aval\oyov 1\Eyw, orav

)

"\

('/

ro 1rpwrov Kat ro Tf.raprov

'

1"'1

'

'

yap UV'TL 'TOV 8Evrpov 'TO rerap/

'~/

rov TJ avrt rov Tf.raprov ro of.vrEpov.

' ) /

Kat f.VtO'Tf.

AEyEt 1Tp0~ 0 EO"'Tt. A.iyw 8

EXEt c/JufATJ 7rpo~ ~tovva-ov KaL aa-1TL~
pEt roivvv r~v c/JufATJv aa-1ri8a ~tovv-

7rpoa-rt8aa-tv avO' oil

20

oiov Of.LOLW~

7rpo~ "'' ApTJ

Ka~ TEfLWV Tyrwhitt (rec.): aEpva-aa-KETEfLWV A:

E.pva-aa-KE rEfLwv B
1 apva-a<;

Onoma, used above for "noun," but here carrying the wider
sense; cf. e.g. 57b7, 25.
a

104

POETICS 21

Every warda is either a standard term, loan word,

metaphor, ornament, neologism, lengthening, contraction, or modification. By "standard term" I mean one
used by a community, by "loan word" one used by outsiders; obviously, then, the same word can be both a loan
word and a standard term, though not for the same
groups: sigunon ["spear''] is standard for Cypriots, a loan
word for us.h
A metaphorc is the application of a word that belongs
to another thing: either from genus to species, species to
genus, species to species, or by analogy. By "from genus
to species" I mean, e.g., "my ship stands here'':d mooring
is a kind of standing. Species to genus: "ten thousand
noble deeds has Odysseus accomplished" ;e ten thousand
is many, and the poet has used it here instead of <<many."
Species to species: e.g. "drawing off the life with bronze,"f
and "cutting .with slender-edged bronze" ;g here he has
used <'drawing off'' for "cutting". and vice versa, as both
are kinds of removing. I call "by analogy" cases were b is
to a as dis to c: one will then speak of d instead of b, orb
instead of d. Sometimes people add that to which the
replaced term is related. I mean, e.g., the wine bowl is to
Dionysus as the shield to Ares: so one will call the wine
For Ar. a ..loan word" cannot be a naturalised borrowing,
but must be perceived as exotic (cf. Rh. 1410b12-13).
c As definition and exx. reveal, .. metaphor" includes things
which might now be classed as synecdoche or metonymy. Cf. Rh.
1405a3 ff.
d Horn. Od. 1.185.
e Hom. Il. 2.272.
f Empedocles fr. 138 DK; image is the killing of an animal.
g Empedocles fr. 143 DK; the ref. is to filling a bronze vessel
with water.
b

105

ARISTOTLE
(TOV Kat TTJV aa-1Tt8a ufAYJV

:J/

ApEw~.

y'FJpa~

1rpo~ f3iov, Kat a-1rpa 1rpo~ ~fLE.pav f.pli Toivvv TTJV

Ea-1TEpav y'FJpa~ ~fLEpa~, ~ wa-1TEp 'EfL1TE8oKAYJ~ Ka'i
To yfJpa~ a-1rpav f3iov ~ 8va-f.La~ f3iov.

25

8'

f.viots

OVK E(TTt,V OVOfLa KELfLEVOV TWV avaA.oyov, aA.A.' ov8v

~TTov OfLOtw~ AEX{)ry}a-ETal- oiov To Tov Kap1rov fLEV

'.rl-.. /
/
ao/l-EVat,
(T1TEl-pEl-V,
TO'
'
/
' \ \ '
avwVVfLOV"
a/\1\
/
Kat' TO' (T1TELpELV

~'

c:
/
OfLOl-W~
'

1Tp0~

'
.r/...\ /
' '
C:\/
TYJV
o/1\0ya
a1TO
TOV YJIHOV
f"\

OE

:J/

'

'

:J/

(TTL

~'

OE

f"\

('/\

TOV Y}l\l-OV

1rpo~

'
/
~ '
:J/
TOV
Kap1TOV,
OLO
El-pYJTaL

/
.r/...\ /
"
pwv {) EOKTL(TTaV o/1\oya .

30

f"\

TOVTO

EXEl-

c:c:

/
(T1Tl--

TqJ Tp01TqJ TOVTqJ

TTJ~ fLETaopu~ xp'FJa-{)aL Kat aAAw~, 1Tpoa-ayopEv'\ \ /

'
.r/...
1'
a-aVTa TO' a/\1\0TpLOV
a1TOo/YJ(Tat,
TWV OLKELWV TL, OLOV
,
'
,
/ ~
:J/
.r~-.. / \
' :J'ApEW~ a/\1\
' \ \ ' 1 :J/
EL TYJV aa-1TLOa EL1TOL o/Lai\Y}V fLYJ
aOLVOV.
f"\

f"\

* * * 1TE1TOLYJfLEVOV
/ 0~' E(TTLV
' ' 0

t.\

V1TO TLVWV aVTO~ TL{)ETaL

1458a

apYJTfJpa.
p.,ev f.av

E1TEKTETafLEVOV

\
/
fLYJ' Kai\OVfLEVOV

1TOLYJTrrJ~ 8oKEL yap EVLa

..,.
'"'
1'
/
ELVaL
TOLaVTa,
OLOV
Ta' K6paTa

35

('/\

01\W~

'

''

Epvvya~

2 Kat,' TOV
'
e
/
LEpEa

E(TTLV ~ aYJPYJfLEVOV TO

wvrr}EvTL fLaKpoTE.pcp

KEXPYJfLEVov

OLKELOV ~ a-vA.A.af3fJ p.,f3E/3AYJfLEVYJ, TO

Yi

Tov

av aYJPYJ-

y;

aVTOV, E1TEKTETafLEVOV fLEV oiov TO 7TOAEW~

1TOAYJO~ Kat TO ITYJAEt8ov 3 ITYJAYJLa8Ew, aYJPYJfLEVOV

fLEVOV TL
~ '

OE

1'
~
Ol-OV
TO' KpL Kat TO OW
KaL
f"\

'

'

f"\

'

c:c:

/
/
'
.r/...
/
p_,t,a
'Yl-VETalaf.Lo/OTEpwv

&A.A.' aOLVOV Vettori: aA.A.a OtVOV AB

epvvyac; Vettori: E.pvvyac; A: E.pLvvyac; B
3 1T'YJAe8ov rec.: 7T'YJAEoc; A: 1T'YJAwc; B
2

Fr. 152 DK, but it is disputed which phrase Ar. ascribes to

E.; for "evening of life" cf. Alexis fr. 230 PCG, "life's sunset" Pl.
Laws 770a6.
a

106

POETICS 21

bowl "Dionysus' shield," and the shield "Ares' wine bowl."

Or old age is to life as evening to day: so one will call
evening ~~the day's old age," or, like Empedocles, a call old
age "the evening of life" or "life's sunset." In some cases
of analogy no current term exists, but the same form of
expression will still be used.h For instance, to release seed
is to "sow," while the sun's release of fire lacks a name; but
the latter stands to the sun as does sowing to the seed, c
hence the phrase "sowing his divine fire."d This type of
metaphor can further be used by predicating the borrowed term while denying one of its attributes: suppose
one were to call the shield not "Ares' wine bowl" but "a
wineless wine bowl."
* * * e A neologism is a term without existing usage but
coined by the poet himself; some words seem to be of this
kind, e.g. emuges for kerata ["horns"] and areter for
hiereus ["priest"].f A lengthening uses a longer vowel than
the standard form, or an extra syllable; a contraction has
had some part removed: lengthenings are e.g. poleos for
poleos, and Pelei'adei5 for Peleidou;g contractions, e.g. kri,
do,h and ~~a single vision [ops] comes from both."i A
b A usage

J
\
'I

sometimes known as "catachresis": e.g. Quint. Inst.

8.6.34-5.
c Strictly, to the sower.
d Unidentified quotation, from tragedy or lyric poetry.
e It is assumed that an explanation of "ornament," kosrnos,
has dropped out here; see 57b2, and cf. Rh. 1408al4.
f The second occurs 3x in the Iliad; the first is not found in
extant literature.
g Genitive forms of, respectively, polis (city/citadel) and
Peleides (son ofPeleus, i.e. Achilles); the first form in each case is
epic.
h Shortened epic forms of krithe (barley) and doma (house).
i Empedocles fr. 88 DK.

107

ARISTOTLE

otfJ''. 1 E~1JAAayp.-f.vov 8'

'

'

TO

fJ-EV

KaTai\El/lTTJ

'

r/,,aVTL,

~'
OE
' ~'
Ta OE

/\
() 1'}1\Ea

10

t. LTEpov
'

OLOV

TO

'

'
Ta

'
JLEV

~~
appEva

t. /

TOV DEC::, LOV.

""
TWV

'
/
OVOJLaTWV

t. /

,,

f.LETa~ V,

'

(:/

""

8'

EO"TtV 8vo,

,,
EL~

TE

'It
,

'

'e'

EL~

t:l

/ ()

/2 ,

CTVV ETa

EL~

ECTTLV.

EL~ ~wvi}Ev
/
/
KOJLJLL
1TE1TEpL.

ov8

fJ-ETa~v El~
,./..,.

'

'

'

EL~

a /

() / \

'
'
Y}I\Ea. TO
yap

,, ,./-.

'

~WVYJ'

':l'

""

KaL TWV

\ /() EL

'
KaL' TO

,,

=
,......

""

a'f'WVOV OVOEV OVOJLa TEI\EVTq.,

Kat

JLEAL
' OE
~'
Ta

JLOVOV,

**

!.

apET~ cra~ij

.,.

'\TI'

'

TO

TaVTa

LCTa CTVJLtJaLVEL 1TI\Y}

EL~ 8 TO I Tpta
~' TO
' T 7TEVTE
/
3 *
OE

r\
~L,

KaL

{3paxv.

TavTa Kat

AE~-EW~

XXII

OE

,,

WCTTE

t:l
'
''
'
oa-a
Ta
appEva
KaL' Ta

EL~

EL~

0~E'

(""

ocra EK TWV

,
EL~

Ta aEL JLaKpa, OLOV

'

S), Orrj'AEa 8

Kat

'
Ta

appeva JLEV ocra TEI\EVTq.

't:'
,
/
/
KaL'p KaL''""'
~ KaL OCTa EK TOVTOV CTV/'KELTaL

E1TEKTELVOfJ-EVWV

JL~ Ta1TELV~V

Kat
(

cra...,...,ECTTaTYJ JLEV OVV ECTI:LV YJ

""

ElVaL.

EK TWV KVpLWV OVOJLa-

8 iJ KA.Eo~wvTo~
1TOLYJCTL~ Kat T] !OEve'Aov. crEJLV~ 8 Kat ~aA.'AaTTovcra To l8LwTLKov T] To'i~ tEvLKo'i~ KEXPYJJLEVYJ" tEvL-

TWV,

20

'e'

(( ~
OE~

""

1TOLYJ,

EVTWV

15

~'
OE

'

TO
""~

KaTa p.-asOV

' ""
aVTWV

f(T'TtlJ OTaV TOV OVOJLa'OJLEVOV

'

KOV
'

d'A'Aa

~'
OE
""

Ta1TELvrr}

1Tapa8E"YJLa

'

\""

'

'

'

KaL 1Ta1J TO 1rapa TO KVpLOV.

""

'

,./-.

' ,

1\E/'W /' 1\WTTaV KaL f.LETa...,...,opav KaL E1TEKTaCTLV

/

.,,

,,

,,

, \

al\1\

'

av

,,

.,,

TL~

t:l

a1TaVTa TOL/

')\

avTa 1TOLYJCTYJ, YJ aLVL/'JLa EO"TaL YJ fJapfJapLCTJLO~ av

ot/J Vettori: OYJ~ A: DYJ~

B
Arab.: TavTa AB: TavTa rec., Lat.
3 post 1TEVTE add. nomina quinque Arab.
2 frvvOera

Hom. Il. 5.393.

b Alpha, iota, upsilon.
a

108

POETICS 22

XXII

modification is one where part of the form is kept, part

added: e.g. "in his right [dexiteron] breast,na instead of
dexion.
Of nouns, some are masculine, some feminine, some
neuter: masculine, those which terminate in nu, rho,
sigma, or letters containing sigma (there are two: psi and
xi); feminine, those which end in vowels that are always
long (i.e. eta and omega), or in alpha (of the vowels that
can be lengthened).b So the number of masculine and
feminine terminations is the samec (as psi and xi are compound sounds). No noun terminates in a stop, nor in a
short vowel. Three alone end in iota: meli, kommi,
peperi. d Five end in upsilon * * *. e Neuter nouns have
these endings, f as well as nu and sigma.
Excellence of diction means clarity and avoidance of
banality. Now, clearest is the diction that uses standard
terms, but this is banal: the poetry of Cleophong and
Sthenelush exemplifies this. Impressive and above the
ordinary is the diction that' uses exotic language (by
"exoticn I mean loan words, metaphors, lengthenings, and
all divergence from the standard). But if one composes
entirely in this vein, the result will be either a riddle or
barbarism-a riddle, if metaphors predominate; barThis ignores a nun1ber of feminine nouns which end in the
same consonants as masculines.
d "Honey," "gum," "pepper"; there were in fact others, all of
them rare.
e astu, gonu, doni, napu, pou.
fAr. may mean alpha as well as iota and upsilon; but he omits
neuters ending in rho (e.g. nektar).
g See on 48al2.
h Tragedian of later 5th cent.; TrGF I no. 32.
c

109

ARISTOTLE

25

fLEV oiJv EK fLETacropwv, atvtyfLa, av OE EK yAwTTWV,

/
'~
~I
{3 ap{3 aptcrfLO~. atvtyfLaTO~ T yap tOEa aVTYJ ECJ"Tt, TO
:1

'

:1

'

\
I
('
I
'~ /
',It
'
';"
J\EyovTa
V1TapxovTa
aovvaTa
crvva\f'at
KaTa' fLEV
ovv
T~V TWV aA.A.wv 1 OVOfLaTWV crvvOEcrtv ovx oiov T
TovTo 1Totfjcrat, KaTa
T~v fLETacropwv 2 E.voiXETat,

ElOov

oiov ('('avop'

30

1TVpt xaAKOV E1T' avipt KOAA~~' '

,...,
\
,...,
a
Ta' o
EK TWV
YAWTTWV
fJap-

,...,
cravTa n , Kat' Ta' TotavTa.

{3aptcrfLO~.

apa KKpacr0a[ 1T(J)~ TOVTOt~ TO fLEV

OEL

yap To fL~ lotwTtKov 1Tot'Y}crEt

y AWTTa

Y]

Kat

fLYJOE Ta1TEtvov, oiov Y]

0 KOCJ"fLO~ Kat TdAAa Ta

fLETacropa Kat

'
/
31~
~'
/
'
A-. /
EtpYJfLEVa
EtOYJ,
TO' o
Kvptov
TYJV
cra'PYJVEtav.

'
ovK

OE fLEpo~ CI"VfL{3aAATat L~ TO cracr~ Tfj~

'~
' at(' 1TKTacrt~
'
/
'
'
Kat' fLYJ' tOtWTtKOV
Kat' a1TOK01Tat

E.ltaxtcrTOV

1458b

\ /c

J\S W~

Kat E~aAAayat TWV OVOfLaTwv Ota fLEV yap TO aAAw~

31

.,,

EXEtv

e
w~

:1~

'

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'

fLYJ tVtWTtKOV 1TOtYJCI"t,

'

f)'o~ ytyvofLEVov
I
'
TO
f) I
TO KOtVWVtV TOV EtW 0'

:1

TO Kvptov 1Tapa TO Etw

A-.'

_,,

~ '
o~a

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,...,

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:1

~
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1

TO~ TO cra'P~ (TTat.

E1TtTtfLWVTE~ T~ ToioVTCfJ TP01TqJ Tfj~ OtaAEKTov Kat

OtaKwfLcpOovvTE~
!I

,...,

apxato~,

cr'

('

W~

('I~

Tov

1TOtYJT'Y}v,
.,,

,...,

pq.otOV OV 1TOttV

oiov

Et

EvKAEtOYJ~
~I

3/

Tt~

:1

OWCJ"Et KTtVtV

{3ovAETat, lafL{301TOt~cra~ EV avT'fi TD

AE~Et ('(''E1TtxapYJv 3 Etoov MapaOwvaoE {3ao[,ovTa",

10

01TOCJ"OV

Kat ('('ovK yKEpafLEVo~ 4 Tov EKEtvov 1tlt{3opov".

To

fLEV oiJv cratVEcrOai 1T(J)~ XPWfLEVOV TOVT(f) T~ Tp01T(f)

1 ({A.Awv

Twining (Arab.): om. AB

2
p.,eTacPopwv Bywater: -av AB
3 _,E1TtXrLPYJV Bursian CH- Tyrwhitt): ~ E1TtxapYJv B: YJTEL
xaptv A

110

POETICS 22

barism, if loan words. For this is the nature of a riddle, to

attach impossibilities to a description of real things. One
cannot do this by composing with other terms, but one
can with metaphors (e.g. "I saw a man welding bronze on
a man with fire,',a and such things). Passages of loan
words constitute barbarism. One needs, then, a certain
blend of these components: one kind (loan words,
metaphor, ornaments, and the other classes listed) will
create an impression that is neither ordinary nor banal,
while standard terms will ensure clarity. A major contribution to clarity and unusualness of diction is made by
lengthenings, shortenings, and modifications of words:
contrast with the standard, and divergence from the
usual, will create an out-of-the-ordinary impression; but
the presence of some usual forms will preserve clarity. So
those who criticise such usage, and mock the poet for it,
are wrong to carp-like Eucleides the elder,b who, supposing it easy to write poetry if one is allowed to lengthen
words at whim, lampooned Homer in his very diction ("I
saw Epichares walking to Marathon,,, and ''not mixing his
hellebore,,).c Now, the blatant use of such a manner is
Cleobulina fr. 1 West, a hexameter. The ref. is to medical
use of a cupping glass; cf. Rh. 1405bl-4.
b Otherwise unknown.
c Both quotations (the second very uncertain), using absurd
vowel-lengthenings to satisfy hexameter rhythm, parody metrical
licences in Homer. Epichares was a very common Athenian
name; its choice here is probably arbitrary.
a

vo~

EYKEpafLEVO~ coni. Kassel:

av yepafLEVO~ A: av YE apafLE-

111

ARISTOTLE
\ "'
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15

ocrov OtacpE.pet E1Tt TWV E1TWV 8ewpe[cr8w EVTL8EJ.LEVWV

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KaTLOOL OTt dA.YJ{}iJ
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20

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30
'

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ee ,

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r
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: ap/LOTTOV 1TW~ B
2 Kvp[wv add. Vahlen
3 cpay8atvav Hermann: -a rec.: cpaya8atva B: cpaya8Eva A
lr

112

i'

i'

r
POETICS 22

ridiculous; moderation applies equally to all components.

By using metaphors, loan words, and the other classes
inaptly one could achieve the same result as by deliberate
comic distortion. But the difference it makes to use them
fittingly in epic should be studied by introducing the standard words into the verse. Likewise with loan words,
metaphors, and the other classes, one could observe the
truth of my argument by substituting the standard terms.
For instance, Aeschylus and Euripides composed the
same iambic line, but the latter replaced just one word,
using a loan word instead of the familiar standard term;
one of the lines strikes us as beautiful, the other as
tawdry. Aeschylus, in his Philoctetes,a wrote:'' ... the cancer which eats the flesh of my foot.n Euripides changed
"eats,, to "feasts on.''h Likewise with "but now one lowly,
paltry, and unseemly ... ,nc if one were to substitute the
standard terms, ''but now one small, weak, and ugly .. .n
And compare "setting out an unsightly chair, and a lowly
table ... nd with "setting out a bad chair, and a small table
n
Or "the headlands clamour"e with "the headlands
bawl." Again, Ariphradesf ridiculed the tragedians for
using expressions which no one would ever say in conversation, such as "the palace from" instead of "from
Fr. 253 TrGF (III 357).
b Fr. 792 N auck; here and below, translation cannot capture
the pertinent nuances of tone.
c Hom. Od. 9.515 (Cyclops' description of Odysseus); in mss.
of Homer the third adj. is different again (akikus, "feeble").
d Hom. Od. 20.259.
e Hom. Il. 17.265.
f Very likely, given the name's rarity, the comic poet mentioned several times by Aristophanes (e.g. Knights 1280 ff).
a

113

ARISTOTLE
'
'
KaL' TO' eyw

1459a

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7Tpt 'AxLAAEw~, Kat oo-a a'A'Aa TOLaVTa.

8ul yap TO

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0 f.LEYLCTTOV TO f.LETa\f-'opLKOV ELVaL.

TOVTO

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,
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(}

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Ta'

TOL~ i}pwLKOL~, at
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10

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7TEpt f.LEV o-Dv Tpaycp8ia~ Kat TYJ~ E.v T(i> 1rpaTTELV

15
XXIII

i'

f.LLfLYJU"EW~

IlEpt

''
e"'
e
' ' '
i'
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YJf.LLV
LKava
Ta ELPYJf.LEVa.

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Kat E.v f.LETPCf! f.LLf.LYJTL-

Ki}~, OTL 8Et TOV~ f.LVfJov~ KafJa7TEp EV TaL~ Tpaycp8taL~

i'
CTVVLCTTaVaL

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i'
KaL' 7TpL' f.LLaV

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Exovo-av
apxYJv
KaL' f.LECTa
KaL'

20

WCT7Tp 'fi>ov EV

oAov

""(;

1rpa~

~i'\
LV 01\.Y}V

i' \

TEJ\.O~,

~'

LV '

7TOLfj T~V olKEtav i]8ovrr}v, 8ijA.ov,

Two of Ar. 's exx. are of anastrophe (placing of a preposition

after its noun), and two of predominantly poetic pronominal
forms.
a

114

POETICS 23

XXIII

the palace," and ''of thee," and ''I him ... ," and "Achilles
round" instead of "round Achilles,~~ etc. a Because absent
from standard speech, all such expressions make an outof-the-ordinary impression; but Ariphrades failed to
realise that. It is important to use aptly each of the features mentioned, including double nouns and loan words;
but much the greatest asset is a capacity for metaphor.
This alone cannot be acquired from another, and is a sign
of natural gifts: because to use metaphor well is to discern
similarities.h Of word types, double forms particularly
suit dithyramb, c loan words suit epic, and metaphors suit
iambic verse.d In epic, everything mentioned has some
use, but in iambic verse, because of the very close relation
to ordinary speech, e suitable words are those one would
also use in prose-namely, standard terms, metaphors,
ornaments.
Let that, then, count as sufficient discussion of tragedy
and enactivef mimesis.
.
As regards narrative mimesis in verse,g it is clear that
plots, as in tragedy, should be constructed dramatically,
that is, around a single, whole, and complete action, with
beginning, middle, and end, so that epic, like a single and
whole animal, may produce the pleasure proper to it. Its
Cf. Rh. 1405a8-10, Top. 140a8-ll.
c Because dithyramb tends towards linguistic virtuosity: cf.
Rh. 1406bl-2.
d See on 47bll.
e Cf. 49a23-8.
f Cf. ch. III's third mode of mimesis, 48a24-5.
g The periphrasis places epic (loosely) in Ar.'s scheme of
media and modes (chs. I, III).
b

115

ARISTOTLE
Kat IL~ OfLOLac; l.crroptats 1 ras crvv{}f.crEtc; Eivat,

EV aic;

avayK'Y} OVXL f.Ltfic; 7Tpa~Ewc; 7TOtE'icr(}at D~AWCTLV aAA'

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t:/
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yap
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25

iJ

yvEro vav!Laxa Kat

2tKEAtq, KapxYJDo~
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1rpoc; TO aVTO lfVVTEtVOVlfat T1\0c;,

fL'ivt
1

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pov fLETa
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30

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WV EV OVOEV ytVETat T1\0c;.

{} I

t.\

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oi

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1roAAot rwv 1TOtYJrwv Tovro 8pwcrt.

wa-1TEp Et1TOfLEV

s,o

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t:/\
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35

~'

I
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KaTa1T1TI\EYJLEVOV TYJ 1TOtKtl\tf!:.

t.\

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'
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7TEpt EVa XPOVOV Kat fLLaV 7rpa~tv 7TOAVJLEp1}, oiov

145gb

~~
K V1Tpta 4 1TOtYJcrac; Kat TYJV f.LtKpav 'I\Ataoa.
rotya~
' fLEV
' 'I\1\taooc;
I ~
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povv
EK
Kat' '0 OVlfa"ELac;
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ra'

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~ I

'

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7TOttTat EKaTEpac; YJ OVO fLOVat, EK

1

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K V1TptWV

ia-ropiats ras crvv()f.cretc; Sophianus, Dacier (i.

(TElS B): tcrropiac; ras crvvr]Oetc; A
2
o11-vOo~ B: om. A
3 oic; rec.: Dtcr (sed erasum) A: om. B
4 Kv1Tpta Castelvetro: Kv1TptKa AB

116

T.

1TOI\-

crvve~-

POETICS 23

structures should not be like histories, which require an

exposition not of a single action but of a single period,
with all the events (in their contingent relationships) that
happened to one person or more during it.a For just as
there was chronological coincidence between the sea battie at Salamis and the battle against the Carthaginians in
Sicily, b though they in no way converged on the same
goal, so in a continuous stretch of time event sometimes
follows event without yielding any single goal. Yet probably most poets do this. That is why, as I said earlier,c
Homer's inspiredd superiority over the rest can be seen
here too: though the war had beginning and end, he did
not try to treat its entirety, for the plot was bound to be
too large and incoherent, or else, if kept within moderate
scope, too complex in its variety. Instead, he has selected
one section, but has used many others as episodes, such as
the catalogue of ships and other episodes by which he
diversifies the composition. But the others build their
works round a single figure or single period, hence an
action of many parts, as with. the author of the Cypria and
the Little Iliad.e Accordingly, with the Iliad and the
Odyssey a single tragedy, or at most two, can be made
from each; but many can be made from the Cypria, and
Cf. 5la38-bll; Ar. reductively equates history with a chronicle narrative.
b The battles of Salamis and Himera took place on the same
day in 480 (Hdt. 7.166).
c 5la22-30.
d The term thespesios is itself Homeric-a deliberate
e Two poems from the so-called Epic Cycle (OCD
allusion.
s.v.), dealing respectively with antecedents to the Trojan War and
its earlier years, and with its later parts and aftermath.
a

117

ARISTOTLE
Aat Kat Tij~ fLLKpas 'IA.ufDo~

1rAeov ~ oKTw, oiov

~,
\
/
rr-.. \
/
N E01TTOI\EfLO~,
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KaL'""/
4LVWV KaL'T pqJaOE~.

XXIV

''ETL

DE

Ta ELDYJ TaVTa DEL EXELV TTJV E1T01TOLLav TD

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10

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' '',/

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t

TaVTa. Kat yap 1TEpL1TETELWV DEL Kat avayvwpta-EWV

'
(}
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KaAw~.

oi~ a1TaO"LV ~'OfLYJPO~ KEXPYJTaL Kat 1TpWTO~

't:

KaL

,...

LKaVW~.

' '

,...

t:

KaL yap TWV 1TOLYJfLaTWV EKaTEpOV O"VVE-

'
'I /\La~
\ ' a1TI\OVV
t:
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15

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OE

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TOVTOL~ 1\E~ EL KaL OLaVOLf!: 1TaVTa

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,E7T01TOUa KaL' TO' fLETpov.. TOV,..., fLEV
' OVV
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iKavo~

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TYJV apxYJV KaL TO

20

Dvvaa-8aL yap DEL crvvopaa-8aL

/ \
TE/\0~.

,,

ELYJ

' av
.,,

,...,

'

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apxawv EAaTTOV~ ai crva-raa-EL~ EiEv, 1Tpo~

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1

DE rec.: yap AB

Aesch. wrote a play with this title, on the contested award of

Achilles' arms, after his death, to Odysseus rather than Ajax
(TrGF III 288).
b P. was fetched from Lemnos to Troy, for
the sake of his bow (once Heracles'); cf. Soph. Phil.
c N., son of Achilles, was brought to fight at Troy after his
father's death.
a

118

POETICS 24

XXIV

more than eight from the Little Iliad-namely, Judgement of Arms,a Philoctetes,b Neoptolemus,c Eurypylus,d
Begging Episode,e Spartan Women/ Sack of Troy, and
The Fleefs Departure, as well as Sinong and Trojan
Women.h
Moreover, epic should encompass the same types as
tragedy,i namely simple, complex, character-based, rich in
suffering; it has the same components, except for lyric
poetry and spectacle, for it requires reversals, recognitions, and scenes of suffering, as well as effective thought
and diction. All of which Homer was the first to employ,
and employed proficiently. Of his poems, the Iliad's
structure is simple and rich in suffering, while the
Odyssey is complex (it is pervaded by recognition) and
character-based. In addition, each excels all epics in diction and thought.
Epic is distinct in its size of structure and its metre. As
for length~ the definition already givenj is adequate, since
it should be possible for beginning and end to be held in a
coherent view. This will be feasible with plot structures
shorter than the early epics, but equivalent to the length
A Trojan ally killed by Neoptolemus; possibly a Sophoclean
subject (TrGF IV 195).
e Odysseus entered Troy disguised as a beggar; cf. Hom. Od.
4.244 ff.
f Helen and her maids, who helped Odysseus and Diomedes
steal the Palladium from Troy; a Sophoclean title (TrGF IV 328).
g S. was the Greek who tricked the Trojans into taking the
Wooden Horse into the city; Soph. wrote a Sinon (TrGF IV 413).
h Cf. Eur. Tro.
i Cf. 55b32-56a3, with nn.
j See ch. VII, esp. 51a9-15.
d

119

ARISTOTLE

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120

POETICS 24

of a group of tragedies offered at one hearing. a But epic

has special scope for substantial extension of size,
because tragedy does not allow multiple sections of action
to be represented as they occur, but only the one on stage
involving the actors; whereas in epic, given the narrative
mode, it is possible for the poem to include many simultaneous sections, which, if integral, enhance the poem,s
dignity. So this gives epic an asset for the development of
grandeur, variety for the hearer, and diversity of episodes,
whereas sameness soon cloys and causes tragedies to
founder.h As for metre, the hexameter has proved apt by
experience. If one were to compose a narrative mimesis
in some other metre, or in several, the incongruity would
be plain, since the hexameter is the most stately and dignified of metres (hence its great receptivity to loan words
and metaphors:c in this respect too narrative mimesis is
exceptional), while the iambic trimeter and trochaic
tetrameter are rhythms for movement, the latter suiting
dancing, the former action. d Still more absurd would be a
mixture of these metres, as in Chairemon. e This is why no
one has composed a long epic structure other than in the
hexameter; but as I said, f the genre,s own nature teaches
poets to choose what is apt for it.
Homer deserves praise for many other qualities, but
especially for realising, alone among epic poets, the place
This suggests an epic of about 4,500 lines, much shorter
than the Homeric poems, which must be meant by ..early epics."
b See on 55a28.
c Cf. 59a9-ll.
d Cf. 49a21-7.
e See 47b21-2.
f The point was made for tragedy's metre at 49a24; .. experience" at 59b32 above may imply the same point.
a

121

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TOVTOV TO EK

POETICS 24

of the poefs own voice. For the poet should say as little as
possible in his own voice, as it is not this that makes him a
mimetic artist. a The others participate in their own voice
throughout, and engage in mimesis only briefly and occasionally, whereas Homer, after a brief introduction, at
once "brings onto stage~~b a man, woman, or other figure
(all of them rich in character). In tragedy one needs to
create a sense of awe, but epic has more scope for the
irrational (the chief cause of awe), because we do not
actually see the agent. The entire pursuit of Hector, c if
put on stage, would strike us as ludicrous-with the men
standing and refraining from pursuit, and Achilles forbidding them-but in epic this goes unnoticed. Awe is pleasurable: witness the fact that all men exaggerate when
relating stories, to give delight. It is above all Homer who
has taught other poets the right way to purvey falsehoods:
that is, by fal~e inference. When the existence or occurrence of b follows from that of a, people suppose that, if b
is the case, a too must exist or be occurrent; but this is
false. So, if the antecedent .is false, but were it true some
further fact would necessarily exist or occur, the poet
should supply the latter: because it knows the truth of the
consequent, our mind falsely infers the truth of the
antecedent too. One example of this comes from the
Bath Scene. d Things probable though impossible should
This passage appears, through overstatement, to deny (contra 48a22-3) that narrative is a mode of mhnesis.
bAr. uses a theatrical term to highlight Homer's dramatic"
quality; cf. 48b35-6.
c Il. 22.131 ff (esp. 205-6).
d Cf. on 54b30; Ar. may mean Penelope's false inference, at
Od. 19.249-50 (cf. 215-19), that the stranger had really seen
Odysseus.
a

123

ARISTOTLE
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OT 112-13; cf. 54b6-8.

Soph. El. 680 ff; the objection may be to the anachronism of

Pythian Games in the mythological setting.
h

124

POETICS 25

XXV

be preferred to the possible but implausible. Stories

should not comprise irrational components; ideally there
should be no irrationality, or, failing that, it should lie outside the plot (as with Oedipus> ignorance of how Laius
died),a not inside the drama (as with those who report
events at Delphi in Electra, b or the silent figure who
comes from Tegea to Mysia in the Mysians).c The excuse
that the plot would have been ruinedd is ridiculous; one
should not construct plots like this in the first place. If a
poet posits an irrationality, and a more rational alternative
is apparent, this is an absurdity. Even the irrational
details in the Odyssey about the putting ashoree would
patently be intolerable if an inferior poet were to handle
them; as it is, Homer uses his other qualities to soften and
disguise the absurdity. The poet should elaborate his diction especially in quieter passages which involve no characterisation or thought; a highly brilliant diction, on the
other hand, obscures characte~ and thought.
With problemsf and their solutions, the following considerations will clarify their number and their types.
Since the poet, like a painter or any other image-maker, is
a mimetic artist, he must represent, in any instance, one
of three objects: the kind of things which were or are the
case; the kind of things that people say and think; the kind
A ref. to the long period of silence endured by Telephus in
the Mysians of either Aesch. or Soph.
d Sc. without one of these elements.
e Of Odysseus by the Phaeacians: 13.116 ff.
f Ch. XXV may summarise points from Ar.'s (lost) Homeric
Problems in six books.
c

I
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125

ARISTOTLE
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25

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fLaAAov ,.qrrov A

126

POETICS 25

of things that oughta to be the case. These are conveyed

in a diction which includes loan words, metaphors, and
many stylistic abnormalities: we allow poets these. Moreover, poetry does not have the same standard of correctness as politics,b or as any other art. In poetry as such,
there are two kinds of fault: one intrinsic, the other incidental. If the poet chose to represent <correctly, but
failed through>c incapacity, the fault lies in his art. But if
the choice is not correct, but (say) to show the horse with
both right legs thrown forward,d or a technical mistake
(e.g. in medicine or any other art), the fault is not
intrinsic. e So it is on these principles that one should
examine and resolve the criticis1ns contained in problems.
First, cases involving the art itself. Say a poem contains impossibilities: this is a fault. But it is acceptable if
the poetry achieves its goal (which has been stated),f that
is, if it makes this or some other part of the work more
thrilling. An example is the purs.uit of Hector.g But if the
goal could be achieved better, or no less well, without
In moral or ideal terms; cf. 60b33 ff.
h Politike, Ar.'s general term for the ethics of both public and
private life; cf. 50b6-7.
c Without some such supplement, the passage's sense is lost.
d Not, in fact, a physical impossibility, ctr. Ar. De incessu
anim. 712a24-30.
e Contrast Pl. Ion 537a ff.
fAr. probably means various remarks about plot-construction
(e.g. 50a22-3) and emotional qualities of both tragedy and epic.
g I.e. the scene (cf. 60al4-16) is dramatically thrilling,
despite allegedly "irrational" elements.
a

127

T
ARISTOTLE
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.,,

aya ov, tva yEVYJTat, 'Y}

'f

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ovK habent iJJLaprYja-8at (riJJL-

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w~ add. Vahlen

Evpt1TL?)YJv Heinsius: -DYJ~ AB

ovv Tyrwhitt: ov AB
5 el Spengel: T] A: om. B
3

128

B, f.Lapr- A 1) AB: del.

POETICS 25

infringing the relevant art, it does matter: since, if possible, there should be no faults. Next, ask what the fault
pertains to-the realm of poetic art, or something incidental? For it is less serious not to know that a female
deer has no horns, than to depict one unconvincingly.a In
addition, if the criticism is that something is false, well
perhaps it is as it oughth to be, just as Sophocles saidc he
created characters as they ought to be, Euripides as they
really are. If neither solution fits, there remains the principle that people say such things, d for example in religion:
perhaps it is neither ideal nor true to say such things, but
maybe it is as Xenophanese thought; no matter, people do
say them. Other details may not be ideal, but were once
like this; for instance, in the case of the weapons, ''their
spears stood erect on the butt-spiken :f this was then their
custom, as it still is among Illyrians. When the question is
whether or not someone has spoken or acted well, one
should examine not only whether. the actual deed or utterance is good or bad, but also the identity of the agent or
speaker, to whom he acted or spoke, when, with what
means, and for what end-namely, whether to occasion
greater good, or avert greater evil.
Lit. unmimetically," which implies (again) that mimetic
standards are irreducible to factual fidelity.
h See 60b11.
c Where or when is unknown.
d Cf. 60b10.
e Polemical philosopher-poet, c. 570-475: see frs. 11-16 DK
for satire of anthropomorphic beliefs, fr. 30 for denial of religious
knowledge.
f Hom. Il. 10.152; cf. Ar. fr. 383 Gigon/ 160 Rose.
a

129

r
ARISTOTLE
Ta DE 1Tpo~ TTJV AE~LV opwvTa DEL DtaAVELV, oiov

10

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e

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15

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pov OE
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, OV TO a-WfLa aa-VfL-

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1 1ravrE~
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Graefenhan: ([A.'A.ot AB
avEpE~ AB: dv. L7T7TOKOpVO"TUL Arab., Lat.

Hom. Il. 1.50; the issue was why Apollo would have sent the
plague first upon animals. But oureis, unlike ouroi, does mean
"mules," as also at 10.84.
b Hom. Il. 10.316; the "problem" stemmed from the continuation, "but was swift of foot."
c Hom. Il. 9.203; Greeks rarely drank undiluted wine.
d Hom. Il. 10.1-2, garbled (but cf. 2.1-2), and 10.11, 13: "he
marvelled at" is in Homer but not Ar.'s quotation.
a

130

POETICS 25

Some problems should be resolved by reference to

diction, such as the use of a loan word in "first against the
oureis .. .":a perhaps he does not mean the mules, but the
guards. And with Dolan, "who in form [eidos] was poor,,,h
perhaps he does not mean his body was misshapen, but
his face was ugly, since the Cretans call facial beauty eueides. And "mix it stronger"c may not imply neat wine for
topers, but mixing faster. Other points involve metaphor;
for instance, ~~an gods and men slept through the night,,,
yet at the same tirne he says ~~whenever he gazed at the
Trojan plane, he marvelled at the din of reed pipes and
panpipes" :d ~~air' has been said metaphorically for ~~many,"
as all is a kind of multiplicity.e Likewise "alone without a
share"f is n1etaphorical, since "alone" means ~~best
known."g Accentuation, as in Hippias of Thasus' solutions, affects ~~we grant him to achieve his prayer,"h and
"the part rot:ted by rain.,'i Others are solved by punctuation, such as Empedocles, ~~at OJ?-Ce things became mortal
Cf. 57b11-13, metaphor ~'from species to genus."
f Hom. Il. 18.489, Od. 5.275 (the Bear constellation, which
"alone" never sets).
g Metaphor from species ("unique") to genus ("notable"); cf.
57b11-13.
h Cf. Hom. Il. 21.297, but the ref. is to 2.15 (see Soph. El.
166b6-8); a change of accent makes "we granf' into (imperative)
"grant": the (tortuous) aim is to exculpate Zeus of deception at Il.
2.15. Hippias cannot be identified with confidence.
i Hom. Il. 23.328: change of accent (and breathing) produces
a preferable negative, "which is not rotted by rain"; cf. Sop h. El.
166b3-6.
e

131

ARISTOTLE
25

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KTOV Kaa-a-LTEpOLO
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f.pya'OfLEVOV~, of)Ev ELPTJTaL 0 raVVfL~DTJ~ Lltt olvoxo'

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p'

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35
146lb

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KEKP'YJTO A: KEKptTO BA 2

add. Heinsius (Arab.)

5 Evtot Vettori (Arab.): Evta AB
Kat

T~ Bywater:

To

AB

Fr. 35.14-15 DK (text disputed): the ambiguity is between

taking "previously" with "unmixed" or the verb.
h Hom. Il. 10.252; the context is "more ... than two thirds,
but a third is still left": it is uncertain whether Ar. wished "more
a

132

POETICS 25

that previously had known immortality, and unmixed previously were mixed."a Others by ambiguity: in "more of
the night has passed,"h "more,, is ambiguous. Others
involve usage of diction. People still speak of "wine"
when it is mixed; so too with the phrase "a greave of newforged tin.,,c And as we call iron workers ~~bronzesmiths,~~
so too Ganymede is described as ~~pouring wine for
Zeus,~~d even though gods do not drink wine. The last
could also be a case of metaphor. e
When the sense of a word seems to entail a contradiction, one should consider how many senses it could have
in the context: as in "by which the bronze spear was
stopped,~~f how many senses are possible for its being
blocked at this point, choosing the best assumption
between alternatives. This is the reverse of what
Glaucong describes, that some people adopt an unreasonable premise, base inferences on their prejudgement,
and, if something contradicts their opinion, blame the
poet as though he had said what they merely suppose.
The issue of Icarius is a case in point: people think he was
a Laconian, so it is absurd Telemachus did not encounter
him when he went to Sparta.h But perhaps it is as the
than" to mean "the greater part of' or "full"; cf. fr. 385 Gigon/161
Rose.
c Hom. Il. 21.592: i.e. "tin" means "tin alloyed with copper."
d Cf. Hom. Il. 20.234; gods drink nectar.
e "By analogy": 57b16 ff.
f Hom. Il. 20.272; the problem is how a spear, having penetrated two layers of bronze, could be stopped by a presumably
outer layer of gold. Ar. gives no solution.
g Unidentifiable, but cf. Pl. Ion 530d.
h In Hom. Od. bk.
4, where Icarius (Penelope's father) does not appear.

133

ARISTOTLE

t:/
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15

t:l
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20

d'Aoycy, wa-1TEP Evp.t1TLDYJ~ T~ AlyEt, ~ TV 1TOVYJpiq,,

W(T1TEp f.v 'Opf.a-TYJ T'fi 6 TOV MEvEAaov. Ta fLEV ofJv
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1:

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f3 Aa
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1:

w~

~ w~ 1Tapa TTJV op80TYJTa TTJV KaTa TEXVYJV.

1
2

8,'

134

ai

a!LaPT'YJP-a Maggi (Lat.): 8"a11-apr'YJILa A

lacunanl stat. Vahlen: Ka~ 'la-w<; aovvarov suppl. Gomperz

(ex Arab.)
3 V1TEvavr[w<; Twining: V1TEvavria w<; A
4 avrov AB: A.vrov M. Schmidt
5 aA.oy[q- Ka~ !LOX{)'YJpLC[- Vahlen: -a ... -a A
6

1:

V1TEvavTta

rfj add. Vahlen

POETICS 25

Cephalleniansa maintain: they say it was one of their people Odysseus married, and the father's name was Icadius
not Icarius. That the problem is due to a mistake seems
likely. In general, impossibility should be referred to
poetic needs, to the ideal, or to popular belief. Poetic
needs make something plausible though impossible
preferable to what is possible but implausible. <It may be
impossible> that people should be as Zeuxish painted
them, but it is ideal, since a paragon should be of higher
stature. Refer irrationalities to what people say;c and
there is also the defence that they are sometimes not irrational, since it is probable that improbable things occur. d
Contradictions should be scrutinised as with refutations
in argument, e to see whether the same is meant, in the
same relation, and in the same respect, so that the poet
himself contradicts either his own words or what an intelligent person would assume. But criticism of both irrationality and depravity is right w~en they are unnecessary
and no purpose is served by the irrationality (as with
Aegeus in Euripides)f or the wickedness (as with
Menelaus' in Orestes) .g So then, people make criticisms
of five types: that things are impossible, irrational,
harmful,h contradictory, or contrary to artistic stanCephallenia: island s.w. of (Odysseus') Ithaca.
b See on 50a27.
c Cf. 60bl0.
d Cf. 56a24-5.
e The subject of Ar.'s Sophistici Elenchi.
fEur. Med. 663 ff.
g Eur. Or. 356 ff, 1554 ff; cf. 54a29.
h This was implicit at 6la4-9; cf. e.g. Pl. Rep. 3.39lb4.
a

135

ARISTOTLE

25

XXVI

, '
A.va-El8 EK Twv elp'YJP-EVUJV apLO P-WV a-KE7TTEaL. ELO"LV
8 8w8eKa.
IToTepov 8 {3eA.Tiwv i} E7T07TOLLKTJ ILLIL'YJO"L~ ~ i}
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7rpoa-Ofl, 7TOAAT]v KLV'YJO"LV KLvovvTaL, oiov oi avA.ot
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1462a

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a Attempts

clusive.

136

to make sense of this number have proved incon-

POETICS 26

CXVI

dards. Solutions should be sought from the categories set

out, of which there are twelve. a
One might reasonably ask whether epic or tragic
mimesis is superior. If the less vulgar art is superior, and
if this is always the one addressed to a superior audience,
evidently the art which representsb everything is utterly
vulgar: here, in the belief that the spectators do not notice
anything unless the performer stresses it, they engage in
profuse movement (e.g. crude aulas playersc rolling
round to represent a discus, and mauling the chorus
leader if their music concerns Scylla).d Well, tragedy is
like this, just as with the earlier actors' views of their successors: it was for an excessive style that Mynniscus
dubbed Callippides an "ape," and the same opinion was
also held about Pindarus. e As the later actors stand to the
earlier, so does tragic art as a whole to epic. People say
that the lat~er is addressed to decent spectators who have
no need of gestures, but tragedy to crude spectators; if,
then, tragedy is vulgar, it will evidently be inferior. Now,
in the first place, this charge applies not to poetry but to
acting, since one can overdo visual signals both in an epic
recital, like Sosistratus/ and in a singing display, as
Mnasitheusg the Opountian used to do. Secondly, not all
Mimeisthai here implies full enactment; cf. Pl. Rep. 3.397a.
c See on 47a15.
d The musicians elaborate poetic themes with grotesque
movements; Scylla: see on 54a31.
e Mynniscus acted for Aesch., but also as late as 422 (DFA 2
pp. 93, 105, 112); Callippides belongs to the later 5th cent. (Xen.
Symp. 3.11, DFA 2 p. 94), as probably does Pindarus.
fAn unknown rhapsode.
gunknown.
b

137

ARISTOTLE

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oiov f.av

nO"VYKEtfLEVYJ, W0"1TEp ~ 'IA.ta~

The point concerns acting style, not choice of roles; Callippides: see 61b35.
bAr. probably thinks of reading aloud; cf. 50b18-19, 53b3-6.
a

138

POETICS 26

movement (any more than all dancing) should be

eschewed, but only that of crude performers, as with the
complaint levelled against Callippides and now other
actors, regarding portrayals of low women. a Besides,
tragedy achieves its effect even without actors, movements, just like epic; reading makes its qualities clear. b So
if tragedy is otherwise superior, this defectc need not
adhere to it. Add the fact that tragedy possesses all epic,s
resources (it can even use its metre),d as well as having a
substantial role for musice and spectacle, which engender
the most vivid pleasures/ Again, tragedy has vividness in
both reading and performance. Also, tragedy excels by
achieving the goal of its mimesis in a shorter scope;
greater concentration is more pleasurable than dilution
over a long period: suppose someone were to arrange
Sophocles, Oedipus in as many hexameters as the Iliad.
Also, the mi~esis of epic poets is less unified (a sign of
this is that any epic yields several tragedies) ,g so that if
they compose a single plot, it will seem either truncated
(if its exposition is brief) or diluted (if it comports with
the length that suits epic metre).h By the latter I mean a
structure of multiple actions,i in the way that the Iliad
I.e. vulgar performance practices.
d Hexameters are in fact infrequent in tragedy.
e Mousike must here be equivalent to melos, .. melody," at
47b25, and to melopoii'a, ..lyric poetry," at 49b33 etc.; epic
recitals were accompanied by music of a plainer kind.
f Cf. and contrast 50bl5-20.
g But cf. 59b2-7.
h Epic's hexatneter suits its nature, incl. its length: cf.
59b30-60a5.
i Cf. 59bl.
c

139

ARISTOTLE

EXEL 1TOAAa TOLaVTa pi.pYJ Kat 7} 'Oova-<TELa

Kat
'
' ,,
, (}
,
,...,
'
,
Ka (} eavTa EXEL J.LE'YE o~ KaLTOL TavTa Ta 1TOLYJJ.LaTa
(

10

CTVVE<TTYJKEV
,. .,

p.,ta~

W~

'C

~ ,

'

,,

1Tpal:::, EW~

'

t:/

, \

EVOEXETaL apta-Ta Kat OTL jLaJ\UJ"Ta

'

1'

EL OVV

J.LLJ.LYJCTL~.

TOVTOL~

1Tiia-tv Kat ETL Tfi> Tij~ TEXVYJ~ py 41

(8e~

TE

.J..'

OLa'f'EpEL

yap ov T~v

Tvxova-av T]oov-Y]v 1TOLE~V avTa~ aA.A.a T~V ELPYJfLEVYJV ),

cf>avepov OTL KpELTTWV av

15

Tvyxavova-a

,...,

'

ELYJ J.LUAAov

TOV TEAov~

TYJ~ E1T01Toua~.

1TEpt J.LEV o:Ov TpayqJ8ia~ Kat E1T01Totia~, Kat avTwv

' ,..., '~ ,...,
' ,...,
"'
' ,
' , ~ .,./...,
Kat TWV ELOWV Kat TWV fLEpWV, Kat 1TOCTa Kat TL OLa'f'E-

,,
'
''
,
pEL, Kat',...,
TOV EV"'"'
YJ fLY}' ,
Tt,VE~ aLTLaL, Kat 1TEpL E1TLTLJ.LYJCTEWV Kat AVCTEWV, ELprrja-fJw TOCTaVTa. 1

***

1 seq.

vestigia obscura in B, uncle 1rep'i 8 (?)lafLf3wv Kat'

KWfLcp8a~ restitui potest

140

POETICS 26

and Odyssey have many such parts of individual magnitude. Yet these poems are structured as well as could be,
and are as close as possible to mimesis of a single action.
If, then, tragedy excels in all these respects, as well as in
the function of the art (for these genres should produce
no ordinary pleasure, but the one stated),a it will evidently be superior to epic through greater success in
achieving its goal.
As regards tragedy and epic, the number and distinguishing features of their varieties and components, the
reasons for success and failure in them, and criticisms and
their solutions, let this count as sufficient discussion.

* * *b
a At 53bl0-13

(for tragedy).
h There originally followed a discussion of comedy in the
work's ..second book"; cf. 49b21-2.

141

LONGINUS
ON THE SUBLIME
EDITED AND TRANSLATED BY
W. HAMILTON FYFE
REVISED BY
DONALD RUSSELL

INTRODUCTION

Date and authorship

I
1

Both date and authorship of this famous and important book remain a matter of controversy. The only evidence for the author's name is given by the conflicting
statements of the tenth-century manuscript (Parisinus
2036, hereafter P) on which alone our text depends. P
has, in the title, LitovvCTtov Aoyy[vov; in the table of
contents, LitovvCTtov ~ Aoyy[vov. Which represents
ancient tradition? If the~ (''or") is original, and its omission in the title an accident, we ~learly have two guesses
at the author, presumably by Byzantine scholars: he was
either the Augustan Dionysius of Halicarnassus or the
third-century Cassius Longinus, a pupil of Plotinus, but a
scholar and statesman rather than a philosopher. Neither
guess is at all probable. Dionysius' numerous works are
quite different from our book in style and in general
approach. It is true that both he and our author (39.1)
wrote on word arrangement (CFvv8eCTt~), but Dionysius'
treatise is in one book, and our author says he has written
two.
Cassius Longinus has been a much more popular
choice; indeed, this identification was undisputed until
the early nineteenth century, and the lofty tone of On the
Sublime was seen as the natural reflection of the heroic

145

INTRODUCTION

temper of the minister of Queen Zenobia, who was put to

death after the fall of Palmyra in A.D. 273 (Gibbon, ch. xi).
Moreover, there are actually some overlaps between On
the Sublime and the fragments of Cassius Longinus,
rhetorical treatise (conveniently printed in A. 0.
Prickard,s edition of On the Sublime, Oxford 1906, as in
many early editions); and the eleventh-century rhetorician John of Sicily (Rhetores graeci 6.211, 6.225 Walz)
actually refers to Longinus, <I>tAoAoyot OfLtAiat for opinions which coincide with points made in On the Sublime
3.1 and 9.9 (see now G. Mazzucchi, Aevum 64 (1990)
153-63). But there is no reason why any of this should be
taken as proving Longinian authorship. Indeed there are
even differences in the details of style and language,
which surely make identification impossible: to take a
small but notable matter, On the Sublime regularly has
1ravrE~ ~-ry~ for ~~absolutely all,,, whereas Longinus has
EcPE~-ry~ in the same idiom (Russell, 1964, xxv n.1). There
'
are powerful arguments also in matters of content. In On
the Sublime, no writer later than Cicero, Caecilius, and
Theodorus is named; the real Longinus-if these fragmentary texts are to be trusted-spoke favourably of
Aelius Aristides. Again, our author is an admirer of Plato,
and much of his argument is directed to defending Plato
against unappreciative critics like Caecilius; Longinus
himself seems to have criticized Plato,s poetic,, style in
terms very like those of our author,s opponents (R 7-10, S
23-25 Prickard).
The principal argument against Cassius Longinus is
also a general argument against any date later than about
A.D. 100, namely that derived from the closing chapter
(44). Here, a "philosopher" presents the view that the
146

INTRODUCTION

"decline" of oratory is due to the loss of free speech and

political liberty, while the author represents himself as
countering this by attributing the decline to a moral collapse rather than external circumstances. There are
indeed a lot of ambiguities and difficulties in this little
dialogue; it is not easy to be sure whether the author is
thinking of the contrast between the free cities of Greece
in the age of Demosthenes and their subsequent subjection to Macedon and later to Rome, or of the contrast
between Cicero,s republican liberty and the principate of
Augustus and his successors. The setting and tone of the
book, however, suggest that it is primarily this second set
of circumstances that is meant. After all, the addressee,
Postumius Terentianus, is a young Roman of some standing; and our author is prepared to venture an opinion
about Cicero. It is all relevant to Rome. But if this is so,
parallels in other authors-the two Senecas, Tacitus,
Pliny-strongly suggest a date in the first century A.D. It
is harder to be more precise. Good arguments have been
advanced for an Augustan date (G. P. Goold, American
Journal of Philology 92 (1961) 168-192), the age of
Tiberius (H. Selb, ~'Probleme der Schrift 7rep'i vt./Jov~"
diss. Heidelberg 1957), and the end of the century (e.g.
K. Heldmann, Antike Theorien iiber Entwicklung und
Veifall der Redekunst, Munich 1982, 286-293, making
the book a response to Tacitus, Dialogus). The thirdcentury date still has advocates (G. W. Williams, Change
and Decline, Berkeley 1978, 17-25; G. Luck, Arctos 5
(1967) 97-113; and, tentatively, G. M.A. Grube, Greek
and Roman Critics, Toronto 1965, 340-352), but the case
is not strong.
So what are we to call the author? He is either anony147

INTRODUCTION

mous, the Great Unknown, or, if we assume that the title

of P has authority, he is Dionysius Longinus; the name
is not impossible after all. It is tantalizing that his
addressee, Postumius Terentianus, cannot be identified;
he may, of course, be the Terentianus who served in
Egypt A.D. 85/6 (Martiall.86), or the man whose name is
on a lead water pipe of the second century (C.I.L.
XV.2.7373). But who these people were, and what circle
they moved in, are less important questions than what the
book says, and what place it holds in the history of criticism.
Analysis
Analysis of the treatise is rendered difficult by the damage which P has suffered; there are six long lacunae, and
something missing at the end. We have lost about a third
of the book. Nevertheles.s, we can see the author,s plan
clearly enough, except in one important respect, the
treatment given to 1Tal}oc;. We can also see that some of
his central theses are presented not in the course of the
argument as he advertises it in chapter 8, but in the eloquent and powerful digressions. He is a sophisticated
artist, both in his style and in his economy. This has
always been recognized. Pope,s famous remark (Essay on
Criticism 675-680) that he is ~~himself the great sublime
he draws,, has antecedents in the earliest period of
Longinian criticism: Francesco Porto (1569) says of him:
"non solum docet sed etiam rapit, et quodammodo vim
affert lectoribus,-exactly what "Longinus, says himself
of the writers he admires.
Let us set out the analysis as far as we can.
148

INTRODUCTION

1-2: A formal preface, in which Caecilius of Caleacte (a

friend of Dionysius, it seems: ad Pompeium 3) is criticized, Terentianus flattered, the subject defined, and
the objection that vtjlo~ is a matter of nature, not art,
raised and answered.
3-5: Following the first lacuna, we find ourselves in the
midst of a discussion of faults consequent on inadequate or misconceived attempts to achieve sublimity:
turgidity, frigid conceits, inappropriate emotiveness.
This helps to define the subject by contrast.
6-7: A positive account of the true sublime follows, but in
very general terms. It is something which stands
repeated reading, and makes a powerful and lasting
impression on readers of different backgrounds. It will
endure.
8: There are five sources of sublimity: (i) great thoughts
(9-15); (ii) strong emotion-something Caecilius left
out; (iii) certain figures of thought and speech (16-29);
(iv) noble diction (30-38, 43); (v) dignified word arrangement (39-42).
But where is emotion (ii) discussed? This is the problem
that has most exercised critics; see, for a good discussion, J. Bompaire, REG 86 (1973) 323-343. We are
told at the very end (44.12) that 1ra8YJ are to be the
subject of a special treatment to follow next; on the
other hand, there are many references throughout
the book to emotion, seen as an integral element in
sublimity, and associated with all the other four
sources. The safest conclusion is that some explanation
of this procedure was given in the long passage lost following 9.4.

149

INTRODUCTION

(i)
9.1-4: Beginning of the discussion of great thoughts.
9.5-15: Homer~s greatness of thought, with a remark
(9. 9) on the beginning of Genesis, seen as a worthy representation of the divine, and a comparison (9.11-15)
of Iliad and Odyssey.
10: Selection and accumulation of detail as a means to
sublimity; including an analysis of a poem by Sappho
( 4>aivera[ fLOL Kijvo~ ... )

12.4-13.1: Following the lacuna, we find the author still

discussing amplification, with a comparison between
Cicero and Demosthenes, and an example of Plato~s art
of combining abundance with sublimity.
13.2-14: The mention of Plato raises the question of imitation as a means of attaining sublin1ity, since Plato
drew on Homer, and we should draw on, and try to
think like, the great men of the past.
15: Phantasia-visualization or imagination-as a means
to sublimity; the difference between rhetorical and
poetical visualization.
(iii)

16-17: General introduction to the discussion of figures

(16-29), including a detailed examination of the
Marathon oath in Demosthenes (de corona 208), and
advice on concealing one's ingenuity, so as not to be
suspected of trickery: the best concealment is sublimity
and emotion.
18: Rhetorical questions. A lacuna follows.
19: Asyndeton.
20-21: Anaphora and asyndeton.
22: Hyperbaton, including a detailed analysis of a passage
in Herodotus.
150

INTRODUCTION

23-24: Polyptoton, singular for plural, plural for singular.

25: Historic present.
26-27: Vivid second person; abrupt introduction of
direct speech.
28-29: Periphrasis.
29.2: Summary, emphasizing again the close links
between emotion and sublimity.
(iv)
30: Introduction to the section on language. A lacuna
follows.
31: The discussion is now about metaphor, and especially
vivid and idiomatic examples.
32: Criticism of Caecilius' rule that one should not use
more than two or three metaphors on any one theme:
examples from Demosthenes, Xenophon, and Plato's
Timaeus. Caecilius' criticism of Plato and excessive
enthusiasm for Lysias are seen to be motivated by con.
tentiousness.
33-35: A "digression," to which Wilamowitz gave the title
Regel und Genie. (It is the most eloquent part of the
book, and central to its message.) Genius, even when it
makes mistakes, is preferable to impeccable mediocrity. Mechanical criticism would prefer Hyperides to
Demosthenes, and we see this to be absurd; the gap
between Plato and Lysias is infinitely wider. Our admiration goes to the greatest works of nature, not to mere
prettiness, and hence also to the products of natural
genius, which all ages admire.
37: Beginning of a discussion of similes. A lacuna follows.
38: Hyperbole.

151

INTRODUCTION

(v)

39-42: Word arrangement: examples of the ways in

which rhythm is decisive in producing sublime effects,
and common words can be given grandeur by skilful
placing. Dangers of excessive rhythmization and brevity.
43.1-5: seems to belong under ~~choice of words'' not
under ~~arrangement." We have a lengthy discussion of
a passage of Theopompus, in which the effect of a
grand situation is marred by the intrusion of commonplace words and details.
43.6: In general, the opposites of the devices that produce sublimity will produce its opposite, lowness of
style.
44.1-11: The deeper causes of failure are examined in a
dialogue, in which an unnamed philosopher makes the
case that it is loss of liberty that produces the current
dearth of lofty writing, and the author attributes it
rather to moral decline ..
44.12: Transition to the promised discussion of 7raO'YJ,
broken off short in our text.

A little about the background

"The appearance of this unknown Greek ... has something miraculous about it." Ernst Curtius (Latin Literature and the European Middle Ages, 399 [E.T.]), in
company with many, exaggerates. It is Longinus' eloquence, and the fact that no similar work survives, that
have led people to think him more mysterious than he
really is. In fact he represents a tradition.
The basic division between grand and ordinary styles
goes back a long way in Greek thinking: the

aywv

152

r
I

INTRODUCTION

between Aeschylus and Euripides in Aristophanes' Frogs

is a classical expression of the contrast. Indeed, later
rhetoricians even found it in Homer, who contrasts
Menelaus' rapid, clear speech with Odysseus' "winter
snows'' (Iliad 3.214). A third manner-the smoothness of
!socrates, or the honeyed words of Nestor (Iliad
1.243)-was, it seems, added later; and the resulting
three-style theory is canonical in Cicero, Quintilian, and
much later criticis1n. This development is not really relevant to Longinus, who is concerned only to identify the
characteristics that mark out the emotionally intense and
elevated from the merely pleasing and soothing. Nor is it
precisely a style-a xapaKr-r}p Or genus dicendi-that is
his subject: this is better described as a tone of writing,
attainable only as a consequence of a developed intellectual and emotional response to life. This is not to say that
his vt/Jo~ is co.nceptually unique in ancient criticism; but it
resembles not so much the genera dicendi as what Dionysius calls ''additional virtues" (epithetoi aretai), the possession of which lends a particular character to writers
who already possess the "necessary virtues" of purity,
clarity, and brevity. Even closer, perhaps, are certain of
the ideai-forms or tones of speech-identified by the
second-century rhetor Hermogenes and others of the
same period. According to Hermogenes, all these ideai
could be found in Demosthenes; but once detected and
isolated, they could become patterns for imitation.
Among these ideai were (TEfJ-VOTYJ ~ and (T~o8 porYJ ~,
solemnity and vehemence; and these, and others like
them, were sharply opposed to the ideai of charm and
delicacy, in a general contrast very like that which Longinus draws between Hyperides and Demosthenes. (The
153

INTRODUCTION

translation of Hermogenes by Cecil Wooten, Chapel Hill,

1988, may be consulted to form a notion of this theory
and its implications.) But not even in Hermogenes is
there so detailed, comprehensive, and enthusiastic a discussion of the high tone as in our treatise. Moreover, it is
sharply distinguished from anything Hermogenes wrote
by its firm moral basis. For Hermogenes, anyone could
choose to write grandly if he selected his subject appropriately and followed the suggestions laid down about
vocabulary, figures, sentence structure, and rhythm; for
our author, it is only possible if you really develop your
intellect and your emotions, by the study of the classics, to
the point when high thoughts and their due expression
come more or less instinctively to mind. This kind of attitude is quite common in the imperial period, and seems
to have appealed especially to Romans. It is primarily a
response on the part of teachers of rhetoric to accusations
made by philosophers that their art was amoral, and could
be used indifferently for' good or bad ends. Longinus'
warm defence of Plato against Caecilius (and indeed
Dionysius) and his assignment of the moral argument in
chapter 44 to himself rather than to any philosopher point
in the same direction; he wishes to commend himself to
Terentianus not only as a technical teacher but as a guide
to right attitudes in life. Only thus can his concern with
Homer and classical poetry and his insistence on the need
to look to posterity be seen to be uuseful to public men,"
dvopacrt- 7TOALTLKot~ XP~CTLfLOV, as he puts it in the preface (1.2).

154

INTRODUCTION

Influence

1
1
I

I
I
I

'

Parisinus 2036 was copied for Bessarion in 1468, and at

least once again later in the century. Other copies of
these copies were also made, and Latin translations circulated in manuscript before the first printed editions
(1554-5) and printed Latin translations (1566, 1572). But
the work made little impact on the literary world at large
until much later. The Italian translation of Niccolo da
Falgano (1560) remained in manuscript; the first published English version is by John Hall (1652). All was
changed in 1674 by Boileau's Traite du sublime ou du
merveilleux dans le discours, traduit du grec de Longin.
This made "Longinus" a central text in European criticism throughout the eighteenth century. In England, its
influence was first advanced by John Dennis' Advancement and Reformation of Poetry (1701), and Grounds of
Criticism in Poetry (1704). Nodoubt the book's moral
stance was congenial to a t;hinker who regarded religion
and "enthusiastic passion" as the natural subjects of
poetry. But Dryden and Addison were also familiar with
it, Sir Joshua Reynolds' Discourses on Painting adapt
many of its ideas, Gibbon and Dr. Johnson both admired
it, and Burke at least used it as a starting point of speculation, though the main contentions of The Sublime and the
Beautiful go far beyond Longinus' scope. This eighteenth-century admiration faded with the coming of
Romanticism, when that liberty of thought and comparative freedom from rule which Longinus authorized came
to be taken for granted and no longer needed special
defence. The eloquence of the book, however, has always
continued to earn it enthusiastic readers and a wide
155

INTRODUCTION

response; the wealth of learned work on its text and interpretation, and the special place it always holds in histories
of criticism, are testimony to its enduring significance.
Text
The text rests on Parisinus 2036 (P), supplemented by the
apographa in two places where P was damaged after the
primary copies were taken (viz. w~ Kav ... TJpKeo-0YJV
[8.1-9.4] and TO E1T' ovpavov ... l8a-Oat [9.4-9.10])
and also by two miscellanies (Parisinus 985 and its copy
Vaticanus 285) which alone preserve the "fragmentum
Tollianum,'' viz. q,vo-t~ ... Oewp[av (2.3). Our brief and
very selective apparatus mentions also (as CCK marg.")
some variants (conjectures, no doubt) in the margin of
Cantabrigiensis KK.VI.34, a copy of Bessarion's copy,
made by Francesco Porto, apparently in connection with
the preparation of the Aldine edition of 1555.
Translation
This is a revision of W. Hamilton Fyfe's version, and I
have tried not to tamper with it where it did not seem
positively misleading. Thus I have left the poetical quotations for the most part as they were, though their style is
now very dated, and made even more artificial by Fyfe's
attempt to render Greek hexameters into English hexameters. I have also left some of Fyfe's notes, but have
replaced or supplied others. The text and punctuation
have also been revised.

156

INTRODUCTION

BIBLIOGRAPHY
The literature on On the Sublime is vast. Apart from the
bibliographies in the principal editions (see below), there
are bibliographies by D. S. Marin (Bibliography of the
Essay on The Sublime, privately printed, 1967) and by
D. Tavani (La .filologia recente di fronte al Peri Hypsous,
Rome 1971), and a survey article by G. Martano in
ANRW II, 32.1 (1984), 364-403.
Of older editions, those of J. Toll (Utrecht 1694),
J. Toup (Oxford 1778), B. Weiske (Leipzig 1809, Oxford
1820) are especially worth consulting. The fullest apparatus and list of conjectures is to be found in 0. JahnJ. Vahlen, Dionysii Longini de sublimitate liber, 4th ed.
(1910), re-issued with index by H. D. Blume (1967).
The principal modern editions with commentary are
those ofW. Rhys Roberts (Cambridge, 2nd ed. 1907; contains also a translation), D. A. Russell (Oxford 1964), and
C. M. Mazzucchi (Milan 1992; especially useful for its
study of the Renaissance tradition of the text). A. Rostagni's edition (Milan 194 7) is also of importance.
Translations are innumerable. Boileau's was well
edited by C.-H. Boudhors (Paris 1942). Contemporary
English versions include those by G. M.A. Grube (New
York 1957), T. S. Dorsch (in Penguin Classical Literary
Criticism 1965), D. A. Russell (in Ancient Literary Criticism, Oxford 1972, and World's Classics Classical Literary Criticism, Oxford 1985). The version of W. Smith
(London 1739) is a good example of an eighteenthcentury rendering.
Brief general interpretations are to be found in most
manuals of the history of criticism: e.g. G. M.A. Grube,
157

INTRODUCTION

The Greek and Roman Critics, London 1965, 340-353;

G. A. Kennedy, The Art of Rhetoric in the Roman World,
Princeton 1972, 369-377; D. A. Russell in G. A. Kennedy
(ed.), Cambridge History of Literary Criticism i (1990)
306-311.
Other contributions to interpretation which should be
specially noted are: W Buhler, Beitriige zur Erkliirung
der Schrift vom Erhabenen, 1964; J. Bompaire, "Le
pathos dans le traite du Sublime," Revue des Etudes
Grecques 86 (1973) 323-343; D. A. Russell, "Longinus
Revisited," Mnemosyne IV34 (1981) 72-86; E. Matelli,
''Struttura e Stile del 1rep't vlf;ov~,', Aevum 61 (1987)
137-207.
On Longinus, influence, see especially: S. H. Monk,
The Sublime, New York 1935; M. H. Abrams, The Mirror
and the Lamp, New York and London 1953; T. R. Henn,
Longinus and English Criticism, Cambridge 1934;
A. Rosenberg, Longinus it?: England his zum Ende des 18.
Jahrhunderts, diss. Berlin, 1917; J. Brody, Boileau and
Longinus, Geneva 1958; K. Maurer, "Boileaus Uebersetzung,, in Le Classicisme a Rome', (Entretiens Hardt
XXV, 1979) 213-257.

158

r
I

IIEPI

T'I'OT~

TIEPI

T'l'OT~

, TOV,. . . K atKLI\.LOV
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a-vyypap.,p.,aTLOV,
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vt/Jov~ a-VVETa~aTO, avaa-K01TOVfLEVOL~ TJfLLV W~ oia-f}a
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cpa1TTOfLEVOV ov 1TOAArr}v TE wcpAetav, ,ry~ p.,aAta-Ta

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'
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fLEVOV~ DEvTpov 8 rfj ra~Et, rfj SvvafLEL 8 Kvptwrpov, 1TW~ av TJfLLV aVTO TOVTO Ka'i St' 6JvTLVWV p.,E8/ ~
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OE

K atKLI\LO~
"\

,. . . fLEV
" TL
1TOLOV

p.,vpiwv oa-wv w~ dyvoova-t

~' t:!
/
OL
OTOV Tp01TOV

'

Ta~

e
,.....
EaVTWV

cpva-EL~ 1TpoayEtV L(JXVOLfLEV UV EL~ 1TO(J~V fLE'YE(}ov~

E1TLDoa-tv, OVK oi8' 01TW~ w~ OVK dvayKaLOV 1TapAt-

\'

1TEV 1TI\.Y]V

,,

L(JW~

',,~

' '

TOVTOVL fLEV TOV avopa OVX

t:!

OVTW~

alrtaa-8at TWV EKAEAELfLfLEVWV w~ avrij~ Tij~ E1Ttvoia~

'

Kat

~,.....

(J1TOVOYJ~

,, c

,. . .

as LOV E1TaLVELV.

'

E1TEL

~'

\ /

'

EVEKEI\EV(JW Kat

T]p.,a~ Tt 1TEp'i vtfiov~ 1TclVTW~ EL~ (J~V V1TOfLVYJp.,aria-a1 iPA.wpEvTLav

P, corr. Manutius.
2 Ely' Spengel: ELT'.

160

ON THE SUBLIME

1. You know, my dear Postumius Terentianus, that

when we were studying together Caecilius'a little treatise

on the Sublime it appeared to us to fall below the level of
the subject and to fail to address the 1nain points, or render its readers very much of that assistance which should
be an author's chief aim, seeing that there are two requisites in every systematic treatise: the author must first
define his subject, and secondly, though this is really
more importaJ?-t, he must show us how and by what means
we may reach the goal ourselves. Caecilius, however,
endeavouring by a thousand instances to demonstrate the
nature of the sublime, as though we know nothing about
it, apparently thought it unnecessary to deal with the
means by which we may be enabled to develop our
natures to some degree of grandeur. Still, we ought perhaps rather to praise our author for the mere conception
of such a treatise and the trouble spent upon it than to
blame him for his omissions. But since you have now
asked me in my tum to prepare some notes on the sublime for your own sake, let us then see whether my
Caecilius of Caleacte in Sicily was a noted rhetorician and
historian, contemporary with Dionysius of Halicamassus, and
said to have been a Jew. See E. Ofenloch, Caecilii Fragmenta
(1907) for a full (but uncritical) collection of material.
a

161

LONGINUS

()Oat xaptv,

cpepE, Et TL

8iJ DOKOVfLEV dv8pa(JL 7TOALTL-

KOL~ TE8EWPYJKEVaL XP~()LfLOV E7TL(JKEtf}(.VfLE8a.

162

8 Faber, perhaps rightly.

avro~

ON THE SUBLIME 1

obseiVations have any value for public speakers; and you

yourself, my friend, will, I am sure, do what duty and your
heart alike dictate and give me the benefit of your unbiased judgement in detail. For he spoke well who, in
answer to the question, uwhat have we in common with
the gods?>> said <<Beneficence and Truth.a Further, writing for a man of such education as yourself, dear friend, I
almost feel freed from the need of a lengthy preface
showing how the Sublime consists in a consummate
excellence and distinction of language, and that this alone
gave to the greatest poets and prose writers their preeminence and clothed them with immortal fame. For the
effect of genius is not to persuade the audience but rather
to transport them out of themselves. Invariably what
inspires wonder, with its power of amazing us, always prevails over what is 1nerely convincing and pleasing. For
our persuasions are usually under our own control, while
these things exercise an irresistible power and mastery,
and get the better of every listener. b Again, experience in
invention and the due disposal and marshalling of facts do
not show themselves in one or two touches but emerge
gradually from the whole tissue of the composition, while,
on the other hand, a well-timed flash of sublimity shatters
everything like a bolt of lightning and reveals the full
This saying is attributed to Pythagoras (Aelian, VH 12.59)
but also to Aristotle and Demosthenes and others (see
Gnomologium Vaticanum, p. 25 Sternbach).
b A listener is also a reader; ancient literary criticism often
favours the vocabulary of listening and speaking over that of
reading and writing, because the literature was thought of as primarily oral, and the sense of speeches and poems as auditory
experiences was never lost.
a

163

LONGINUS

\ ,

T EpEVTLaVE'

1T1\TJCTLa,

.,,

(''~

TJOUTTE,

, '

KaV

aVTO~

1TELpa~

EK

vcp1Jy~a-aLo.

2.

8'

EKELVO 8La1TOPYJTEOV EV apxfl, EL ECTTtV

''
'()
1 /
-'
/
t'/\
:>I
1J 1Ta OV~ TEXVTJ, E1TEt TLVE~ 01\W~ OtOVTaL

('HfLLV

t'l,/,

Vo.rOV~

Tt~

0LTJ1TaTija-Oat TOV~ Ta TOtaVTa ayovTa~ EL~ TEXVLKa

7rapayyAfLaTa.

yEvvaTaL yap, cpTJa-i, Ta fLEyaA.ocpvij

~~
' 7rapaytvETaL,
/
/
/
'
Kat' ov, oLoaKTa
Kat' fLLa
TEXVTJ
7rpo~
, ''
,/...
/
/
'A...
'3/
('
avTa TO 1TE\f'VKEvat XEtpw TE Ta \f'va-tKa Epya, w~
!)/
OLOVTaL,

~
\
/
1TaVTL' OELI\OTEpa

""'
KaL' TqJ

'
Ka ( )ta-TaTaL

, '

'\

~'

""'

Tat~

Karaa-KEAETEVOfLEVa. Eyw oE EAEYX

('
'
:.t
A...
'
'
'.I,
'
ETEpW~ EXOV \f'TJfLt, Et E1TLCTKEo.raLTO

TEXVOI\oyLaL~
""' {) '
a-Eo- () aL TOV

() 17/
TL~

oTL ~ cf>va-L~, wa-1TEP Ta 1ro'A'Aa E.v To'i~ 1Ta0YJTLKo'i~ Kat

~

OLTJpfLEVOL~

'

1TaVTO~

'

'

'()

('

OVK

OVTW~

'

""'

,/... \

;;-

'

""'

ELKaLOV
('/

('/

TL

'
''
E1Tt

'

KaK
""'

afLE OOOV ELVaL \f'ti\Et. KaL OTL aVTYJ fLEV 7rpW-

/
/
TOV
TC Kat' '
apXETV1TOV

TWV

'

('/

aVTOVOfLOV,

t',J...'
Vo/ECTTTJKEV,

'

YEVECTEW~

~'

'

Ta~
~

!)/

Kat'

1TO(TO'TTJTa~

OE
'

""'
CT'TOtXEtOV

'

'

'
'TOV
!)/

/
1TaV-

',/.,.'

E\f'
/

EKaa-TOV Katpov ETL OE TTJV a1TI\aVECTTaTTJV aCTKTJCTtV

2 Kat (TVlJEVEYKELV ~
TE Kat xpiJa-tv LKav-q 1Topia-at

'f) 000~
~
(' E1TtKtlJOVVOTEpa
'
~
/
' ' E\f'
'A..' aVTWV
(' ""' otxa
~/
KaL' W~
avTa

flE

E'1TL(TT~fLTJ~ aa-T~pLKTa Kat avEpfLUTta-Ta E.aOevTa Ta

fLEyaA.a, E1Tt p.,6vv Tfl cpopfi. Kat dfLaOEt TOAfLYI AEt1To~

""'

'

fLEVa OEL yap

""'

aVTOL~

('

W~

KEVTpOV

\\ /
TT0/\1\aKL~,

('/

~'

OVTW OE

Kat xaALvov 07rEp yap 0 il1JfLOa-0vYJ~ E1Tt TOV KOtVOV

""'
' () /
'
A.. /
(.}'
/
'
TWV aV pw1TWV a1TO\f'aLVETaL fJLOV, fLEYLCTTOV fLEV
EivaL Twv dyaOwv To EVTVXE'iv, 8EvTEpov
1 1ra8ovr;

Kat ovK

is an old conjecture, presupposed by the translation

of G. da Falgano (1575) and found in many later editions: P has
{3a0ov~.
2

164

1ropicrat P marg., for 1rapopicrat.

ON THE SUBLIME 1-2

power of the speaker at a single stroke. But, as I say, my

dear Terentianus, these and other such hints you with
your experience could supply yourself.
2. We must begin now by raising the question
whether there is an art of sublimity or emotion, a for some
think those are wholly at fault who try to bring such matters under systematic rules. Genius, it is said, is born and
does not come of teaching, and the only art for producing
it is nature. Works of natural genius, so people think, are
spoiled and utterly demeaned by being reduced to the dry
bones of rule and precept. For my part I hold that the
opposite may be proved, if we consider that while in matters of elevation and emotion Nature for the most part
knows no law, yet it is not the way of Nature to work at
random and wholly without system. In all production
Nature is the first and primary element; but all matters of
degree, of the happy moment in each case, and again of
the safest rules of practice and !JSe, are adequately provided and contributed by system. We must remember
also that mere grandeur runs the greatest risk if left to
itself without the stay and ballast of scientific method and
abandoned to the impetus of uninstructed temerity. For
genius needs the curb as often as the spur. Speaking of
the common life of men Den1osthenesb declares that the
greatest of all blessings is good fortune, and that next
translates the emendation pathous for the manuscript
reading bathous, which has been interpreted as "profundity" or
"bath OS. "
b Oration 23.113.
a This

165

LONGINUS

'(}/
/"\,.,,
,,,
O"VVaVatpEL 1TaVTW~ KaL aTEpov, TOVT av KaL E1TL TWV
A.oywv EL1TOLJJ-EV, w~ T] JJ-EV 1 cf>va-L~ TTJV T-ry~ EVTvxia~
\/
'\:''
Tas LV E1TEXEL, YJ TEXVYJ OE TYJV TYJ~ EV'{3 OVI\La~
TO' OE
~'
' ' TO' ' ;ELVaL
'
'\/
KVpLWTaTOV, OTL
KaL'aVTO
TLVa TWV EV
1\0YOlS
E1Tt JJ-OVYJ Ti] cf>va-EL OVK a'AA.oOEv TJJJ-U~ ~ 1Tapa T-ry~
TEXVYJ~ EKJJ-aOEtV DEL" El rav8', w~ EcPYJV, E1TLAoyia-aLTO
Ka8' f.avrov
Tot~ XPYJCTTOJJ-a8ova-tv E1TLTLJJ-WV, ovK
av ETL, JJ-OL OOKW, 1TEpLTTYJV KaL axpYJCTTOV TYJV E1TL TWV
(}
7rpOKELJJ-EVWV YJYYJO"aLTO EWptav.
/"\

/ (:

'

/"\

t:

'\:''

'

/"\

/"\

.,,

'~

!J/

/"\

'

\!J/

' , ,

/"\

/\
3. . .. KaL' KaJJ-LVOV a-xwa-L JJ-aKLO"TOV 0"1\a~.
EL yap Ttv' ECTTLovxov olJioJJ-aL JJ-OVOV,
\
JJ-Lav 7rapEtpa~ 1TI\EKTaVYJV XELJJ-appoov,
a-TEYYJV 7rvpwa-w Kat KaTavOpaKwa-oJJ-aL
vvv 8' ov KEKpaya 1TW TO yEvvatov JJ-EAo~.
/

/"\

ov TpaytKa ETL TavTa, d'AA.a 1TapaTpaycp8a,

\
/
'
'
'
't EJJ-ELV
""' KaL' TO' TOV
'
1TI\EKTaVaL
KaL' TO' 1rp0~
ovpavov
Es
/
'\
' 1TOLELV,
""' KaL' Ta' al\1\a
3/\ \
B opEaV
aVI\YJTYJV
Es YJ~ TE 01\WTaL yap riJ cf>paa-EL Kat TE8opvf3YJTaL Tat~ cf>avTaa-iat~
JJ-UAAov ~ DEDELVWTaL, Kav EKaCTTOV aVTWV 7rpo~
avya~ dvaa-Ko1Tfj~, EK TOV cf>o{3Epov KaT' o'Aiyov V1TO'
' EVKaTa'PpOVYJTOV.
'
...I.. /
~'
' TpaycpVOO"TEL"" 7rp0~
70
01TOV
0'\:'' EV
DLft, 7rpayJJ-aTL oyKYJPfiJ cf>va-EL Kat E1TLDEXo11-vcp a-ToJJ-cf>ov, o11-w~ To 1Tapa JJ-EAo~ ol8Etv da-vyyvwa-Tov,
a-xo'Afj y' av oiJJ-aL Aoyot~ aAYJ(}LVOt~ apJJ-OCTELEV.
t: ( : " "

1 At

{}

/\

this point, two pages of P have been lost; two of the later
manuscripts (A and B) preserve the passage crvO"t8 . . . fJEwpiav.

166

ON THE SUBLIME 3

comes good judgement, which is indeed quite as important, since the lack of it often completely cancels the
advantage of the former. We may apply this to literature
and say that Nature fills the place of good fortune, Art
that of good judgement. And above all we must remember this: the very fact that in literature some effects come
of natural genius alone can only be learned from art. If
then, as I said, whose who censure students of this subject
would lay these considerations to heart, they would not, I
fancy, be any longer inclined to consider the investigation
of our present topic superfluous and useless.
[Two pages of the manuscript are missing here.]
3.... and they check the chimney~s towering blaze.
For if I see one hearthholder alone,
I'll weave one torrent coronal of flame
And fire his homestead to a heap of ash.
But not yet have I blown the noble strain. a

All this has lost the tone of tragedy: it is pseudo-tragicthe "coronals~:> and "spe~ng to heaven" and making
Boreas a piper and all the rest of it. The phrasing is turbid, while the images make for confusion rather than
forcefulness. Examine each in the light of day and it
gradually sinks from the terrible to the ridiculous. Now
seeing that in tragedy, which is essentially a majestic matter and admits of bombast, misplaced tumidity is none
the less unpardonable, it is even less likely to suit real
Probably from Aeschylus' Orithyia (fr. 281 Radt). The
speaker is Boreas.
a

167

LONGINUS
TaVTY/ Kat Ta TOV AEOVTLVOV ropyiov yeAaTaL ypacpovTo~ t:t:Sf.ptTJ~

o Twv

Ilepa-wv Zev~,n Kai t:t:yv1rE~

Ef-tt/JVXOL racpot,'' Kat TLVa TWV KaAAurOf.vov~ OVTa

ovx Vt/JTJAa aAAa f-tETEwpa, Kat ETL ttaA.A.ov Ta KAEtrapxov cpAou!J8TJ~ yap av.ryp Kat cpva-wv KaTa TOV

!ocpoKAEa

eef-ttKpot~ f-tEV avAta-Kota-L,

cpop{3eLii~

8'

arep". Ta YE f-tTJV )Af-tcpLKpaTovc; TOLaVTa Kat t:HyTj/

'l\Jf/
~
\\
t:
O"LOV KaL 'J.aTpLooc; 1TOAI\axov yap EVUOVO"LaV EaVI"\

TOtc;

DOKOVVTEc;

'

ov {3aKXEVOVO"LV

{)

I"\

aAAa 1Tat,OVO"LV.

oAwc; 8' EOLKEV eivaL TO ol8etv EV TOte; f-tUALa-Ta

8va-cpvAaKTOTaTOV.

cpva-EL yap a1TaVTEc; OL f-tEyf.fJovc;

EcpLEf-tEVOL, cpevyovTEc; aa-Oeveiac; Kat gTJpOTTJTO~ KaTa,

-;-~, ~I
'
'
t:
rh /
{) /
YVWO"LV, OVK OLO 01TW~ E1TL TOVU V1TO'YEpOVTaL, 1TELUOI"\{)'

f-tEVOL

T/i>

t:t:f-tEyaAwv

a1ToAurOatVELV

Of-tWc;

evyevf.~

attaPTTJf-ta.n KaKOL 8 oyKoL Kat E1TL O"Wf-tlLTWV Ka'i

\ /
t:
.1{)
'
/
1\0YWV OL xaVVOL KaL .aVai\TjUELc; KaL f-tTJ1TOTE 1TEpL/
t:
A.,
.I
LO"TaVTEc; TJf-tac; ELc; TOVVaVTLOV" OVOEV yap, 'Yaa-L,
I"\

I"\

tTJPOTEpov

'

,~,

v8pw1TL~ov.

'A\1\.1\.a
\ ' TO' f-tEV
' OLOOVV
'~
t:
/
V1TEpaLpELV
I"\

TO

/3 OVAETaL
/\
Ta'

~ .lr
V'PTJ,

f-tELpaKLW8Ec; avTLKpvc; V1TEVaVTtOV TOte; f.LEYE-

{)
' yap
'
UE(TL.
Ta1TELVOV
)I

'

)c.

E~

~I\
/.I.
01\.0V
KaL' f.LLKpO'PVXOV
Kat' T({J
I"\

'

-;-

'

I"\

OVTL KaKOV ayEVVEa-TaTOV. TL 1TOT OVV TO f.LEtpaKLW~ /

)
.,,
~ 1"'\\
t:
\
'
.I
t: '
OEc; Ea-TtV; YJ OY)I\OV We; a-xol\aa-TLKYJ VOYJO"Lc;, V1TO
/
1TEpLEpytac;

.I
TJYOVa-a

EL~

/
) \
()
/
'PVXPOTTJTa;
01\.L(T
atVOV(TL

'

~'
0

Gorgias fr. B 5a Diels-Kranz (Fragmente der Vorsokrab Nephew of Aristotle and historian of Alexander.
tiker6).
c Historian of Alexander, writing in the reign of Ptolemy II
a

(285-2,46 B.C.).

168

ON THE SUBLIME 3

speeches. Thus it is that people laugh at Gorgias ofLeontini for calling Xerxes "the Persian Zeus,, and vultures
"living sepulchres,, ;a also at certain phrases of Callisthenesh which are not sublime but highfalutin, and still
more at some of Clitarchus'sc efforts, an affected creature, blowing, as Sophocles says, ~~on scrannel pipes, yet
wasting all his wind. ,d You find the same sort of thing in
Amphicrates too, and in Hegesias and Matris.e For often
when they think themselves inspired, their supposed
ecstasy is merely childish folly. Speaking generally,
tumidity seems one of the hardest faults to guard against.
For all who aim at grandeur, in trying to avoid the charge
of being feeble and arid, fall somehow into this fault, pinning their faith to the maxim that ~~to miss a high aim is to
fail without shame., Tumours are bad things whether in
books or bodies, those empty inflations, void of sincerity,
as likely as -not producing the opposite to the effect
intended. For, as they say, "there's naught so dry as
dropsy.,,
But, while tumidity seeks to outdo the sublime, puerility is the exact opposite of grandeur; utterly abject, mean
spirited, and in fact the most ignoble of faults. What then
is puerility? Is it not obviously an idea born in the classroom, whose overelaboration ends in frigid failure? WritCicero (Ad Atticum 2.16.2) quotes a different version of this
passage ( =fr. 768 Radt), and Longinus perhaps adapts it to his
own purpose.
e These Hellenistic writers were all despised by classicizing
critics of the Augustan and later periods. Amphicrates fled from
Athens to Seleucia in 86 B.c. Hegesias of Magnesia dates from
the third century B.C. Matris of Thebes wrote hymns and encomia. For Hegesias' style, see E. Norden, Antike Kunstprosa
134ff.
d

169

LONGINUS
,

1"1

'

El8 TOVTO TO

J'EVO~

'

1"1

1"1

'

opEJ'Of.LEVOt f.LEV TOV 7TEptTTOV Kat

'

c~ ,

1"1

, (;

'\ \

7TE7TOtTjf.LEVOV Kat f.LUI\tCTTU TOV TJOEO~, E~ OKE/\1\0VTE~

~'
,
'
c
'
'
'Y \
,
,
OE Et~ TO pW7TtKOV Kat KUKO:,Tji\OV. TOVT(f> 7TapaKEtTat
rptTov Tt KUKLa~ ELOo~ f.v Tot~ 1Ta()T}TtKot~, 07TEp

, ()
, '\
7TUpEV vpcrov EKUI\Et.

,~

8 EOowpo~
'

'

:>/

()

'

1"1

oe'i.

, ()

1ro'A'Aa yap wa-1rep

1"1

'

'()

,../....,

-';'

:>/

eK f.LEeTJ~ Ttvs

~'

1\tKa 7Tapa'PEPOVTUL 7TU YJ, EtTa

aKat-

0~

:>/

.,,

:>/

()

TJ Uf.LETpov EV a

OV~,

<o > 2

:>/~

f.LTJKETt TOV 7TpUJ'f.LUTO~, tota

'()

ECTTt OE 7TU

pov Kat KEVOV EV a f.LTJ OEt 7TU

f.LETpiov

~'

:>/

1"1

el~ Ta
'

EUVTWV Kat crxo-

'

7Tp0~

() ,

, ~'

OVOEV 7TE7TOV O-

ra~ aKpoaTa~ aCTXTJf.LOVOVCTtV EtKOTW~, E~ECTTTJKOTE~

1rpo~ ovK f.~ea-TYJKOTa~.
l"l

"''\

KWV

U/\1\0~

4.

1"1

Tjf.LtV U7TOKEtTat

8aTepov

7TA~pTJ~

1r'AiJv 1rep'i f.LEV Twv 7TaeTJTt-

T07TO~.

'Aeyw 8

JJv EL1TOf.LEV,

Tov tfivxpov,

Ttf.LUtO~, dviJp ra f.LEV a'A'Aa LKUVO~ Ka'i

7Tp0~ A.6ywv EVLOTE f.LEJ'Eeo~ OVK ac/Jopo~, 7To'Avta-Twp,

E7TtVOT}TtKO~,

'

7TI\T}V
,

,\

\.

Uf\J{OTptWV
,

Uf.LUpTTJf.LUTWV, averratcr

()

TJTO~

~'

OE

'

f.LEV

\
1\EJ'KTtKWTUTO~

,~,

'

~'

:>/

tOtWV, V1TO OE Epw-

70~ TOV teva~ VO~CTEt~ aE'i KtVELV 7TOAAaKt~ EK7TL1TTWV

el~ To 1Tatoaptwoea-TaTov.

(.' .,,
EV TJ

, , ~'
OVO, E1TEtOTj
~

E7Tatvwv

'
TU

\ ,
7TI\EtW

, A'Aetavopov

TOV

7Tapa()~a-of.Lat

Tavopo~

cc()~ TTJV

, Acriav

'\ {3
7TpOEI\U EV
f.LEJ'UV

K UtKtl\LO~.
'\

1 EgoKE'AAovTE~ Wilamowitz, for E7TOKEAAovTE~.

2

<8'> add. Faber.

Probably a rhetorician from Gadara, one of whose pupils

was the emperor Tiberius, and who taught that, so long as the
argumentation of a case was sound, the orator need not hold
a

170

ON THE SUBLIME 3-4

ers fall into this fault through trying to be uncommon and

exquisite, and above all to please, and founder instead
upon the rock of cheap affectation. Closely allied to this
is a third kind of fault peculiar to emotional passages,
what Theodorusa used to call the pseudo-bacchanalian.
This is emotion misplaced and pointless where none is
needed, or unrestrained where restraint is required. For
writers often behave as if they were drunk and give way to
outbursts of emotion which the subject no longer warrants, but which are private to themselves and consequently tedious, so that to an audience which feels none
of it their behaviour looks unseemly. And naturally so, for
while they are in ecstasy, the audience is not. However
we have reserved another place in which to treat of emotional subjects.h
4. The second fault of which we spoke above is Frigidity, of which there are many examples in Timaeus, in
other respects a capable writer and sometimes not at all
badly endowed for greatness of style, learned, and full of
ideas. Yet while keenly critical of others' faults, he is
blind and deaf to his own, and his insatiable passion for
starting strange conceits often lands him in the most
puerile effects. I will quote only one or two examples
from Timaeus,c as Caecilius has forestalled me with most
of them. In his eulogy of Alexander the Great he speaks
religiously to the traditional arrangement of prooemium, narrative, argument, counterargument, and peroration.
b If this refers to the present treatise, and not to a separate
work (see Introd.), it must be to a passage now lost.
c A Sicilian historian (from Tauromenium), who died c. 260
B.C.; he is adversely criticized by Polybius for inaccuracy and bad
taste.

171

LONGINUS
o'AYJv" cPYJU"LV ~~EV E.'AaTTOa-t<v ETEU"t> 1 Trap'Aa{3ev ~

oa-ot~ Tov vTrp Tov Trpo~ ITpa-a~ Tro'Af.Lov TravYJyv'Ia-oKpaTOV~ ypal/Jev." (}av~aa-T'Yj

ptKov 'Aoyov

,. . M aKEOOVO~
~,
~
YJ

'

'TOV

rl....

\ '
'TrOJ\.V

,. .
TOV

a-vyKpLa-t~

'I U"OKpa'TOV~
,

,
~ '
~
'
E'TrEtOYJ Ot f.LEV
~

'

~'

~a'TO. 'TOL~

Du1

TOVTO

, ~ ,
,\ ,
KaT
avopEtaV 1\.Et'TrOVTO,
,
2 ~,
M EU"U"YJVYJV
,
-'\
TptaKOVTa ETEU"t
Trap1\.a'

tJOV, 0 0 'TOV TraVYJyVptKOV EV

'

yap, (jJ Ttf.Lat, w~ OL AaKEOat~OVtOL

Sfj'Aov
Q

'

TOV U"O'PtU"TYJV

Trpo~

ye

DE )A(JYJVatot~

~OVOlS

~,

OEKa U"VVETa-

a'Aova-LV TrEpt '2.tKE'Aiav 'TLVa

TPOTrOV ETrtcPWVEL; O'Tt ~~EL~ 'TOV ~Epf.LfjV aa-e{3-r}a-aVT~

'

Kat

,.'t

) ,. . ' ) ,\

aV'TOV Ta

TrEptKO~aVT~

ayaJ\.~a'Ta,

'

KaV OLKYJV ovx YJKta-'Ta Ot' Eva avopa,

TrapavOf.LYJ(}EvTo~
~'E pf.LWVO~.

"

Du1

~'
wa-TE

,. . '

~
~' ~
Ota
TOVT EOW-

0~ aTrO TOV

TraTepwv ,ryv, ~Epf.LoKpaTYJ Tov

(} avf.Lat:,Etv
'r
f.LE, T epevTtave'

~' ~
YJOta-TE,

Trw~ oiJ Kat el~ ~tovva-tov ypacPEt Tov Tvpavvov ~~f.Tre'i

'

yap

oul.

VETO,

'

A ,

'

~H

'

TOV u.La Kat TOV

Et~

TOVT'

\,

paKAEa

~
Q '
OVU"U"EfJYJ~

) ,
eye-

~LWV Kat ~HpaK'AELOYJ~ Tfj~

avToV

TvpavviDo~ UcPEt'AovTo." <Kat> 3 Tt De'L TrEpt Tt~aiov

\

~'

ye

AEYEtV,

O'TrOV

\,

' II\AaTwva,
,

'

Kat Ot

~'

YJPWE~

AEYW Kat

KatTotye EK

Tra'Aaia-Tpa~, Of.LW~

ou1

,. . .

(}'

Ta
~

,....

EKELVOt,

,. . ""

t--1

rl.... ,. . .

t:::!.EVO'PWVTa

~'

TYJ~ ~wKpaTov~ OVTE~

ovTw~ ~tKpoxapfj TroTe

eavTwv ETrtAav avovTat; o f.LEV

ye

,...A

ev TYJ
aKeoatf.LO,
, rl....
\
,
~~ )
,
,. . . 4 '?'
'
.,,
VtWV ypa'PEt 'TrOJ\.tTEUf EKEtVWV yovv YJTTOV f.LEV av
1 add.

Spengel.
Faber.
3 <Kat> added by early editors.
4 P has JLEV before yovv, but this is incorrect Greek, and is
not in our text ofXenophon (Resp. Laced. 3.5).
2 EtKoa-t

172

ON THE SUBLIME 4

of "one who subdued the whole of Asia in fewer years

than !socrates took to write his Panegyric urging war on
Persia.''a Surely this is an odd comparison of the Macedonian to the sophist, for it is obvious, friend Timaeus, that
on this showing !socrates was a far better man than the
Spartans, since they spent thirty years in subduing
Messene,h while he composed his Panegyric in no more
than ten! Again, take his final comment on the Athenian
prisoners in Sicily: "Having committed sacrilege against
Hermes and mutilated his statues they were therefore
punished, mainly owing to the action of a single man, who
was kin on his father's side to the injured deity,
Hermocrates the son of Hermon."c This makes me wonder, my dear Terentianus, why he does not write of the
tyrant Dionysius that "Having shown impiety towards
Zeus and Heracles, he was therefore deprived of his
tyranny by -Dian and Heracleides.''d But why speak of
Timaeus when those very demi-gods, Xenophon and
Plato, for all their training in the school of Socrates, yet
sometimes forgot themselves in their fondness for such
cheap effects? In his Constitution of Sparta Xenophon
says, "Certainly you would hear as little speech from these
!socrates is said to have spent the decade c. 390-380 B.C.
working over this famous speech.
b The Spartan war of conquest in the eighth century B.C. is
usually said to have taken 20 years, but there were later conflicts
also. It is unsafe to emend Longinus' figure.
c See Plutarch, Nicias 1.
d The conceit depends on the fact that the oblique cases of
Zeus are Via, Dios, Dii, so that a pun similar to that on Hermes/Hermocrates is produced.
a

173

LONGINUS

,./. .

'

.,

"" \ 8/

~'

'e'

o/WVYJV aKOVCTalS YJ TWV 1\L LVWV, TJTTOV

.,,

!>/

av OJ.LJ.LaTa

a-TpEt/JaL~ ~ TWV xaAKWV, aiDYJJ.LOVECTTEpov~

aVTOV~ rryrr}a-aLO Kat avTWV TWV

H
/
1rap 0EVWV.

Ta~

,~ /
aLOYJJ.LOVa~

E.tij~
,./...

Kopa~
,~

'

'

KVVO~
,./...

!>/

OJ.LJ.LaT

o/WpLOV

'

OLOV

TOL~ o~8aAfLOL~

TJJ.LWV Kopa~
~H

OE

/ \
paKI\EL~

OVTW~

""

AEYELV 1TapOE.,
'
/
TO Ta~ a'1TaVTWV
~

'1TE1T'Eta-0aL,

/
TYJV

TLVWV

, ,J...O al\fLOL~
\ ""
,
'
LTaJ.LOV

TOL~
'

ELvaL

0
EVCTYJJ.LaLVECT aL

t:/

,
EV

W~

'e'

ala-xvVTYJAa~
'

o/aCTLV OVOEVL
OELaV

llv

'AfL'PLKpaTEL
,./...
/
,./... ""
!>/
KaL' OV' 1--1
t:;:::;EVO'o/WVTL
E1rpE1TE

EV TOL~ o4>0aAJ.LOL~

VOV~

EV

8'

~~

0'-{-J

!>/

EXWV
',./...

"

,./...

o/YJCTLV.
/

TLVO~ Eo/a'TTTOJ.LEVO~,

~:

,~,

OVOE

/
J.LEVTOL
""

0'1TOV

, /
avaL-

OLVOf-.JapE~,

T/LJ.LaLO~,

1--1

e
W~

,./...""

'

TOVTO t:;:::;EVO'PWVTL TO

tfivxpov KaTEAL'TTEv. 1>YJa-t yovv E'1Tt Tov 'Aya8oKAE.ov~

'
' ,f, '
e /
~ ~
/
'
""
'
KaTa'2 TO' TYJV
avE~LaV ETEp(f! OEOOJ.LEVYJV EK TWV ava\

'

\0 ""

Kai\V'TTTTJPLWV ap'1Taa-aVTa a'TTEI\ ELV,

CTEV

EV .o~OaAJ.LOL~ Kopa~,

TaA.A.a

Oe'io~ ITAaTwv;

ee ._,

/
TL~

.,,

'

J.LTJ '1Topva~ exwv;" TL

7U~

av E'TTOLYJ-

8 0

DEATOV~ OE.A.wv EL'TTEtV

e~ypatfiavTe~" crYJa-iv ~~E.v Tot~ lepo'i~ Orr}a-ova-Lv KV'1Ta-

PLTTtva~ J.LVrrJJ.La~" Kat '1TaALv ~f:'TTEpt 8 TELxwv, &

1

ME.yLAAE, eyw tvfLcPEPOLfLYJV llv Tfj !.'1TapTYJ TO KaOevDELV E.av EV Tfj yfj KaTaKELJ.LEVa Ta TELXYJ Kat J.LTJ
'
/
0aL. " KaL' TO' ~:H pOOOTELOV
~ /
/
E1T'aVLCTTaaOV' '1T0ppw,
TO'
1

Kayser deleted lrafLOV ... cf>YJcriv. The introduction of the

Homeric parallel is very abrupt.
2 Kara Reiske, for Kat.

174

ON THE SUBLIME 4

Spartans as from marble statues, and could as easily catch

the eye of a bronze figure; indeed you might well think
them as modest as the maidens in their eyes.,,a It would
have better suited Amphicrates than Xenophon to speak
of the pupils in our eyes as modest maidens. And fancy
believing that every single man of them had modest
pupils, when they say that people show their immodesty
in nothing so much as their eyes! Why, a violent man is
called ''Heavy with wine, with the eyes of a dog.,,b However, Timaeus, laying hands as it were on stolen goods,
could not leave even this frigid conceit to Xenophon. For
example, speaking of Agathocles when he carried off his
cousin from the unveiling ceremonyc although she had
been given in marriage to another, he says, "Who could
have done such a thing, had he not harlots instead of
maidens in his eyes?,, And what of the otherwise divine
Plato? "They will inscribe and store in the temples,,, he
says, "cypress memorials,,, meflning wooden tablets: and
again, "As for walls, Megillus, I would consent with
Sparta to let the walls lie slumbering on the ground and
never rise again. ,,d Herodotus, phrase for fair women
The manuscript tradition of Xenophon, Resp. Lac. 3.5 has
"maidens in their chambers" (rwv ev ro't~ Oa'Aa!Lo~~ 1rap8vwv),
but Stobaeus (Flor. CXLIV.2.23 Hense) has the same reading as
Longinus, which involves a pun on the two meanings of KDp'YJ,
"girl," and "pupil of the eye" (pupula)-a sense presumably
derived from the fact that, if you look into someone's pupil
b Achilles to
closely, you see a doll-like image of yourself.
c I.e. on the third day after the
Agamemnon, Iliad 1.225.
marriage, when the bride first appeared unveiled. Agathocles
ruled Syracuse, 317-287 B.C.; this story is not mentioned
elsewhere.
d Laws 5.741C, 6.778D, freely quoted.
a

175

LONGINUS

'

i"''

aa-xTJf.LOVELV

'

7rpo~

',./.,.'

Ef.L\f'Vf.TaL

i"''

'i"''

'
f.LEVTOL
Ta'

~'A1TaVTa

5.

'

Tov atwva.

\/

TOL~ J\OYOL~

3/
~ '
'
aO"Ef.LVa
OLa
f.LLaV

~'
aLTLaV, OLa
TO 1TEpL
'/

o 8i}

Katvoa-1Tov8ov, 1TEp'i

~'

OVTW~
'

f.LcLALa-Ta

'

'

Ta~ VOTJO"f.L~

Kop~{3avTLWa-Lv

acp' fhv yap ~f.LLV raya{)a, a-xEDov a1T' avTwv

vvv.
/

'

'

'

i"''

{)

,./.,.

~'{)

i"''

TOVTWV KaL Ta KaKa YEVVaO" aL \f'LJ\f.L.

f.L~ O"VVTaYf.LcLTWV Kar6p{)wa-LV Ta

/

VELa~

'
' ~',f,
'
KaL Ta V'YTJ KaL

avTa TaVTa,

'

'

/ ,./.,.

f.V f.1TL\f'OpOV

Tf. KaAATJ

Tij~ EPf.LTJ-

~
~ ~
/
'
aL 'YJOOVaL, KaL

1Tp0~

TOVTOL~

Ka{)a1TEp rij~ E1TLTvxia~,

OVTW~ apxa'i

c
{) /
KaL' V1TO
f.O"f.l.S KaL' TWV f.VaVTLWV Ka LO"TaVTaL.
i"''

OVTOV
i"'\

ol

{)'

TOL-

Q \
'1 KaL' V1TEpfJOJ\aL
~
Q \
'
KaL aL~ f.LETatJOJ\aL
KaL' Ta'
'

1TW~

\ {)

'

/t

~'

'

1T J\ T} VVTLKa Of.Ls Of-LEV 0 ,f.V

ov EXELV EOLKaO"LV.

i"''

TOL~

3/

'

E1Tf.LTa TOV KLVOVVOV,

DL01TEp avayKaLOV 1J8TJ DLa1TOpELV

,.

'

~
'{) EO" {) at, OL
~
~'
/
KaL' V1TOTL
OTOV
T po1TOV

'

Ta~ avaKEKpaf.LEVa~

KaKia~ TOL~ vtfiTJAOL~ EKcpevyELV DVVcLf.LE{)a.

6.

3/E

1TpWTOL~

~ I

-;-

,./.,. / \

O"TL Of., W

Ka apav TOV KaT

' '

{)

'

i"''

f.LT}V KaL f.1TLKpLO"LV.

3/

f.L TLVa 1TEpL1TOLTJO"aLf.LE

\f-'LJ\0~,

'

ai\T} f.LaV
'\

'{)

'

i"''

~',f,

V'YOV~
~~

{)'

'

EV

'
I
f.1TLO"TTJ~

KaLTOL TO 7rpayf.La OVO"J\T}1TTOV" T}

yap rwv 'A6ywv Kpia-t~

7ToA'A ij~

raZov E1TLYEVVT}f.La. ov f.LTJV

f.a-TL 1TEipa~

a'A'A'' w~

El1TELV

EV

rEAEv-

1Tapay-

yEAf.LaTL, EVTf.v{)E.v 1TO{)Ev LO"W~ TTJV Dtayvwa-LV aVTWV

,~1

'

l'f

()

ovK aovvaTov 1TOPL'=>Ea- at.

1

176

tJ-ETacpopa'i Wilamowitz

ON THE SUBLIME 4-7

is not much better: "torments for eyes" he calls them. a Yet

he has some excuse, for in Herodotus this is said by the
barbarians, who are, moreover, in their cups. Yet even in
the mouths of such characters as these it is not right to
display the triviality of one's mind before an audience of
all the ages.
5. However, all these lapses from dignity in literature
spring from the same cause, namely that passion for novelty of thought which is the particular craze of the present
day. For our virtues and vices spring from much the same
sources. And so while beauty of style, sublimity, yes, and
charm too, all contribute to successful composition, yet
these same things are the source and groundwork no less
of failure than of success. And we must say the same, I
suppose, about variety of construction, hyperbole, and
the use of plurals for singulars. We will show laterh the
danger which they seem to us to involve. We are thus
bound at this stage to raise and propose the answer to the
question how we can avoid the faults that go so closely
with the elevated style.
6. And this, my friend, is the way: first of all to obtain a
clear knowledge and appreciation of what is really sublime. But this is not an easy thing to grasp: judgement in
literature is the ultimate fruit of ripe experience. However, if I must speak of precept, it is perhaps not impossible that a true discernment in such matters may be
derived from some such considerations as the following.
Herodotus 5.18, in an amusing account of the way the
Macedonians entertained the Persian invaders of Greece.
h In chapters 23 and 38.
a

I.

177

LONGINUS

7. El8vat xp~, cptA'TU'TE, 8to'Tt, Ka8a7TEp Kav Tip

KOtvip f34! ov8v V7Tapxet fLEya, oil 'TO Ka'TacppovELV
,
/
'e'
\
""'
~ / c
/~
E(J"'TtV
fLE'ya,
OtOV
7TI\OVTOt
'TtfLaL' OOS
aL TVpaVVLOEc;
KaL'
~'
:>/ \ \
!1/
\
'
:>/ c
~
/
O(J"a
O'~Y'J UI\1\U
EXEL
7TOI\V
TO' Es
w (} ev 7TpO(J"TpayqJoOVfLEvov ov8' 1 av Tip YE cppoVLfLqJ 8o~EtEV dya8a V7TEp{3a'A-

\
1\0VTa,

'e'
WV

,
'
UV'TO

rl-.
""'
7TEpt"PpOVELV

'TO'

,
(}'
aya
OV

OV,

/
fLE-

Tptov-8aVfLU,OV(J"L yovv 'TWV EXOVTWV avra f.La'A'Aov

'
~
/
!1/
~ '
TOVc;
OVVafLEVOVc;
EXELV
Kat' OLa

I.

fLEyai\O~VXLaV

e
V7TEp-

opwvTac;-rf18E 7Tov Kat E7Tt rwv 8t'Y]pfLvwv E:v 7TOL~-

'

f.La(J"t

KUL 1\0yotc; E7TL(J"KE7T'TEOV,

cpavTa(J"tav xot TotaV'T'Y}V

\

7TpO(J"aVa7TI\a'T'TOfLEVOV,

fL'Y}

fJ 7To'Av

TLVa

/(}

f.LEYE OVc;

7Tpo(J"KEL'Tat 'TO elK-ij

/

ava7TTV'T'TOfLEVa

~'

OE

"''\

ai\1\Wc;

EVpL(J"KOtTO xavva, 6Jv 'TOV OaVfLU,EtV 'TO 7TEptcppovELV

EVYEVE(J"7Epov.

:7Tatpera

TE

cpv(J"EL yap 7TWc; V7TO 'Ta'A'Y]Oovc; vt/Jovc;

T]

TJfLWV

t/JvxiJ Kat yavpov Tt 7Tapa-

(J"T'Y}f.La 2 Aaf.Lf3avov(J"a 7T~ 'YJPOV'TaL xapac; Kat fLEya3

''

~~

:>/

~~

Aavxtac;, we; aVT'Y} yevV'Y}(J"a(J"a 07TEp 'Y}KOV(J"EV. orav

v7r'

oiJv

\ /
1\aKLc;

dv8poc; Ef.Lcppovoc; Kat EfL7TEtpov 'Aoywv 7TOA-

,
/
/
UKOVOfLEVOV

TL

'
7Tpoc;

\ rl-.
/
fLEyai\O!.ppO(J"VV'Y}V

'
T'YJV

t/Jvxi}v f.LiJ o-vv8taTt8fJ f.L'Y/8' E:yKa'TaAEL7TYJ rfl 8tavotq.,

7TAELOV rov 'AeyofLEVOV TO dvaOewpoVfLEVOV, 1Tt7T'TYJ 8',
.,,
, '3
'
,
""'
,
,
/(;
,
.,,
av aVTO (J"VVEXEc; E7Tt(J"K07TYJc;, Etc; a7TaVs 'Y}(J"LV, OVK av
d'A'Y]8Ec; vtjlo~ EL'Y} fLEXPL fLOYJV~ 71}~ aKor}~ (J"qJ,OfLE-

ET'

vov.

'TOV'TO yap Tip OV'T t fLEya,

dvaOewpYJ()t~, 8v(J"Ko'Aoc;
KaTe~ava(J"Ta(J"tc;, l(J"xvpa
1 ov8'

178

Reiske, for OVK.

oil 7TOAA ,ry fLEV

T]
T]

8, f.La'A'Aov 8' d8vva'To~

8 T] fLV~fLYJ Kat 8v(J"e~aA.et-

ON THE SUBLIME 7

7. We must realize, dear friend, that as in our everyday life nothing is really great which it is a mark of greatness to despise, I mean, for instance, wealth, position,
reputation, sovereignty, and all the other things which
possess a very grand exterior, nor would a wise man think
things supremely good, contempt for which is itself eminently good-certainly men feel less admiration for those
who have these things than for those who could have
them but are big enough to slight them-well, so it is with
the lofty style in poetry and prose. We must consider
whether some of these passages have merely some such
outward show of grandeur with a rich layer of casual
accretions, and whether, if all this is peeled off, they may
not tum out to be empty bombast which it is more noble
to despise than to admire. For the true sublime naturally
elevates us: uplifted with a sense of proud exaltation, we
are filled iwth joy and pride, as if we had ourselves produced the very thing we heard.. If, then, a man of sense,
well-versed in literature, after hearing a passage several
times finds that it does not affect him with a sense of sublimity, and does not leave behind in his mind more food
for thought than the words at first suggest, but rather that
on consideration it sinks into the bathetic, then it cannot
really be the true sublime, if its effect does not outlast the
moment of utterance. For what is truly great bears
repeated consideration; it is difficult, nay, impossible, to
resist its effect; and the memory of it is stubborn and
2

1TapaUTYJfLU Manutius, for avaUTYJfLU.

3''
' ' Pearce, .cror avEv
,,
'
av avTo
TO.

179

r
LONGINUS
4

\
'
/
r V'f'TJ
('',t~
'\ 0 tVa' Ta' Ota
~ '
Kal\a
VOfLt:;,E
Kat' ai\T}

~'

c.'/\

1TTO~.

01\W~

OE

c.'/
'
OTaV
yap

3
I
""
apECTKOVTa
Kat' TraCTtV.

'

1TaVTO~

""

3
'
aTrO

TOt~

8tacp6pwv
ETrtTTJDEVjLaTwv
{3wv
~rr}Awv T]AtKtwv
'A6ywv 1 EV Tt Kat TaVTOV a!La 7TEpt TWV avTWV aTraa-tV

""

/0'

OOKYJ, TO

c.'

3 (;

,../...

'

aCTVfLtpWVWV W~ Kpta-t~ Kat a-vyKaTa' 'E7Tt

' TqJ""O aVfLa:;,OjLEVqJ
Y
I
I
3
' \
TTJV
7TtCTTtV
ta-xvpav
l\ajL-

0f.(Tt~

TJ

E~

{3avEt Kat aVajLcptAEKTOV.

'E1Tf.t'

8.

'

e
W~

OE 7TEVTE,

~~

.,,

av Et1TOt

Tt~,

1TTJ'Yat

TtVE~

ela-tv al T-ry~ vlfiTJYOPta~ yoVtfLWTaTat, 1TpOV1TOKEtjLE-

VTJ~ wa-Trep 8acpov~ Ttvo~ Kotvov Tat~

TavTat~

7TEVTE

l8at~ T-ry~ EV T(i> 'AE.yetv 8vvafLEW~, 17~ o'Aw~ xwpt~

3~1
""
'
I
OVOEV,
TrpWTOV
/l-EV
Kat' KpaTtCTTOV
TO' 7TEpt'

'

/
VOTJ-

Ta~

CTEt~ a8pe7r1}{3o'Aov, w~ Kav TOt~ 1TEpt SevocpwVTO~

wptCTajLEOa. DEVTEpov

TO a-cpo8pov Kat v0ova-ta-

' Tra10 o~ al\1\

'\\' ate fLEV
'
~~
'e'
'
a-TtKOJ:J
ovo
avTat
Tov""('',/,
v'f'ov~ KaTa
'

'

TO Tri\EOV av

0tyevet~
""

iJ

TEXVTJ~,

8u1

' oe
~~

~'

1(:

'

~e

1Tota

e \

'

1\E~ EW~-E7Tt

~'

TOVTOt~

Of.

Twv
e

:J/

a-xTJ~LaTwv

VOTJCTEW~,
1

TJ

~,

at I\Ot1Tat o TJOTJ Kat

""
'
7TOV TavTa,
Ta' jLEV

a-t~-ota-a-a

Of.

a-Vff"Taa-et~,

yevvata

,../...

Tr'Aa-

01aTepa

'Ppaa-t~,

'e'
YJ~

1
/\
'
/
'
\
'
'
e
'
'
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180

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.....

OTt TWV 1TVTf. f.LOpLWV

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ON THE SUBLIME 7-8

(
'

indelible. To speak generally, you should consider that to

be beautifully and truly sublime which pleases all people
at all times. For when men who differ in their pursuits,
their lives, their tastes, their ages, their languages,a all
agree together in holding one and the same view about
the same writings, then the unanimous verdict, as it were,
of such discordant judges makes our faith in the admired
passage strong and indisputable.
8. There are, one may say, some five most productive
sources of the sublime in literature, the common groundwork, as it were, of all five being competence in speaking,
without which nothing can be done. The first and most
powerful is the power of grand conceptions-! have
defined this in my book on Xenophonh-and the second
is the inspiration of vehement emotion. These two constituents of the sublime are for the most part congenital.
But the other three come partly from art, namely the
proper construction of figures-. these being of course of
two kinds, figures of thought and figures of speech-and,
over and above these, nobility of language, which again
may be resolved into choice of words and the use of
metaphor and elaborated diction. The fifth cause of
grandeur, which gives form to all those already mentioned, is dignified and elevated word-arrangement. Let
us then consider all that is involved under each of these
heads, merely prefacing this, that Caecilius has omitted
Text unsure: the suggested emendations mean "dates" or
"manners."
h This book is lost.
a

181

r
LONGINUS
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182

dA.A.'

add. Manutius.

E1TEt TTJV KpaTia-T'YJV J.Lo'ipav e1r2

add. Faber.

ON THE SUBLIME 8-9

some of these five classes, one obvious omission being

that of emotion. Now if he thought that sublimity and
emotion were the same thing, and that one always essentially involved the other, he is wrong. For one can find
emotions that are mean and devoid of sublimity, for
instance feelings of pity, grief, and fear. On the other
hand, many sublime passages are quite without emotion.
Examples are countless: take for instance the poefs daring lies about the Aloadae:a
Ossa then up on Olympus they strove to set, then
upon Ossa
Pelion, ashiver with leaves, to build them a ladder
to Heaven;
and the still greater exaggeration that follows,
And t~ey would have done it as well.
Then again in the orators theil: eulogies and ceremonial
speeches and show pieces always include touches of dignity and sublimity, yet are usually void of emotion. The
result is that emotional orators excel least in eulogy, while
panegyrists equally lack emotional power. If, on the other
hand, it never entered Caecilius~ head that emotion
sometimes contributes towards sublimity, and he therefore omitted it as undeserving of mention, then great
indeed is his mistake. I would confidently lay it down that
nothing makes so much for grandeur as genuine emotion
in the right place. It inspires the words as it were Vlith a
fine frenzy and fills them with divine spirit.
9. Now, since the first, I mean natural, greatness plays
a

Odyssey 11.315.

Morus, for EK7Tvov.

183

LONGINUS

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p lost a whole quaternion (8 pages) after a8perrYJf3o'Aov

(above, 8.1); but the two outer pages are preserved in copies
made when the damage was less; these however fail us at this
point. presumes at EV 8 c/>aEL Kat o'AEa-a-ov (9.10).
a

184

Odyssey 11.543-67. Ajax, summoned from Hades, refuses

ON THE SUBLIME 9

a greater part than all the others, here too, even if it is

rather a gift than an acquired quality, we should still do
our utmost to train our minds into sympathy with what is
noble and, as it were, impregnate them again and again
with lofty thoughts. "How?" you will ask. Well, elsewhere I have written something like this, "Sublimity is the
echo of a noble mind." And so even without being spoken
the bare idea often of itself wins admiration for its inherent grandeur. How grand, for instance, is the silence of
Ajax in the Summoning of the Ghosts, a more sublime
than any speech! In the first place, then, it is absolutely
necessary to state whence greatness comes, and to show
that the thought of the genuine orator must be neither
small nor ignoble. For it is impossible that those whose
thoughts and habits all their lives long are petty and
servile should produce anything wonderful, worthy of
immortal life. No, a grand style is the natural product of
those whose ideas are weighty. This is why splendid
remarks come particularly to men of high spirit. Alexander's answer to Parmenio when he said ~~For my part I had
been content ... "h
[Six pages are lost here.]
. . . the distance between earth and heaven. One
might say too that this measured the stature not of Strife
to speak to Odysseus, because he is still angry at the award of
Achilles' armour to Odysseus rather than to himself.
b The story (told in most of the historians of Alexander: see
e.g. Plutarch, Alexander 29), and perhaps derived from Callisthenes, is that Darius offered Alexander territory and one of his
daughters in marriage; Parmenio said "If I were Alexander, I
should have accepted," and Alexander replied .. If I were Parmenio, so should I."

185

LONGINUS

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Evidently Iliad 4.442:

Small is the crest that she rears at the first, but behold her
thereafter
Planting her head in the skies, while she treads with her
feet on the earth.

186

ON THE SUBLIME 9

so much as of Homer.a Quite unlike this is Hesiod~s

description of Gloom, if indeed we are right in adding the
Shield to the list of Hesiod~s works:h
Mucus from her nostrils was running.
He has made the image not terrible, but repulsive. But
see how Homer magnifies the powers of heaven:
Far as a man can see with his eyes in the shadowy
distance,
Keeping his watch on a hilltop, agaze o~ er the winedark ocean,
So far leap at a bound the high-neighing horses of
heaven.c
He uses a cosmic interval to measure their stride. So
supreme is the grandeur of this, one might well say that if
the horses of heaven take two consecutive strides there
will then be no place found forthem in the world. Marvellous too is the imaginat~ve picture of his Battle of the
Gods:
Blared round about like a trumpet the firmament
vast and Olympus;
Shuddering down in the depths, the king of the
dead, Aldoneus,
b Shield

of Heracles 267. Aristophanes of Byzantium was

among the ancient scholars who regarded the Shield as perhaps
not Hesiod's, but Apollonius and others took it to be genuine.
c Iliad 5.770-2.

187

LONGINUS

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rpEp.. 8' ovpEa p..aKpa Kat VAl]

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A conHation of Iliad 21.388 and 20.61-5.
b A proverbial image, cf. (e.g.) [Plutarch] Consolation to
Apollonius 10, Epictetus 4.10.27, Seneca, Agamemnon 592 (with
R. J. Tarrant's note).
a

188

T
ON THE SUBLIME 9

Sprang from his throne with a shuddering cry, for

fear the earthshaker, Poseidon,
Might soon splinter asunder the earth, and his
mansions lie open,
Clear to the eyes of immortals and mortals alike all
uncovered,
Grim and dreary and dank, which the very gods see
with abhorrence.a

I
I

You see, friend, how the earth is split to its foundations,

hell itself laid bare, the whole universe sundered and
turned upside down; and meanwhile everything, heaven
and hell, mortal and immortal alike, shares in the conflict
and danger of that battle. Terrible as these passages are,
they are utterly irreligious and breach the canons of propriety unless one takes them allegorically. I feel indeed
that in recording as he does the wounding of the gods,
their quarrels, vengeance, tears, imprisonment, and all
their manifold passions Homer has done his best to make
the men in the Iliad gods and the gods men. Yet, if we
mortals are unhappy, death is the ~~harbour from our
troubles,''b whereas Homer has given the gods not only
immortal natures but immortal sorrows. The Battle of
the Gods, however, is far surpassed by those passages
which represent the divine nature as truly uncontaminated, majestic, and pure. Take, for instance, the lines
about Poseidon, though they have been treated fully
enough by others before us:
Trembled the woods, and trembled the long-lying
ranges
Yes, and the peaks and the city of Troy and the
ships of Achaia
189

LONGINUS
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Another conflation: Iliad 13.18, 20.60, 13.19, 27-9. In view

of Longinus' comment, the passage was perhaps put together
by earlier critics, and is not simply a confused quotation from
memory.
h This loose quotation of Genesis 1.3-9 has often been suspected of being an interpolation, and indeed the argument runs
on without it perfectly well. But there is no reason why Longinus
a

190

T
l
I

ON THE SUBLIME 9

Under the feet immortal and the oncoming march

of Poseidon.
He set him to drive o, er the swell of the sea, and
the whales at his coming
Capering leapt from the deep and greeted the
voice of their master.
Then the sea parted her waves for joy, and they
flew on the journey. a
Soo, too, the lawgiver of the Jews, no ordinary man, having formed a worthy conception of divine power and
given expression to it, writes at the very beginning of
his Laws: CCGod said,-what? clet there be light,' and
there was light, CLet there be earth,' and there was
,,b
earth .
Perhaps you will not think me boring, my friend, if I
insert here another passage from the poet, one that treats
of human affairs, to show you his habit of entering into
the sublimity of his heroic them~. Darkness and helpless
night suddenly descend upon his Greek army. At his wits,
end Ajax cries:

Zeus Father, rescue from out of the mist the sons of

Achaia,
Brighten the heaven with sunshine, grant us the
sight of our eyes.
Just so it be in daylight, destroy us.c
should not have known it; and the tradition that Caecilius may
have been a Jew suggests a possible source. The syntax of the
sentence is controversial; see now Mazzucchi, pp. 172-4. For
the considerable influence of the passage in the eighteenth century, see esp. Boileau, Reflexions sur le Sublime X, and Robert
Louth's Oxford lectures De sacra poesi Hebraeorum (1753).
c Iliad 17.645-7.

191

T
LONGINUS

EU"'TtV w~ aAY]fJW~ 'TO 7Tai)o~ AtaVTO~, ov yap 'ijv

evxeTat ( ~v yap To atTYJfLa Tov i}pwo~ Ta7TEtVOTEpov ),
'\\'
,
,
,
'
,
,
a/\1\ E7TEtOYJ EV a7TpaKT<f! o-KOTEt TYJV avopEtaV Et~
ov8v yevvaLOV e'lxe 8tafJa-Bat, Ota TavT' ayavaKTWV
OTt 7Tpo~ TTJV fLaXYJV apyet, cpw~ OTt Taxta-Ta alTELTat,
W~ 7TaVTW~ 71}~ apET1}~ EVp~a-WV EVTacptOV a~tOV, KaV
avT(i> Zev~ UV'Tt'TaTTYJTat. aAAa yap ~'OfLYJPO~ fLEV
vfJa8e ovpto~ (TVVEfL7TVEL 'TOL~ aywa-tv Kat OVK aA.A.o
Tt avTo~ 7TE7Tov0ev ~
~'

11

,....

7TVp
ovpEa-t fLaLVYJTat, f3a0EYJ~ EV TapcpEa-tv vA. YJ~'
',./.,.\
' ~'
'
a'f'I\OtU"fLO~ OE 7TEpt U"'TOfLa ytyVE'Tat
/

8eiK~va-t

OfLW~ 8ta T1]~ '08va-a-Eia~ (Kat yap TavTa

7Tpoa-.E7Tt0EwpY]rov ), oTt fJ-EyaA.YJ~

c/Jva-Ew~ v7Toc/JepofLEVYJ~ ~sYJ r8t6v E.a-Ttv E.v y~pq.. TO
cptAOfLVOov. 87}A.o~ yap EK 7TOAAwv 'TE a'AA.wv (J"VVTE'
~
' V7TO
~
'() EU"tV, aTap
, ' OYJ
~ '
,
() EtKW~
TaVTYJV OEVTEpav
TYJV
KaK
Tov 'AEitj.Java Twv 'IA.taKwv 7Ta()YJfLaTwv 8ta Tij~
'0 ova-a-Eta~
~
/
~
,
/~ /
1
,./.,. /
W~ E7TEt(J"OOta TtVa
7TpOa-E7TEt(J"'f'EpEtV
Kat'
A /'
'
'
' \
,./.,. /
'
'
~~
~
VYJ' u.L
EK
TOV,.... Ta~
01\0'f'Vpa-Et~ Kat 'TOV~ OLKTOV~ W~
7TaAat 7Tov 7TpoEyvwa-fLvov~ 2 Tot~ i}pwa-tv E.vravOa
~ ~ ,
, '
, \ \ ' .,, ,. . 'I\ , ~
, ,
7Tpoa-a7TOOLOOVat OV yap a/\1\ YJ TYJ~ 1\Laoo~ E7TtAoyo~ a-T tv T] '08va-a-Eta
7ToA.A.wv

12

8'

f.vEKa

The manuscripts here add rov Tpwi:Kov noAEJLOV, but these

words spoil the sense, and are perhaps a gloss on rwv 'IA.taKwv
naBruuirwv.

192

ON THE SUBLIME 9

These are the true feelings of an Ajax. He does not plead

for his life: such a prayer would demean the hero: but
since the disabling darkness robbed his courage of all
noble use, therefore, distressed to be idle in battle, he
prays for light on the instant, hoping thus at the worst to
find a burial worthy of his courage, even though Zeus be
ranged against him. Here indeed the battle is blown
along by the force of Homer's writing, and he himself
Stormily raves, as the spear-wielding War-god, or
Fire, the destroyer,
Stormily raves on the hills in the deep-lying thickets of woodland;
Fringed are his lips with the foam-froth. a
Yet throughout the Odyssey, which for many reasons we
must not exclude from our consideration, Homer shows
that, as genius ebbs, it is the love of storytelling that characterizes old age. There are indeed. many indications that
he composed this tale after the Iliad; for example,
throughout the Odyssey he introduces as episodes remnants of the adventures at Ilium; yes, and does he not in
this poem render to his heroes their meed of lamentation
as if it were something long known? In fact the Odyssey
is simply an epilogue to the Iliad:
a

Iliad 15.605.

2 1rpoeyvwapi.vot.s

Reiske (i.e. it is the heroes, not the

lamentations, which are "long known").

193

LONGINUS

ev8a JLEV Ata~ KEtTat dp~"io~, v8a 8'

'AxtAAEv~,

E.v8a 8 ITarpoKA.o~, 8EocPtV f.L~a-rwp

, /\
araAavro~,

EV a
,,

13

(}

~'

'

,../.,/\

f: /

Ef.LO~ o/t/\0~ VtO~.

rij~ avrij~ alria~, oif.Lat, rij~ f.LEV 'IA.ta8o~

dno 8

ypacPOJLEV'Y}~ EV aKJLD 'lrVEVJLa'TO~ oA.ov 'TO CYWJLUTtOV

~
'
e
,
,
,
'"'
~E'
opaf.LaTtKOV
V'lrECYT'YJCYaTO
Kat' EVaywvtOV,
T'YJ~
0
'08va-a-Eia~ To n'Aeov 8t'YJY'YJJLaTtKov, onEp t8tov
y~pw~. o8Ev EV TD '08va-a-Eiq. napEtKaa-at Tt~ av
KaTa8voJLEVCf! Tov <:'OJL'Y]pov -ryA.icp, o~ 8ixa Tij~ a-cPo8poT'YJTO~ napaJLEVEt TO f.LEYE8o~. ov yap ETt TOt~
'I\1\taKOt~ EKEtVOt~ 'lrOt'Y}f.LaCYtV ta-OV EVTaV a CY(f!sEt
r TOV
,
/
'~'
'(; Wf.Lal\tCYfLEVa
\
/
<:1,1,
y/
TOVOV,
OVO
Es
Ta' V~'Y}
Kat' e ts'Y}f.LaTa
f.L'Y}8af.LOV AaJLf3avovTa, ov8 T~V npoxva-tv OfLOLav
TWV naA.A.~A.wv na8wv, ov8 TO dyxia-TPOcPOV Ka'i
rl.
/
'lrOI\tTtKOV Kat Tat~ EK T'Y}~ a/\ 'Y} Eta~ o/aVTaa-tat~
KaTa'lrE'lrVKVWJLEVOV, a)\)\' otov V'lrOXWPOVVTO~ EL~ EaVTOV 'f!KEavov Ka'i nEp'i Ta t8ta fLETpa TJfLEpovJLvov 1
\
'
rl. /
~
TO' 1\0t'lrOV
o/atVOVTaL.
TOV f.LE/'E OV~ afL'lrWTtOE~
KaV
/~
~'
TOt~ f.LV WOECYt Kat a'lrtCYTOt~ 'lrl\aVO~. 1\EYWV OE TaVT
ovK ntA.A. YJCYf.Lat TWV v TV '08va-a-Eiq. XEtfLWVWV Ka'i
, \
~'\ \
,\ \ '
TWV 1rEpt TOV K VKI\W'lra
Kat, TtVWV a/\1\WV,
a/\1\a
yijpa~ 8t'Y}YOVJLat, yijpa~ 8' Of.LW~ eOJL~pov nA.~v v
1'"1

'

~'

'

1'"1

1'"1

'\

1'"1

14

1'"1

(}

1'"1

'

'

(}

'"'(}

'(}

1'"1

'

'

So John Price (a seventeenth-century scholar, professor at

Pisa: quoted by Toup) for P's EPYJJJ-OVJJ-Evov ("made desolate").

194

T
ON THE SUBLIME 9

There then Ajax lies, great warrior; there lies

Achilles;
There, too, Patroclus lies, the peer of the gods in
counsel;
There, too, my own dear son. a
It was, I hnagine, for the same reason that, writing the
Iliad in the heyday of his genius he made the whole piece
lively with dra1natic action, whereas in the Odyssey narrative predominates, the characteristic of old age. So in the
Odyssey one may liken Homer to the setting sun; the
grandeur remains without the intensity. For no longer
does he preserve the sustained energy of the great Iliad
lays, the consistent sublimity which never sinks into flatness, the flood of moving incidents in quick succession,
the versatile rapidity and actuality, dense with images
drawn from real life. It is rather as though the Ocean had
retreated into itself and lay quiet within its own confines.
Henceforth we see the ebbing tine of Homer's greatness,
as he wanders in the realm of the fabulous and incredible.
In saying this I have not forgotten the storms in the
Odyssey and such incidents as that of the Cyclops-I am
describing old age, but the old age of a Homer-yet the
Odyssey 3.109-11. Both opinions about the order of Iliad
and Odyssey were held in antiquity: Seneca (De brevitate vitae
13) regards it as a typical example of the useless questions raised
by literary scholars.
a

Other possibilities include Toup's TJ1T'Et.povfLEVov ("becoming dry

land") and, e.g., Tjpef.La KEXVfLEVov ("quietly flowing").

195

LONGINUS
<:/

~71~

a1TaCTL

TOVTOL~

,....,

,....,

TOV

1TpaKTLKOV

TO'

f.LV0tKov.

ITapE~E/3YJV

o'

Et~

1"'.0' ,
Tav

w~ EcpYJV, tva Of.t~atfLL w~

'
,
' 1 Ta'
el~ Afjpov E.vtoTE pq.crTov KaTa' TYJV
a1TaKfLYJV
"e'
'
~
'
Ta' 7Tpt' TOV
aCTKOV
JLeyaAocPvfi 1TapaTpE1TETat, Ota

KaL TOV~

EK

:>/ ,./.,.

/~

KtpKYJ~ CTVOfLOpcpoVfLEVOV~, ov~

\

'

'

'

,....,

0 ZwtA.o~
\

6f'YJ XOLptota KA.aLOVTa, Kat TOV V1TO TWV 1Tf.J\.f.LaOWV

~
W~

'
,J,./
A/
'
'
'
Vf.OCTCTOV
1TapaTp6f'OfLVOV
uta
Kat' TOV
1TL
TOV,....,
~/'

vavaytov oex

,.~.,.

YJfLEpa~

' /0

:>/

'

'

acrtTov Ta TE 1TEpt TYJV fLVYJ-

'

.,

~I\

,./.,. /

CTTYJPO'f'ovtav a1Tt ava. TL yap av aA.A.O 'f'YJCTatfLEV

,....,
.,,
1"'.>/
,...,A,'/
TaVTa YJ T(f? OVTL TOV u.LO~ f.VV1TVta;
A
/
~'
.:1
/
()
'
'
'
u.f.VTEpOV
Of. f.LVEKa 1TpOCTLCTTOptCT W Ta KaTa TYJV

15

~08vcrcrf.tav, 01TW~

ij

CTOL yvwptfLOV,

w~ TJ a1TaKfL~ TOV

1raOov~ E.v Tot~ fLEyaA.ot~ crvyypacpevcrt KaL 1TOLYJTat~

el~ -ftOo~ eKAverat. rotavra yap 1rov Ta 1TEpL T~v Tov

~0 ~

OVCTCTEW~
~/

KWf.L(f!OLa

, () LKW~
,. . ,

YJ

/ ,

TL~ f.CTTL~

TOV~

ovKovv
'

1
2

'

'

OLOVEL

YJ 01\.0YOVfLEVYJ.

A.6yov~

8vvafLEVov,

E1TLCTKEo/WfLE0a.

e1Tet8~ 1racr" Tot~ 1TpayfLacrt c/Jvcret crvve8pevet

,....,
TaL~

TLVa fLOpta
yevotT

'0 \

f3 LOJ\.OYOVfLEVa
\ /
,/
OLKLaV,

vvv, er Tt KaL ETEpov xotfLEV vl/JYJAov~

10. ci>epe
1TOLEtv

, ,. . ,

aV"l:(f?

"'

,....,

av YJfLLV

c:-t\
VAaL~
c:-t, Ir
v'rov~

CTVVV1TapxovTa,
'

'

,....,

'

'C

f.~
,./.,.

avayK'Y}~
/

atrtov TO rwv EfL'f'EPOfLEVwv

Manutius, for P's aKfL~V.

So Toll for P's eKcpEpofLEvwv.

Aeolus imprisoned the winds in a wineskin: Odyssey

10.19-22.
a

196

ON THE SUBLIME 9-10

fact is that in every one of these passages the mythical

element predominates over the real.
I have been led into this digression to show you, as I
said, that great genius with the decline of vigour often
lapses very easily into nonsense-there is the story of
the wineskina and the men whom Circe turned into
swineb-zoilus called them ''porkers in tears"-there is
the nurturing of Zeus like a nestling by the doves,c
Odysseus> ten days without food on the wrecked ship,d
and the incredible story of the suitors' slaying. e Can one
call these things anything but veritable dreams of Zeus ?f
There is another justification for our considering the
Odyssey as well as the Iliad. I wanted you to realize how,
in great writers and poets, declining emotional power
passes into character portrayals. For instance, his character sketches of the daily life in Odysseus' household constitute a sort _of comedy of character.
10. Well, then, let us see whether we can find anything else that can make style' sublime. Since with all
things there are associated certain elements, inherent in
their substance, it follows of necessity that we shall find
b Odyssey

10.237. Zoilus of Amphipolis-nicknamed

Homeromastix, Scourge of Ho1ner-was a fourth-century sophist
and moralist who criticized improbable and inappropriate features in the epic.
c Zeus supplied with ambrosia by doves: Odyssey 12.62.
d Odyssey 12.447.
e Odyssey 22.
fAn obscure phrase, probably suggesting that, Homer being
Zeus of poets (cf. Quintilian 10.1.46), he sometimes dozes and
dreams (bonus dorrnitat Homerus, Horace, Ars Poetica 359).

197

LONGINUS
'\/
EKI\EYELV

' 'Ta
'
aEt

/
KatpuvTaTa

Kat'

""'
TaVTa

TYJ""'

'
1Tpoc;

''\ \
\
'
() /
/
~I
""'
""'
al\1\
'Y}I\a
E1TUTVV
(TEL Ka () a1TEp
EV
TL (TUJ{-La
1TOLELV
8vvaa-Oat 1 f-LEV yap Ti} EKAoyiJ TOV aKpoaTT]v TWV
1 8 Ti} 1TVKvwa-Et Twv EKAEAEYf-LEVWV
AYJf-Lf-LcLTwv,

o
o

oiov ~ '!.a1TcpW Ta (TV{-L{3atVOVTa Tate;

1Tpoa-ayETaL.

pwTtKa'ic; 1-Laviatc; 1Ta0-r}{-LaTa EK TWV 1TapE1TOf-LEVWV

Kat EK T-ijc; aAYJOEiac; avT-ijc; EKaa-TOTE Aaf-Lf3avEL.

1TOV

~'
' apETYJV
'
' a1TOOELKVV'Tat;
'
~ /
~'
,,
' ""' Kat'
OE
TYJV
OTE
Ta' aKpa
aVTWV
~
/
~
' Kat' EKI\ES
' \ / (; at Kat' Etc;
' al\1\
''\ \ 'Y}I\a
\
V1TEpTETaf-LEVa
OELVYJ
(TVV-

8-ija-aL.

cpaivETai f-LOL K-ijvoc; ta-oc; Oota-tv

,,

,,

,,,

)/

Ef-Lf-LEV WVYJp, O'TTLc; EVaVTLOc; 'TOL

'7 /

'

\ /

.,..~

,/....

Ll:,aVEL Kat 1Tf\a(TLOV aov o/WVEL'

/
a-ac; V1TaKOVEL
\
/
'
/
'
Kat' YEI\ata-ac;
Lf-LEpoEv,
TO/ 1-L ' YJ'3' f-LaV
~/
' (TTY)/() Ea-LV E1TTOata-EV.
'
/
KapotaV
EV

we; yap <c;); a-' t8w f3poxE' we; f-LE cpwvac;

,~,

,,, ,,

OVOEV 7 ELKEL.
aA.A.a Kaf-L {-LEV yA.wa-a-a aye AE7TTOV

8'

avTtKa XP~ 1TVp V1To8E8p6f-LaKEV

,
/
~'
, ~' ,,
' '
/
01T1TaTEa-a-t o ovoEv opYJf-LIL , E1Ttpo{-L/3Eta-t 8' CLKOVat
' ~ / ' ,,~
2
/
/
a oE 1-L topwc; KaKXEETat, TPOf-LOc;
1Ta'ia-av aypEt, X A.wpoTEpa
Ef-Lf-LL. TEOvaKYJV

8'

~'

oE

8 1TOLac;

oA.iyw '1Tt8EVYJc;

cpaivo!L' <Ef-LaVTq_>

'\ \' 1TaV

""' TOI\f-LaTOV,
/\
' 't Kat' 1TEVYJTa
/
t3
al\1\a
E7TEL
198

ON THE SUBLIME 10

one factor of sublimity in a consistently happy choice of

these constituent elements, and in the power of combining them together as it were into an organic whole. The
first procedure attracts the reader by the selection of
ideas, the second by the density of those selected. Sappho, for instance, never fails to take the emotions incident
to the passion of love from its attendant symptoms and
from real life. And wherein does she show her excellence? In the skill with which she selects and combines
the most striking and intense of those symptoms.
I think him God's peer that sits near you face to
face, and listens to your sweet speech and
lovely laughter.
It's this that makes my heart flutter in my breast. If
I see you but for a little, my voice comes no
more and my tongue is broken.
At once a delicate flame runs through my limbs; I
see nothing with my eyes, and my ears thunder.
The sweat pours down: shivers grip me all over. I
am grown paler than grass, and seem to
myself to be very near to death.
But all must be endured, since ...
Sappho fr. 31, in D. A. Campbell (ed.), Greek Lyric I (Loeb
Classical Library).
a

Pearce for P's oin both places.

P has tJ;vxpo~ after iopw~ (so accented).
3 We have not sought to reproduce P's text here in detail.
1 So

199

LONGINUS

~
W~,

/r
OV' (} aVf.LasEtS,

~ <'0 TO>
' 1 aVTO
' ' TYJV
'
.1.
'
V1T
'f'VXYJV
TO'

lfWf.La TQS aKoa~ T~V yA_wo-o-av Ta~ oljJEtS T~V xpoav,

/ ()'
1rav

w~

'\\ /
~
/
' r . . . Kat-' Ka ()'
a/\.1\0Tpt-a
OLOLXOf.LEVa
E1TLsYJTEL

-:1
' /
'
' \
..... ,/...
af.La
'f'VXETaL Kf!:ETaL,
ai\Oyto-TEL
t.ppOVEL [ ~ yap c/Jo{3ELTat ~ 1Tap' oA.[yov TE0VYJKEV] 2 tva
/

V1TEVaVTLWCTEL~

-:1
'
'
,/...
/
.....
~'
/
f.LYJ' EV
'TL 1TEpL' aVTYJV
1Ta' ( ) 0~ t.paLVYJTaL,
1Ta () WV
OE
lfVV-

ooo~.

'
' TOLavTa
.....
'
' Epwvra~,
, .....
1ravra
f.LEV
yt-vETaL
1TEpL'rov~

Aijlji~.-~ 8' w~

EcPYJV TWV aKpwv KaL ~ EL~ TaVTO o-vv-

atpEo-L~ a1TEt-pyao-aro r~v tox~v.

ov1TEp oif.LaL KaL

E1TL TWV XELf.LWVWV rpo1TOV 0 1TOLYJT~~ EKAaf.Lf3avEt 'TWV

/
\
/
~'
'
'
1TapaKOKOV () OVVTWV
Ta' xai\E1TWTaTa.
0 f.LEV yap Ta
'Aptf.Lao-1TELa 1rot~o-a~ EKE'iva otETaL 8Etva
eavf.L' ~f.LLV KaL TOVTO f.LEYa cppEo-LV ~f.LETEPYJCTLV.
~~ ~
('/~
'
' ' () ' '
\ '
avopE~ vowp vat-ova-t-v a1ro X ovo~ EV 1TEAayEcrcrt
8v&rYJvoi rtvf.~ Ela-tv, xova-L yap pya 1TOVYJpa,
~'
' EV
' ao-rpoto-L,
~~
,'f'VXYJV
I.
'
Of.Lf.LaT

~'

' ' 1TOVT(f!

'
~~
EVL
EXOVCTLV.

~ 1TOV 1TOAAa ()EQL(JL cp[A.a~ ava XELpa~ EXOVTE~

EVXOVTaL lf1TAayxvoLo-L KaKw~ ava{3aAAOf.LEVOL(JL.

1TaVTL oif.LaL 8ijA.ov, w~ 1TAEOV aveo~ EXEL Ta AEYOf.LEVa

o 8

~ 8o~.
1 Toll:

P has 1nr'

2 [~ . . .

(''Of.LYJpo~ 1rw~;

yap a1ro 1roA.A.wv

avro.

rBvYJKEv] ("she is either afraid or at the point of

death") deleted by Weiske. Fyfe conjectured ~ yap cPot,{3arat- ~
. . . r0vYJKEv ("she who is at the point of death is surely beside
herself').

200

ON THE SUBLIME 10

Is it not wonderful how she summons at the same time,

soul, body, hearing, tongue, sight, skin, all as though they
had wandered off apart from herself? She feels contradictory sensations, freezes, burns, raves, reasons, so that
she displays not a single emotion, but a whole congeries
of emotions. Lovers show all such symptoms, but what
gives supreme merit to her art is, as I said, the skill with
which she takes up the most striking and combines them
into a single whole. It is, I fancy, much in the same way
that the poet in describing storms picks out the most
alarming circumstances. The author of the Arimaspeia, a
to be sure, thinks these lines awe-inspiring:
Here is another thing also that fills us with feelings
of wonder,
Men that dwell on the water, away from the earth,
on the ocean.
Sorrowful wretches they are, and theirs is a
grievous employment:
Fixing their eyes on the stars, their lives they
entrust to the waters.
Often, I think, to the gods they lift up their hands
and they pray;
Ever their innermost parts are terribly tossed to
and fro.
Anyone can see, I fancy, that this is more elegant than
awe-inspiring. But how does Homer do it? Let us take
Aristeas ofProconnesus (see J.D. P. Bolton, Aristeas ofProconnesus, Oxford 1962, 8-15) wrote an epic description of the
peoples of the far North: Herodotus (4.27) interprets Arimaspi
as derived from Scythian words meaning one-eyed. This passage
is fr. 1 Kinkel, fr. 7 Bolton, fr. 11 Bernabe.
a

201

LONGINUS
Aeyf.a-()w

EV 8'

E7TEa-',

w~

OTE

EV

KVf.La {}ofl

VTJi" 1TECYYJCYL

'A.af3pov v1ra'i vEcpf.wv avf.LOTpcp~,

iJ 8 TE

,.....

1raa-a
axvn V1TEKpvcp()TJ, aVEf.LOLO
e

LCYTL([J

'

Ef.L

8ELVO~ a-r}TTJ~

/3 pEf.LETaL,
/
/
A.. /
TPOf.LEOVa-L oE TE '+'pEva
~/

,.....

vavTaL
~

OELOLOTE~

'
e
'
TVT {)'OV yap
V1TK

{)

/
A../
avaTOLO
'+'pOVTaL.

,.....

KLV"

,\ /

~'

' t /\

!>/~,

01\L')IOV 0 OLa S VJ\OV aLO pVKL.

7TATJV f.LLKpov aVTO Kat y'Aacpvpov E1TOLTJCYEV UVTL
A.. f3
,. . .
:v
~'
/
'
/ ~
,
/
'+'0 pov ETL OE 1TapwpLa-E TOV KLVOVVOV EL1TWV
et: C /\
!>/~' '
/
1"
'
""'
'
/
2 t: ~'
'
S VJ\OV aLO EpVKEL OlJKOVV a1TELp')IEL 0 OE 1TOLTJTTJ~
'
OVK

'

EL~

t:/
c
a1Tas

/r

1TapopL~::,EL

~
/ aJ\1\a
'\ \ '
TO' OELVOV,

'

TOV~

' ' KaL'

aEL

f.Lovovovx'i KaTa 1rnv Kvf.La 1To'A'AaKL~ a1ToAAvf.Lf.vov~

,
A.. ,. . .
ELKOVO')Ipa'+'EL.
!>/

ova-a~

'
KaL' f.LTJV
/

'

/
,
() /
1rp0 () EO"EL~
aa-vv
ETOV~
A.. /

'

,\ \ /\

1rapa '+'va-Lv KaL EL~ a AA T}Aa~

[ v1reK 8avaToLo] 3 T~ f.LEV a-vvEf.L-

a-vvavayKaa-a~

a-vf.Lf3Laa-af.LEvo~

'

Ta~

/
1TL1TTOVTL
1Ta/ { ) EL TO'

!>/

E7TO~

e
/
Of.LOLW~

'{3 aa-aVLCYEV,
/

TTJ,. . .

~'

OE

TOV E1TOV~ a-vv()'A.il/JEL TO 1Taeo~ aKpw~ U1TE1TAaa-aTO

1

Manutius: P has a1TEipyEL.

OVKOVV a1TELPYEL (omitted by Robortello) may be a gloss on
pvKEL (so Ruhnken, Mazzucchi).
3 [ v1TEK Oavarot-o] deleted by "G.S.A." (1811).
2

202

ON THE SUBLIME 10

one example of many:

He fell on the host as a wave of the sea on a hurrying vessel,
Rising up under the clouds, a boisterous son of the
storm-wind.
The good ship is lost in the shroud of the foam, and
the breath of the tempest
Terribly roars in the sails; and in their heart tremble the sailors,
By the breadth of a hand swept out from under the
jaws of destruction. a
Aratus, too, tried to adapt this same idea:
Only the tiniest plank now bars them from bitter
destruction. b
But he has demeaned the idea and made it pretty instead
of awe-inspiring. Moreover, he dismisses the danger
when he says, "The plank bars them from destruction."
Why then, it keeps it of( Homer, on the other hand,
instead of dismissing the danger once and for all, depicts
the sailors as being all the time, again and again, with
every wave on the very brink of death. Moreover, by forcing into an abnormal union prepositions not usually
compoundedc he has tortured his language into conformity with the impending disaster, magnificently figured
the disaster by the compression of his language, and
Iliad 15.624-8.
h Aratus, Phaenomena 299.
c I.e.1nreK is a compound of 1nro ('under') and EK ('from').
a

203

LONGINUS
'

,... \ /l;

,...

'

Kat fLOVOV OVK EVETV7TWCTEV TYJ 1\E~ Et TOV KLVOVVOV TO

'~ /
ee e
'
f)
/
rf.... /
"
'
3/ \ \
e
tOtWJ.La
V7TEK
avaTOtO 'YEPOVTat.
OVK ai\1\W~ 0

'Apxi'Aoxo~
\

Tov vavayiov, Kat E7Tt Til 1Tpoa-ayyeA

f) /
tt t
/
'
'
1' "
rf....
/
U.'YJfLOCT EVTJ~
ECT7TEpa fLEV yap TJV
o/TJCTtV.

1\tf!- 0

E7Tt

'\ \ '
'
'C
'
e
~'
1 Et7TOt
3/
'
1
~
al\1\a
Ta~ E~ ox a~ W~ <av>
Tt~ apta-TtVOTJV

EKKafJ-r}pavTE~
~'

3/

aCTEfLVOV 'YJ
\

E7TtCTVVEfJ1]Kav,
\ ' ,

CTXOI\tKOV

'

cpA.otWDE~

ovSv
/

EyKaTaTaTTOVTE~

""'

'

('/\

'

1\VfLatVETat yap TavTa TO OI\OV, wa-avet

~'

Ota fLECTOV.
,fr /

~vyJ.LaTa

17~\

apatWJ.LaTa EfL7TOtOVVTa <el~> 2 fLEYEf)TJ CTVVOtKOOOfLOVfLEVa 3 Ti7 1rpo~ aA_A_'YJA_a CTXECTEt CTVVTETEtXtCTfLEVa.

11. ~vveSp6~

ECTTt Tat~ 7TpOEKKEtfLEVat~ apETTJ Kat

~v KaAova-tv avfTJa-tv, OTaV DEXOfLEVWV TWV 7TpayJ.La' ,

'
/~
,
\ \ '
TWV Kat aywvwv KaTa 7TEptooov~ apxa~ TE 7TOI\I\a~
/

'

'

Kat

/ \

('/

~'

3/

ETEpa

'

E7TEtCTKVKI\OVfLEVa
J.Leyf)'rJ a-vvexw~ E7TEta-ayTJTat KaTa E7TtTaa-tv. 4 TovTo
ava7TaVI\a~

~'

ETEpot~

~I

3/

~\

Ota T07TTJYOptav,. EtTE OEtVWCTtV, 'YJ 7TpayJ.LaTWV

KaTaa-KEvwv E7Ttppwa-tv, EtT' E7TOtKoDofLiav 5 pywv

T]

1rafJwv (J.Lvptat yap

OE EtTE

'

('/

tOEat
'

TWV
1

av~-r}a-ewv)
e

'~'

yivotTO,
~'

XP'YJ ytvwa-KEtv OfLW~ Tov PTJTOpa, w~ ovoev av Tov1

e ' CTVCTTat'Y]
/ xwpt~
' V~OV~
('1,fr
\
'
'
\
TWV Ka f) ' aVTO
TEI\EtOV,
7TI\1]V
Et

fL~ EV OLKTOt~ apa v~ ilia ~ EV EVTEA.tCTfLOL~, TWV

1

<av> add. Ruhnken.

<El~> add. Roberts.

3 a-vvoLKoDofLOVfLEVa

fLOVfLEVa.
4 E7rtraa-Lv

a-vvoLKovo-

Wilamowitz, for E7rt{3aa-Lv.

K marg., Portus: P has E7rOLKovofLtav.

5 E7rotKoDof.Ltav

204

K marg., Manutius: P has

8'

ON THE SUBLIME 10-11

almost stamped on the diction the precise form of the

danger-''swept out from under the jaws of destruction.'=Comparable to this is the passage of Archilochus about
the shipwrecka and the description of the arrival of the
news in Demosthenes. "Now it was evening," etc.b What
they have done is to clean up, as it were, the very best of
the main points, and to fit them together, allowing nothing affected or undignified or pedantic to intervene.
These things ruin the whole, by introducing, as it were,
gaps and crevices into masses which are built together,
walled in by their mutual relationships.
11. Closely allied to the merits set out above is what is
called amplification. Whenever the subject matter and
the issues admit of several fresh starts and halting-places
from section to section, then one great phrase after
another is wheeled into place with increasing force. This
may be dol}e either by the development of a commonplace, or by exaggeration, or by laying stress on facts or
arguments, or by careful build-up of actions or feelings.
There are indeed countless kinds of amplification. Still
the speaker must recognize that none of these methods
can achieve its goal on its own, without sublimity. One
may indeed very well make an exception where the effect
required is one of commiseration or depreciation, but in
Archilochus frr. 105-6 West.
b De corona 169: "Now it was evening, and there came one
with a message for the prytaneis, that Elatea had fallen"; there
follows a vivid description of the ensuing panic at Athens. Elatea
fell to Philip late in 339.
a

205

LONGINUS
'l:.

~'\\

aJ\J\WV

av~

~'

I'"\

'~,,t

,,

\'

',.1.,.1\

'Y}TtKWV OTOV 1TEp av TO V'fJ'Y}J\OV

a'PEJ\YJ~, W~

tPVXTJV E~atprrJa-Et~ a-Wf.LaTo~ Ev(}v~ yap aTOVEt Kat

KEVOVTat TO Ef.L1TpaKTOV aVTWV 1-LTJ TOt~ vt{lEa-t a-vv-

iJ f.LEVTOL (napEt TOV

E1TtppwvVVf.LEVOV.

apTLW~ ELp'Y}-

f.LEVOV TU VVV 1TapayyEAAOf.LEVa ( 1TEptypaTj yap Tt~

~v EKEtVO TWV aKpwv A'YJf.Lf.LaTWV Kat EL~ EVOT'Y}Ta a-vvTa~ t~) Kat TLVt Ka86'A.ov TWV avtrr}a-EWV 1Tapa'A'AaTTEt
TU vtfi'YJ, Tij~ a-a'YJVELa~ avTij~ EVEKa a-VVTOf.LW~ (noptI

a-TEOV.

12. ~0 f.LEV oilv TWV TExvoypawv opo~ Ef.LOty' OVK

~~
a pEa-TO~. av~ 'Y}a-t~ Ea-Tt, 'Paa-t, J\Oyo~ f.LEYE 0~ 1TEpt'

Tt

{}

'

Et~

(;

'

,./.,.

~
I
V1TOKEtjLEVOt~

I'"\

TOt~

{}

~ I
'
'
1\
OVVaTat
yap
af.LEJ\Et
Kat'

vt{lov~ Kat 1Ta8ov~ Kat Tp01TWV Elvat KOtVO~ OVTO~

opo~, E1TEtDTj KaKEtva T~ 'Aoy([) 1TEptTL8'Y}a-t 1TOtOV Tt

f.LEYEe~~-

EjLOt

<PatVETat TaVTa a'A'Arr}'Awv 1Tapa'A-

iJ KEtTat TO f.LEV .vtfio~ EV 8tapf.LaTt,

~ 8' aV~'Y}' '

\ I{}
~ ' c.\
I
~ '
a-t~ Kat EV 1TJ\'Y} Et" Ot
0 KEtVO f.LEV KaV VO'Y}f.LaTt EVt
1TOAAaKt~, ~ 8 1TaVTW~ f.LETU 1T0(]"0T'Y}TO~ Kat 1TEptOV-

'AaTTEtV,

I'"\

a-ta~

~,./.,.I

'

TtVO~

V'Pta-TaTat.

'

'

~~

'

<:

Kat Ea-TtV 'YJ

~~ (;

av~ 'Y}(J"t~,

W~

TV1T([) 1TEpt'A.a{3EtV, (J"VjL1T'Arr}pwa-t~ a1TO 1TaVTWV TWV

Ef.LEpof.Lvwv
'

I'"\

Tot~ 1rpayf.Laa-t f.Lopiwv

ta-xvpo1TOtOVa-a

I'"\

TYJ

'

I'"\

E1Ttf.LOVYJ

'

TO

Kat

To1rwv,
I

KaTEa-KEVaa-f.LEVOV,

TaVTYJ Tij~ 1T"ta-TEW~ 8tEa-Twcra, OTt ~ f.LEV TO ''YJTOVjLEvov a1To8Et<KVVCTtv> 1 ...

1 The

206

completion of the word is due to Manutius.

ON THE SUBLIME 11-12

all other forms of amplification to remove the touch of

sublimity is like taking soul from body. For their practical
effect instantly loses its vigour and substance if it is not
reinforced by the strength of the sublime. But what is the
difference between this topic of advice and what we discussed just now, namely the delimitation and unifying
arrangement of vital points? What in general is the distinction between instances of amplification and those of
sublimity? I must define these matters briefly in order to
make my position clear.
12. The definition given by writers on the art of
rhetoric does not satisfy me. Amplification, they say, is
language which invests the subject with grandeur.a Now
that definition could obviously serve just as well for the
sublime, the emotional, and the metaphorical style, since
these also invest the language with some quality of
grandeur. J?ut in my view they are each distinct. Sublimity lies in elevation, amplification rather in amount; and so
you often find sublimity in a single idea, whereas amplification always goes with quantity and a certain degree of
redundance. To give a rough definition, amplification
consists in accumulating all the aspects and topics inherent in the subject and thus strengthening the argument
by dwelling upon it. Therein it differs from proof, which
demonstrates the required point ...

[Two pages are lost here.]

Aristotle (Rhetoric 1.9.1368a27) makes the point that
amplification is most appropriate to epideictic speeches, because
the facts are already admitted, and what remains as the speaker's
task is to add grandeur and beauty.
a

207

LONGINUS

\
. . . 1TJ\OVCTLWTaTa,
Ka () a7rEp TL
/

/\

1TEJ\ayo~,

1TE1TTapi.vov KEXVTat 1TOAAaxiJ fLEYE()o~.

KaTa A.6yov

EV

oyKcp

Kat

oeEv OtfLaL

o S Ka{}E-

fLEyaAo1TpE1TEL

"' '
/
' \ \ '
'
E..rVKTaL
fLEV,
aJ\1\
OVX

~!
OVTW~

CTEfLVOTYJTL OVK
'
/
1 OV' KaT '
E1TECTTpa1TTaL.

8 TLVa :q TavTa, EfLOt 8oKEL, cPLATaTE

(A.yw 8, <El> 2 Kat ~fLLV w~ ~'EAAYJCTLV

aAAa
TL.aVE,

'
ava-

P~TWP aTE 1Ta()YJTLKWTEpo~ 1TOAV TO

0 fLEV

8ui1rvpov EXEL Kat ()vfLLKw~ EKcPAEYOfLEvov,

a-Tw~

'

EL.~

/
) Kat'
TL YLVWCTKELV

'"'
\ /
,
/
1TJ\EOV a1TOTOfLqJ,

OE

TEpEv-

EcPELTaL

K LKEpwv
/
A
()/
'
TOV. . . UYJfLOCT
EVOV~ EV
\\ /
~
'
' ' ~'.1.
'
fLEYE/() ECTL 1TapaJ\J\aTTEL.
0 fLEV yap EV V'f'EL TO

TOL~

~'

K LKEpWV
/
,
EV

'

XVCTEL" KaL

'

fLEV

~fLETEpo~ 8ul TO fLETa f3a~ EKaa-Ta ETL 8 Taxov~

pWfLYJ~ 8ELVOTYJTO~ oiov KaLEtv TE &./La Kat 8Lap1Ta,ELV
CTKYJ1Tp(i> TLVL 1TapELKcL,OLT' UV ~ KEpavv(i> 0 8 KtKE-

ws

pwv

UfLcPLAacP~~ TL~ EfL1TPYJCTfLO~ OtfLaL 1TcLVTYJ

VEfLETaL KaL avELAELTaL, 1!oAv E.xwv KaL E1TLf.J-OVov aEL

'"'
~
\
/
,, \ \ ' aJ\1\0LW~
'\ \ /
'
TO' KaLOV
KaL' OLaKJ\YjpOVOf.J-OVfLEVOV
aJ\1\0T
EV

avT(i>

Kat

KaTa

8ia8oxas

aAAa

avaTpEcPOfLEVOV.

TavTa f.J-EV VfLEL~ av afLELVOV E1TLKPLVOLTE, KaLpo~

TOV LlYJfLOCT()EVLKOV fLEV vlj.Jov~ Kat V1TEpTETafLEVOV EV

Ta'i~ 8Etvwa-Ea-L Kat To'i~ a-cPo8po'i~ 1Ta()Ea-L Kal,

TE

E.v()a

8EL

TOV aKpoaT~V TO a-vvoA.ov EK1TAij~aL, Tij~

xvo-Ew~ 01TOV XP~ KaTavTA ija-aL.. T01TYJYOPLaL.~

' \ /
KaL.' E1TLJ\OYOL~

TE

KaL'

yap
\ /
/
KaTa' TO' 1TJ\EOV
KaL.' 1TapEKf3 aCTECTL
KaL'
TE

'"'~~
o/paa-TLKOL~

~
'"'e
/
a1TaCTL KaL' '
E1TLOELKTLKOL~, LCTTOpLaL~

'"',./...

TOL~

,./...
\
/
o/VCTLOJ\OyLaL~,

'
KaL' OVK

'\ /
"'\ \
01\LYOL~ aJ\1\0L~

/
fLEpECTLV

/~

apfLOOLO~.

13. ~'OTL J.LEVTOL

208

o rrA.aTwv ( E1TaVEL.fLL yap) TOL.ovTcp

T
I

ON THE SUBLIME 12-13

very rich indeed: like a sea, often flooding a vast

expanse of grandeur. I should say then that in point of
style the orator, being more emotional, has abundant
warmth and passionate glow, whereas Plato, steady in his
majestic and stately dignity, is less intense, though of
course by no means frigid. It is in the very same
respect-so I feel, my dear Terentianus, if indeed we
Greeks may be allowed an opinion-that Cicero differs
from Demosthenes in his grand effects. Demosthenes,
strength is usually in rugged sublimity, Cicero's in diffusion. Our countryman with his violence, yes, and his
speed, his force, his terrific power of rhetoric, burns, as it
were, and scatters everything before him, and may therefore be compared to a flash of lightning or a thunderbolt.
Cicero seems to me like a widespread conflagration,
rolling along and devouring all around it: his is a strong
and steady .fire, its flames duly distributed, now here, now
there, and fed by fresh supplies of fuel. You Romans, of
course, can form a better judgement on this question, but
clearly the opportunity for Demosthenes' sublimity and
nervous force comes in his intensity and violent emotion,
and in passages where it is necessary to amaze the audience; whereas diffuseness is in place when you need to
overwhelm them with a flood of rhetoric. The latter then
mostly suits the treatment of a commonplace, a peroration, a digression, and all descriptive and epideictic passages, as well as historical and scientific contexts, and
many other types of writing.
13. However, to return to Plato, though the stream of
I

I, .

1 Bentley conjectured
2

a7Taa-rpa7TTEL, "flashes like lightning."

<el> add. K marg., Manutius.

209

LONGINUS

'

, ,

,. ., II \

aveyvwKWt; Ta EV TYJ

crpov~a-Ewt;,"

apa

((OL

~'

'
/
EVWXtat~

'

,. .,

01\tTEU/: TOV TV1TOV OVK ayvoEtt;.

cPYJCYL,

apET1j~

((KaL

U1TEtpot

' '
/
/
e
aEt
U"VVOVTE~ KaTW W~
,,
A.../
'
/
\
""'
~ '
(.)/
'
EOtKE \f-'EpOVTat Kat TaVTYJ 1TI\aVWVTat Ota fJtOV, 1rp0~

OE Kat

""'
/
TOt~ TOtOV'TOt~

, ,\ e, avw
, OV'T,, , aVEfJI\E.f'aV
, /(.)\ ,,t 1TW1TOTE
/
,, , ,
OVT aVYJ-

~,

OE TO a/\ YJ

E~

Ka8apa~ rofJDov1j~
'
'\ \ '
(.)
/
~/
' ' (.)\ /
eyeva-aVTO, al\1\a fJOU"KYJfLaTWV OtKYJV KaTW aEt fJAEOVDE

VEX8YJa-av

{3e(3aov

KaL

TE

Kat'

1TOVTE~

Q/

,.1.,./

KEKV\f-'O'TE~

'

'f/

fJOU"KOVTat

""'
')'YJV

Et~

xopTa~:,OfLEVOt

Kat'

',

Kat

'

/'f

Et~

OXEVOVTE~,

Tpa1TE~:,a~

'(/

Kat EVEKa

rij~ TOVTWV 1TAEoveta~ AaKTL,OVTE~ KaL KVptTTOVTE~

d'A'A~'Aov~ a-tDYJpots KEpaa-t KaL o1TAats a1TOKTtvvv~ ' a1TAYJU"TtaV.

' \
"
OVU"t Ot
/

TJfLLV O~TO~ av~p, el (3ov'AoLfLE8a

8'

'EvDELKVVTat

fLY] Karo'AtywpELV, w~ KaL aAAYJ 'Ttt; 1Tapa Ta ELPYJfLEVa

e ~'

'

'

'

OOOt; E1Tt Ta

EfL1Tpoa-8ev
/

fLtfLYJU"t~

TE

e,fr

'

V~Yjl\a

/
TEtV6L.

fLEya'Awv
'

/
~'
'
/
(/
""'
1TOta
OE Kat Ttt; aVTYJ; TWV

a-vyypacrwv

'1 /\

Kat :,Yji\WU"tt;.

KaL

Kat ')'E TOVTOV,

1TOtYJrwv
A.../\
\f-'ti\TaTE,

a1TpLt EXWfLEOa TOV U"K01TOV" 1TOAAoL yap a'A'AoTpL(f!

eEO\f-'OpOVVTat
1TVEVfLaTt 'TOV aVTOV Tp01TOV, OV Kat TYJV
,,
/
\ /r
,, e
/ \/
A...

IIv etav

""'

'

''

t.\

' '

Tpt1TOOt 1TAYJU"ta~:,ova-av, ev a
piJyJ.La EU"Tt yijt; ava1TVEov 1 Wt; craa-tv UTfLOV E.v8eov,
avr68ev
~

1\0')'0t;

EXEt

E')'KVfLOVa

ovvafLEWt; 1TapavrtKa

rij~

8atfLOVLOV
~""'

XPYJCYfL(f!OEtV

Ka8ta-TafLEVYJV
KaT

' 'E1Tt1Tvotav
/

OVTWt; U1TO T1jt; TWV apxaiwv fLE')'a'Aocrvtat; ELt; Tat;

1

dva1rvf.ov Manutius for dva7TvE'iv P.

Theaetetus 144B.

210

ON THE SUBLIME 13

his words flows as noiselessly as oil, a he none the less

attains sublimity. You have read the Republic and you
know the sort of thing. "Those who have then no experience," he says, "of wisdom or of goodness, living always
amid banquets and other such festivities, are seemingly
borne downwards and there they wander all their lives.
They have never yet raised their eyes to the truth, never
been carried upwards, never tasted true, abiding pleasure. They are like so many cattle; stooping downwards,
with their eyes always bent on the earth and on their dinner tables, they feed and fatten and breed, and so greedy
are they for these enjoyments that they kick and butt with
hooves and horns of iron and kill each other for insatiate
desire."h
Here is an author who shows us, if we will condescend
to see, that there is another road, besides those we have
mentioned, -which leads to sublimity. What and what
manner of road is this? Zealuus imitation of the great
prose writers and poets of the past. That is the aim, dear
friend; let us hold to it with all our might. For many are
carried away by the inspiration of another, just as the
story runs that the Pythian priestess on approaching the
tripod where there is, they say, a rift in the earth, exhaling
divine vapour, c thereby becomes impregnated with the
divine power and is at once inspired to utter oracles; so,
too, from the natural genius of those old writers there
b Republic

9.586A, with some changes and omissions.

c The theory that the prophetic power of Delphi was due to
such an intoxicating vapour or pneuma was widely held in antiquity, but the geology of Delphi lends it no support and no rift in
the earth" has been identified.

211

LONGINUS

el8wv Toll.

lrrav0a-at BUhler.

2~

Jahn: ~ P:

nFyfe.

Stesichorus' lyrics were largely epic in theme and language,

while Archilochus' vigorous iambics had been compared with
Homer by earlier critics (Heraclides Ponticus wrote on "Homer
and Archilochus," but the contents of the book are not known).
a

212

ON THE SUBLIME 13

flows into the hearts of their admirers as it were an emanation from those holy mouths. Inspired by this, even
those who are not easily moved to prophecy share the
enthusiasm of these others' grandeur. Was Herodotus
alone Homeric in the highest degree? No, there was
Stesichorus at a still earlier date and Archilochus too, a
and above all others Plato, b who drew off for his own use
ten thousand runnels from the great Homeric spring. We
might need to give instances, had not people like
Ammoniusc drawn up a collection. Such borrowing is no
theft; it is rather like the reproduction of good character
by sculptures or other works of art. d So many of these
qualities would never have flourished among Plato's
philosophic tenets, nor would he have entered so often
into the subjects and language of poetry, had he not
striven, with heart and soul, to contest the prize with
Homer, like ~ young antagonist with one who had already
won his spurs, perhaps in too keen emulation, longing as
it were to break a lance, and yet always to good purpose;
for, as Hesiod says, "Good is this strife for mankind."e
Fair indeed is the crown, and the fight for fame well
worth the winning, where even to be worsted by our forerunners is not without glory.
b Ancient

critics saw resemblances between Plato and Homer

in grandeur, character-drawing, and psychological theory. It is
curious that the third-century Longinus (Fl5 Prickard) actually
says: "Plato is the first who best transferred Homeric grandeur
(oyKov) into prose." Cf. Introduction.
c A pupil of Aristarchus, who wrote on Plato's debt to Homer.
d Or (reading T] for 7]): "an impression taken from good characters, sculptures, or other works of art."
e Hesiod, Works and Days 24.

213

rI
l

LONGINUS

,
14. 0 VKOVV
,
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rt v7r' EfLov AEyofLEvov 7rapwv <:IOfLYJpoc; -Y}Kova-Ev ~
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214

ON THE SUBLIME 14-15

14. We too, then, when we are working at some passage that demands sublimity of thought and expression,
should do well to form in our hearts the question, .:.:How
might Homer have said this same thing, how would Plato
or Demosthenes or (in history) Thucydides have made it
sublime?'' Emulation will bring those great characters
before our eyes, and their shining presence will lead our
thoughts to the ideal standards of perfection. Still more
will this be so, if we also try to imagine to ourselves: .:.:How
would Homer or Demosthenes, had either been present,
have listened to this passage of mine? How would that
passage have affected them?" Great indeed is the ordeal,
if we suppose such a jury and audience as this to listen to
our own utterances and make believe that we are submitting our work to the scrutiny of such heroes as witnesses
and judges. Even more stimulating would it be to add, .:.:If
I write this, how would all posterity receive it?" But if a
man shrinks at the very thought of saying anything that is
going to outlast his own life ana time, then must all the
conceptions of that man's mind be like some blind, halfformed embryo, all too abortive for the life of posthumous fame.
15. Weight, grandeur, and urgency in writing are very
largely produced, dear young friend, by the use of "visualizations" (phantasiai). That at least is what I call them;
others call them "image productions." For the term
phantasia is applied in general to an idea which enters the
mind from any source and engenders speech, but the
word has now come to be used predominantly of
1 1TE1TE'ia-Oat
2,3

Reiske.
These changes are by Russell (1964).

215

T
J

LONGINUS
~I
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~
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VOfLa, orav
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w~

ETEpov TL ~ PYJTOPLK~ cpavTaer[a f3ovAETaL KaL

8'

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add. Kayser.
2
Manutius added <ovK>: "the poet did not see Furies."
a

216

Euripides, Orestes 255-7, from the classic scene in which

ON THE SUBLIME 15

passages where, inspired by strong emotion, you seem to

see what you describe and bring it vividly before the eyes
of your audience. That phantasia means one thing in oratory and another in poetry you will yourself detect, and
also that the object of the poetical form of it is to enthral,
and that of the prose form to present things vividly,
though both indeed aim at the emotional and the excited.
Mother, I beg you, do not drive against me
These snake-like women with blood-reddened
eyes.
See there! See there! They leap upon me close. a

And
Ah, she will slay me, whither shall I flee ?h
In these passages the poet himself saw Furies and compelled the audience almost to see what he had visualized.
Now Euripides makes his greatest efforts in presenting
these two emotions, madness and love, in tragic guise,
and succeeds more brilliantly with these emotions than, I
think, with any others; not that he lacks enterprise to
attack other forms of visualization as well. While his natural genius is certainly not sublime, yet in many places he
forces it into the tragic mould and invariably in his grand
passages, as the poet says,
Orestes has a madman's vision of Clytemnestra sending the
Erinyes against him.
b Euripides, lphigenia in Tauris 291: a herdsman describes to
Iphigenia the mad behaviour and words of the man he has seen
on the beach, who turns out to be Orestes, who is experiencing
the same delusion of attack by the Erinyes avenging his mother.

217

LONGINUS
ovpfl

8 1TAEvpac;

7E

Ka'i la-xiov Uf.LcpOTEpwOev

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aVTW
t.
1

218

Richards, for P's Karw.

ON THE SUBLIME 15

His tail at his ribs and his flanks now lashes on this,
now on that side,
Ever he spurs himself on to share in the joys of the
battle.a
For instance, when Helios hands over the reins to
Phaethon:b
"And do not drive into the Libyan sky.
Its torrid air with no damp humour tempered
Will burn your wheel and melt it."
And he goes on,
''But toward the seven Pleiads hold your course."
This heard, young Phaethon caught up the reins,
Slashed at the flanks of his wing-wafted team,
And launched them flying to the cloudy vales.
Behind, his sire, astride the Dog-star's back,
Rode, schooling thus his son. "Now, drive on there,
Now this way wheel yo~r car, this way."
Would you not say that the writer's soul is aboard the car,
and takes wing to share the horses' peril? Never could it
have visualized such things, had it not run beside those
heavenly bodies. You find the same sort of thing in his
Cassandra's speech:
Iliad 20.170, describing a wounded lion.
b The following passages are from Euripides' Phaethon (fr.
779 Nauck2, see J. Diggle, Euripides> Phaethon, Cambridge
1970, lines 168-77). They come from a messenger's speech
relating Phaethon's fatal ride in the Sun god's chariot.
a

219

LONGINUS

, \ \ ' -;-

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7Tpoa-{3t{3a~Et.

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f.LEV

Ala-xvA.~ 7Tapa86~wc; ia Tov AvKovpyov f3aa-iAEta

KaTa TTJV E7Tt~avEt-av Tov ~tovva-ov ()Eo~opE'iTat,

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add. Morus; K marg. has wa-7TEp oi.

Faber: P has avrwv.

Euripides fr. 935 Nauck2. This may come from the Alexandros, and may have to do with Cassandra's warning against the
a

220

ON THE SUBLIME 15

0 you horse-loving Trojansa

And whereas when Aeschylus ventures upon heroic imaginings, he is like his own "Seven against Thebes,>) where
Seven resistless captains o'er a shield
Black-bound with hide have slit a bullock's throat,
And dipped their fingers in the bullock's blood,
Swearing a mighty oath by War and Havoc
And Panic, bloodshed's lover _b
and all pledge themselves to each other to die ~~apart from
pity," and though he sometimes introduces unworked
ideas, all woolly, as it were, and tangled, Euripides' competitiveness leads him also to embark on the same perilous path. Aeschylus uses a startling phrase of Lycurgus's
palace, magically possessed at the appearance of Dionysus,
The palace is possessed, the roof turns bacchanal. c
Euripides expressed the same idea differently, softening
it down,
And all the mountain
Turned bacchanal with them.d
Trojan Horse; if so, "horse-loving" is an apt taunt. Presumably
Longinus means us to recall more of the speech than these opening words.
b Seven against Thebes 42-6: "apart from pity"
comes from the same passage (51).
c Aeschylus fr. 58 Radt,
from the Lycurgeia, the trilogy dealing with Lycurgus' resistance
to the cult of Dionysus in Thrace, a parallel theme to that of
Euripides' Bacchae, where Pentheus of Thebes vainly resists the
god.
d Euripides, Bacchae 726.

221

LONGINUS

aKpwc; 8 Kat 0 Io~oKA -rye; E1Tt 'TOV 8vricrKOV'TOc; Ol8ic

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a1T01T
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E1Tt TUXtAAE.wc; 1Tpo~atVOJLEVOV 'TOte; avayoJLEVOLc;
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1TapaTt ECT at. ov J.LYJV aAAa ra J.LEV 1rapa Tote; 1TOLYJra'ic; J.LV8tKW'TEpav EXEL 'TTJV V1TEpEK1T'TWCTLV, we; E~YJV,
/
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Kat' 1TaVTYJ
TO' 1Ttcrrov
V1TEpatpovcrav,
TYJc; oE
PYJTOptK-ryc; ~avTacriac; KaAAtCT'TOV UEt 'TO EJ.L1TpaK'TOV Kat vaAYJ8Ec;. 8etvat 8 Kat EK~vAot ai 1Tapa{3acretc;, T]viK'
av fJ 1TOLYJ'TLKOV 'TOV Aoyov Kat J.LV8w8ec; 'TO 1TAUCTJLa
Kat elc; 1TUV 1Tp0EK1TL1T'TOV 1 'TO a8vvaTOV, we; 1J8YJ vT]
, c
A /
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~ /
(3\J\E1TOVCTLV
/
'E ptvvac;
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J.La8e'iv oi yevva'iot 8vvavTat,
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~avra,eTat Tav8' art J.LaiveTat.

";' YJc PYJTOptKYJ

c
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A.,./
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1TpOa-EtCT'EpEtV, Ka'TaKtpVaJLEVYJ JLEV'TOL Tate; 1TpayJ.La'TtKatc; E1TLXELPTJCTECTLV ov 1TEL8Et 'TOV aKpoaTYjv J.LOVOV
~
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So Morus, for 1rpoa-EK1Tt1Trov

Oedipus at Colonus 1586-1666.

222

'

1"'1

r
ON THE SUBLIME 15

Sophocles too describes with superb visualization the

dying Oedipus conducting his own burial amid strange
portents in the sky;a and Achilles at the departure of the
Greeks, when he appears above his tomb to those
embarking,h a scene which nobody perhaps has depicted
so vividly as Simonides.c But to give all the instances
would be endless. However, as I said, these examples
from poetry show an exaggeration which belongs to fable
and far exceeds the limits of credibility, whereas the most
perfect effect of visualization in oratory is always one of
reality and truth. Transgressions of this rule have a
strange, outlandish air, when the texture of the speech is
poetical and fabulous and deviates into all sorts of impossibilities. For instance, our wonderful modern oratorsgod help us !-are like so many tragedians in seeing
Furies, and the fine fellows cannot even understand that
when Oreste~ says,
Let go! Of my own Furies. you are one
And grip my waist to cast me down to Hell, d
he only imagines that, because he is mad.
What then is the use of visualization in oratory? It
may be said generally to introduce a great deal of excitement and emotion into one's speeches, but when combined with factual arguments it not only convinces the
audience, it positively masters them. Take Demosthenes:
"And yet, suppose that at this very moment we were to
hear an uproar in front of the law courts and someone
In Polyxena, fr. 523 Radt.
c D. A. Campbell (ed.), Greek Lyric III (Loeb Classical
Library) Simonides fr. 557 ( = fr. 52 Page).
d Euyripides, Orestes 264-5.
b

223

LONGINUS
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224

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8'

a1TEptoptCT'TOV,

ON THE SUBLIME 15-16

were to tell us, 'The prison has been broken open and the
prisoners are escaping,' there is no man, old or young, so
unheeding that he would not run to give all the assistance
in his power. But suppose someone were to come and
actually tell us that this was the man who set them free,
he would be killed on the moment without a hearing."a
And then, to be sure, there is H yperides on his trial, when
he had moved the enfranchisement of the slaves after the
Athenian reverse. "It was not the speaker that framed
this measure, but the battle of Chaeronea. "b There,
besides developing his factual argument the orator has
visualized the event and consequently his conception far
exceeds the limits of mere persuasion. In all such cases
the stronger element seems naturally to catch our ears, so
that our attention is drawn from the reasoning to the
enthralling effect of the imagination, and the reality is
concealed in a halo of brilliance. And this effect on us is
natural enough; set two forces. side by side and the
stronger always absorbs the virtues of the other.
This must suffice for our treatment of sublimity in
ideas, as produced by nobility of mind or imitation or
visualization. c
16. The topic of figures comes next, for these too, if
rightly handled, may be, as I said, d an important element
in the sublime. However, since it would be a long, and
indeed an interminable task to treat them all in detail
Demosthenes, Oration 24.208.
b After Philip's victory
at Chaeronea (338 B.C.), Hyperides proposed the enfranchisement of slaves, and defended this panic 1neasure, it is said, in
these terms: see Rutilius Lupus 1.19, [Plutarch] Lives of the Ten
Orators, 849A.
c This summary is puzzling: it omits the contents of chap. 10.
d In chap. 8.
a

225

LONGINUS

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~'
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opKOV TO (J1TEpp.,a cpaa-'iv evpija-()aL.
/

'

226

ON THE SUBLIME 16

at this point, we will by way of confirmation of our thesis

merely run through a few of those which make for
grandeur. Demosthenes is producing an argument in
defence of his political career. What was the natural way
to treat it? "You were not wrong, you who undertook that
struggle for the freedom of Greece, and you have proof of
this at home, for neither were the men at Marathon misguided nor those at Salamis nor those at Plataea.''a But
when in a sudden moment of inspiration, as if possessed
by the divine, he utters his great oath by the champions of
Greece, "It cannot be that you were wrong; no, by those
who risked their lives at Marathon," then you feel that by
employing the single figure of adjuration-which I here
call apostrophe-he has deified the ancestors by suggesting that one should swear by men who met such a death,
as if they were gods; he has filled his judges with the spirit
of those who risked their lives there; he has transformed a
demonstrative argument into a passage of transcendent
sublimity and emotion, giving it the power of conviction
that lies in so strange and startling an oath; and at the
same time his words have administered to his hearers a
healing medicine, with the result that, relieved by his
eulogy, they come to feel as proud of the war with Philip
as of their victories at Marathon and Salamis. In all this
he is enabled to carry the audience away with him by the
use of the figure. True, the germ of the oath is said to
have been found in Eupolis:
De corona 208. The passage was much admired in antiquity
(Quintil. 9.2.62; 12.10.24; Hermogenes, De ideis p. 267 Rabe),
and Longinus' discussion was highly praised by Dr. Johnson (Life
of Dryden p. 299, World's Classics edition).
a

227

[
LONGINUS

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228

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ON THE SUBLIME 16

No, by the fight I fought at Marathon,

No one of them shall vex me and go free. a
But the mere swearing of an oath is not sublime: we must
consider the place, the manner, the circumstances, the
motive. In Eupolis there is nothing but an oath, and that
addressed to Athens, when still in prosperity and needing
no consolation. Moreover, the poefs oath does not
immortalize the men so as to beget in the audience a true
opinion of their worth, but instead he wanders from those
who risked their lives to an inanimate object, namely the
fight. In Demosthenes the oath is carefully designed to
suit the feelings of defeated men, so that the Athenians
should no longer regard Chaeronea as a disaster; and it is,
as I said, at the same time a proof that no mistake has
been made, an example, a sworn confirmation, an
encomium, and an exhortation. The orator was faced
with the objection, "You are speaking of a reverse due to
your policy and then you go swearing by victories," and
therefore in the sequel he measures his every word and
keeps on the safe side, inculcating the lesson that "in the
wildest rite" you must stay sober.b "Those who risked
their lives,~~ he says, "at Marathon and those who fought
on shipboard at Salamis and Artemisium and those who
stood in the line at Plataea"-never "those who won the
victory." Throughout he cunningly avoids naming the
result, because it was a happy one, and the opposite of
what happened at Chaeronea. So before his hearers can
raise the objection he promptly adds, ''To all of these the
From the Demes (fr. 106 Kassel-Austin).
b A reminiscence of Euripides, Bacchae 317.
a

229

LONGINUS

0alfie 8TJJ.Loa-ic!/' cpTJa-iv ((~ 1roAts, Ala-xivTJ, ovxL Tov~

,
,
"
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230

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t:/

ON THE SUBLIME 16-17

country gave a public funeral, Aeschines, not only to

those who were successful."
17. While on this topic I must not omit to mention a
view of my own, dear friend, which I will state, however,
quite concisely. Figures seem to be natural allies of the
sublime and to draw in turn marvellous reinforcement
from the alliance. Where and how? I will tell you. There
is an inevitable suspicion attaching to the sophisticated
use of figures. It gives a suggestion of treachery, craft, fallacy, especially when your speech is addressed to a judge
with absolute authority, or still more to a despot, a king,
or a ruler in high place. He is promptly indignant that he
is being treated like a silly child and outwitted by the figures of a skilled speaker. Construing the fallacy as a personal affront, he sometimes turns downright savage; and
even if he controls his feelings, he becomes conditioned
against being persuaded by the speech. So we find that a
figure is always most effective when it conceals the very
fact of its being a figure. Sublimity and emotional intensity are a wonderfully helpful antidote against the suspicion that accompanies the use of figures. The artfulness
of the trick is no longer obvious in its brilliant setting of
beauty and grandeur, and thus avoids all suspicion. A sufficient instance is that mentioned above, "By those at
Marathon." In that case how did the orator conceal the
figure? By its very brilliance, of course. Much in the
same way that dimmer lights vanish in the surrounding
radiance of the sun, so an all-embracing atmosphere of
grandeur obscures the rhetorical devices. We see some1 7rEptAafL8lia-'

7] Bury for 7rapaA. YJcp8E~a-av P.

231

LONGINUS
3

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""'\\
~I
' '
,./.,.
/
ra' 1ra () YJTtKa' TOTE
f.La/\1\0V,
oTav
avTa
'+'atV'Y}Tat
f.LYJ'

232

ON THE SUBLIME 17-18

thing of the same kind in painting. Though the highlights

and shadows lie side by side in the same plane, yet the
highlights spring to the eye and seem not only to stand
out but to be actually much nearer. So it is in writing.
What is sublime and moving lies nearer to our hearts, and
thus, partly from a natural affinity, partly from brilliance
of effect, it always strikes the eye long before the figures,
thus throwing their art into the shade and keeping it hid
as it were under a bushel.
18. Now what are we to say of our next subject, the
figures of inquiry and interrogation? Is it not just the specific character of these figures which gives the language
much greater realism, vigour and tension? "Tell me, my
friend, do you all want to go round asking each other 'Is
there any news?,a For what stranger news could there be
than this of a Macedonian conquering Greece? 'Is Philip
dead?, 'No, not dead but ill., What difference does it
make to you? Whatever happel}.s to him, you will soon
manufacture another Philip for yourselves.,, Or again:
"Let us sail to Macedon. Someone asks me, 'Where on
earth shall we land?, Why, the mere course of the war will
find out the weak spots in Philip,s situation." Here a bare
statement would have been utterly inadequate. As it is,
the inspiration and quick play of the question and answer,
and his way of confronting his own words as if they were
someone else,s, make the passage, through his use of the
figure, not only loftier but also more convincing. For
emotion is always more telling when it seems not to be
This and the following passage are loose quotations from
the First Philippic (Demosthenes, Oration 4.10 and 44).
a

233

LONGINUS
E1Tl/TY]DEVELV avroc;

8'

EpW'T'Y)O"Lc;
/()

'

'A.f.ywv a'A.'A.a yEvvav

i}

Katpoc;,

i}

Elc; f.avrov Kat a1TOKpta-Lc; fLLfLEL'TaL 'TOV

~'
Crh'
a-xEoov
yap we; ot v\f'
ErEpwv

'

1ra ovc; To E'lTLKatpov.

pwrwfLEVOL 7rapo~vvOvrEc; EK rov 1Tapaxp-ryf-ta 7rpoc;

TO 'AEx0v vaywviwc; Kat a1T' avr-ryc; r-ryc; d'A.YJ(}Eiac;
av0v1TaV'TWO"LV, ovrwc; 'TO a-x-ry~-ta r-ryc; 1TEVO"EWc; Kat
a1TOKpLa-Ewc; Elc; TO DOKELV EKaa-rov 'TWV EO"KEf-tfLEVWV

E~ V1Toyvov KEKLv-rya-Oai
'

'

TE

Kat 'A.yEa-0aL 'TOV aKpoa-

'7

,,

'T"f}V a1rayov KaL 1Tapai\OYLt:,E'TaL.

E'TL 'TOLVVV

((.'

EV yap

TL Twv vt/JYJ'AoTarwv ro CHpo8orEtov 1TE1Tia-rEvrat) El

~'

ovrwc;

,,

) /
\
2 )
/
'
c
'
19 . . .. <aO"VfL>1TJ\OKa
EK1TL1T'TEL KaL OLOVEL 7rp0"'
\
/
)\ /
~ ""
rl..() /
'
) '
XELTaL
ra' 1\EYOfLEVa,
OJ\tyov
OELV
\f' avovTa Kat avrov
'
\ /
TOV
1\Eyovra.

cc

f3 \ /

KaL' O"Vf-t ai\OV'TEc;,

, \f''YJO"LV
,/.,. ' 0

,......
,/.,. ""
:;::.EVO\f'WV,

ccrac; aa-1TLDac; w0ovvro EfLUXOV'TO a1TEK'TELVOV a1TE-

\'
() VYJO"Kov. , Kat' ra' rov"'E'vpvl\oxov
T]A.OofLEV, we; fKE'AEVEc;, ava DpVfLU, ai8t~-t'
'08va-a-Ev.
ELDOf-tEV
'

'

Ta yap

'\ \

{3-r}a-a-na-t rErvy~-tf.va 8w~-tara Ka'A.a.

~

/\

,~,

'

'e'

ai\1\'Y}J\WV OLaKEKOfLJLEVa KaL OVOEV 'YJO"O"OV

/

,/.,. /

""

,,

,/.,.

t:/

'

KaTE0"1TEVO"fLEVa \f'EpEL T'Y}c; aywvtac; EfL\f'aO"LV a~-ta Kat

'
~ r '
~
,
3 'TOLaV""(}' 0c 'lTOL'Y}EJL1T00Lt:,OVO"'Y)c;
TL KaL' O"VVOLWKOVO"'Y)c;.
1

Perhaps <ypalfie>, if Longinus was about to compare

Herodotus' actual use of the figure with the ineffective alternative of doing without it. Cf. chap. 21.
2 So K marg., Manutius.
3 So Faber for P's fTvv8t-oLKOVfT'YJ~

234

ON THE SUBLIME 18-19

premeditated by the speaker but to be born of the

moment; and this way of questioning and answering one's
self counterfeits spontaneous emotion. People who are
cross-questioned by others in the heat of the moment
reply to the point forcibly and with utter candour; and in
much the same way the figure of question and answer
actually misleads the audience, by encouraging it to suppose that each carefully premeditated argument has been
aroused in the mind and put into words on the spur of the
moment. Moreover-for this passage of Herodotus has
always been reckoned one of the most sublime-if in this
way ... a
[Two pages are missing here.]
19.b ... the phrases tumble out unconnected in a sort
of spate, almost too quick for the speaker himself. ''And
locking their shields," says Xenophon, "they pushed,
fought, slew, fell."c And take the words ofEurylochus,
We came, as you told us tocome, through the oakcoppice, shining Odysseus.
Built in the glades we beheld habitations of wonderful beauty.d

l
l

The phrases being disconnected, and yet none the less

rapid, give the idea of an agitation which both checks the
utterance and at the same time drives it on. This is the
The passage of Herodotus cannot be identified, but may be
7.21, which has notable rhetorical questions.
b The subject is now asyndeton, i.e. the omission of conjunctions.
c Xenophon, Hellenica 4.3.19 ( =Agesilaus 2.12).
d Odyssey 10.251-2.
a

235

LONGINUS

T~~ E~rrJVEYKE
~'A

20 .

TWV ao-vvDETWV.

~'
' ~: , '
, '
OE
KaL YJ E1TL TaVTO

KpW~

~I

8u1

'"'

"'

~
o-VVOOO~

.,

~/

'"'

TWV o-xYJ-

'e'

'

p.,aTWV ELW E KLVELV, OTaV OVO YJ TpLa OLOV KaTa o-vp.,'

,
,
, \ \ '\
,
'Y
'
'
'
p.,opLav avaKLpvap.,Eva a/\1\ YJAOL~ EpavLsYJ TYJV Lo-xvv

' 1TEL 0'W TO'

TTJV

'\ \

~:
'"' KaL' Ta'
01TOLa

Ka/\1\0~,

'

EL~

'
TOV

M ELOLaV,
~,

TaL~ avac{>opa'L~ op.,ov Kat TD DLaTV1TW(TEL o-vvava1TE\

'

1:1:

1TAEYfLEVa ra ao-vvoEra.
/

0'

~:

'e'

TV1TTWV,

WV

'

~I

1Ta WV

'

.,,

1TOAI\a yap av 1TOLYJo-ELEV

'~'

EVLa

.,,

OVO

'

av

1:

'"'\

a1TayyELI\aL

ETEp~, r~ a-xrr}p.,aTL, r~ f3'Ap.,p.,aTL, TD c{>wviJ."

EIO' Zva 1-L~ E1TL TWV aVTWV 0 Aoyo~ lwv o-Ti} ( EV o-ra'
'"'
, a, Ta~t.'Lf!: OE
~'
, '
(TEL yap
TO' YJ, pEfLOVV,
EV
TO' 1Ta'0 0~, E1TEL

8vvaLro

,./. .

' ,,,
'"'
-yVXYJ~

'

o/opa

KaL

, E(TTLV
,
),

o-vyKLVYJ(TL~

, 0'V~ E1T
, '

~'\

EV

a/\1\a

p.,EOrr}'Aaro ao-vvDETa KaL E1Tavac{>opa~ I:I:T~ o-xrr}p.,aTL,

T~ f3'Ap.,p.,aTL, TD c{>wviJ, OTav w~ vf3pi,wv, OTav w~

, 0por;,
,
EX
~~\

"'
oTav
'

'\

KOVOVI\OL~,

1:

1:

a/\1\0 ota rovTwv

"'
oTav

f!/

.,,

~ '"'\
"
ooVAOV.

1:

w~
1:

PYJTWP YJ 01TEp

, ~'
ovoEv
, y

TV1TTWV EpyasE-

TaL, T~v DLavoLav Twv DLKaa-Twv TD r.a'A'Arr}'A~ 1TArrJT-

TEL

~'\ \
a/\1\YjV
,

EiT' E~TEV0Ev 1TUALV w~ ai KaTaLytDE~

c{>opfi,.

'

E1TL

KoppYJ~

"

av0pw1TOV~,
'~

'

OVOEL~

.,,

av
'"'

,./....

1:1:

o/YJ(TL.

arr}OEL~
1"1

TaVTa

1Tapao-TYJo-aL.
pwv

, f3 \ ,
EfL
01\YjV

1TOLOVfLEVO~

"

OTaV

'"'

'"'

TaVTa

KLVEL,

OVTa~

TOV

'\

a1TayyEI\I\WV
'"'

~ '\
KOVOVI\OL~,

1:1: "'

'

'

'"'

TaVTa

t.,

E~

L(TTYj(TLV

1Tp01TYJAaKL,Ea-0aL
~

OVVaLTO
,./....'

'"'

'

'

TO

OELVOV

,./....

OVKOVV TYJV fLEV o/V(TLV TWV E1TaVao/O-

Kat ao-vvDETWV 1TUVTYJ

\'"'
"'
' '"' KaL'
fLETa f3 01\YJ'
OVTW~
aVT~

c{>v'AaTTEL TD (TVVEXEL
'(; L~ aTaKTOV
~I
YJ~: Ta~
KaL'

Ep.,1TaALV ~ ara~ia 1TOLUV 1TEpLAap.,f3avEL TU~LV.

236

"'

OTaV

ON THE SUBLIME 20

effect the poet has achieved by his use of asyndeton.

20. The combination of several figures often has an
exceptionally powerful effect, when two or three combined cooperate, as it were, to contribute force, conviction, beauty. Thus, for instance, in the speech against
Midias the asyndeta are interwoven with the figures of
repetition and vivid presentation.a ''For the aggressor
may do many injuries, some of which the victim could not
even describe to anyone else-by his manner, his look, his
voice." Then to prevent the speech coming to a halt by
running over the same ground-for immobility expresses
inertia, while emotion, being a violent movement of the
soul, demands disorder-he leaps at once into further
asyndeta and anaphoras. "By his manner, his looks, his
voice, when he strikes with insult, when he strikes like an
enemy, when he strikes with his knuckles, when he strikes
you like a slaye." Here the orator does just the same as
the aggressor, he belabours the minds of the jury with
blow after blow. Then at this point he proceeds to make
another onslaught, like a tornado. "When ifs with his
knuckles, when ifs a slap on the face," he says, "this
rouses, this maddens a man who is not accustomed to
insult. Nobody could convey the horror of it simply by
reporting it.~~ Thus all the time he preserves the essence
of his repetitions and asyndeta through continual variation, so that his very order is disordered and equally his
disorder involves a certain element of order.
Demosthenes, Oration 21.72 (with some variations from
our text).
a

237

T
I

LONGINUS

21. 4lpE ovv, 1rpoa-OEc; rove; o-vv8E.a-il'ovc;, El

'\
~:
'"'
,
~:~:
' OVOE
, ~'
() EI\OlS,
We;
1TOLOVO""LV
OL~: 'I O""OKpaTELOL
Kat' /LYJV
TOVTO XP~ 1Tapa'At1TELV, we; 1TOA'Aa av 1TOLrrJO""ELEV 0
TV1TTwv, 1rpwrov ~LEV rep o-xrr7~-LaTt, Etra 8 rep {3'AE.~L
/LaTt, EtTa YE /L~V avrfj Tfj cPWVfj," KaL ELO""YJ KaTa
TO tijc; OVTWc; 1TapaypacPWV, we; TOV 1Ta0ovc; TO
,
' ,
,
,,
'"'
O""VVOEOLWY/LEVOV Kat a1TOTpaXVVO/LEVOV, EaV TOLe;
'C
\ ,
,
\
,
o-VVOEO""/LOLc; E~ O/Lai\LO""YJc; Etc; J\ELOTYJTa, aKEVTpov TE
~'
' EL TLc;
1rp0o-1TL1TTEL Kat EV Vc; EO""{3 Eo-TaL. W0""1TEp
yap
o-vv8rr}a-EtE rwv 0Eovrwv Ta o-w/Lara r~v cPopav avrwv
~'
~
a'f'YJPYJTaL, OVTWc;
Kat TO 1Ta oc; V1TO TWV O""VVOEO""/LWV
KaL TWV a'A'Awv 1Tpoo-0YJKWV E!L1T08t,O~LEVOV ayavaKTEL" T~V yap EAEv0Eptav a1To'A'AvEt 1 TOV 8po/LOV
~
, ',
,
'
',.!...'
()
Kat' TO' we;
a1r
opyavov
Ttvoc;
a'f'tEoat.
'"' OE
~'
, '"' LOEac;
,~ ,
,
22 . , T YJc;
aVTYJc;
Kat' Ta' V1TEp {3 aTa' () E'TEOV.
f(J"TLV 8 'AitEwv ~ VOrrJCfEWV EK TOV KaT' aKo'AovO[av
KEKLVYJ~LEVYJ TU~Lc; Kat OtOVEt xapaKrTjp E.vaywv[ov
1Ta0ovc; a'AYJOEo-TaToc;. we; yap Ot r(i> OVTL opyt,O~LE.,, ,./...{3,
.,, ,
'"'
.,,
'y \
VOL YJ 'f'O OV/LEVOL YJ ayavaKTOVVTEc; YJ V1TO ~ Y]I\OTV1TLac; ~ V1TO a'A'Aov TLVOc; ( 7TOA'Aa yap Kat avap[()/LYJTa
~
1Ta YJ Kat OVO~' av EL1TELV TLc; 01TOO""a OVVaLTO
EKaO""TOTE
1Tapa1TL1TTOVTE~ aA.A.a 1Tpo0E~LEVOL 1TOAAaKL~ E1T' a'A'Aa
~'"'
,
\-'
'\'
'3',
/LETa1TYJOWO""L,
/LEO""a
TLVa' 1TapE/L{3 ai\OVTEc;
al\oywc;,
ELT
a-DOte; E1TL Ta 1Tpwra avaKVKAOVVTEc; Kat 1TUVTYJ 1Tpoc;
rijc; aywv[ac;, we; V1T' ao-TaTOV 1TVEV~LaToc;, rfj8E
KaKEL(J"E ayxto-TpOcPWc; avTL0""1TW!LEVOL rae; AE~ELc; rae;
~

~,

3/

, ,./...

'

'()'

3/

'

'

3/

'()

!:

'

'"'

!:

!:

'()

238

'

.,,

'"'

So Finck for P's a:1roA:vEL.

!:

!:

ON THE SUBLIME 21-22

21. Now insert the connecting particles, if you care to

do so, in the style of Isocratesa and his school. ~~And yet
one must not overlook this too, that the aggressor may do
much, :first by his manner, then by his looks, and then
again by his mere voice.n If you thus paraphrase it sentence by sentence you will see that if the rush and
ruggedness of the emotion is levelled and smoothed out
by the use of connecting particles, b it loses its sting and its
fire is quickly put out. For just as you deprive runners of
their speed if you bind them up, emotion equally resents
being hampered by connecting particles and other
appendages. It loses its freedom of motion and the sense
of being, as it were, catapulted out.
22. In the same category we must place hyperbaton.
This :figure consists in arranging words and thoughts out
of the natural sequence, and is, as it were, the truest mark
of vehement. emotion. Just as people who are really angry
or frightened or indignant, or are carried away by jealousy
or some other feeling-there are countless emotions, no
one can say how many-often put forward one point and
then spring off to another with various illogical interpolations, and then wheel round again to their original position, while, under the stress of their excitement, like a
ship before a veering wind, they lay their words and
!socrates was the principal proponent and model of the
periodic style which articulates every clause carefully and avoids
hiatus.
b The word for "conjunction" or ~'connecting particle," sundesmos, literally means "bond."
a

239

LONGINUS
,

'

'

,...

'

A...'

,...

VO'Y}O*El8 T'Y}V EK TOV KaTa 'PVO*LV ELpf.LOV 1TaVTOLWc;

'

'

'

, (;

t:l

'

EVal\.1\.aTTOVO*L Tas LV, OVTW 1rapa

1rp0~ f.LVpLa~ rpo1ra~

'TOL~ apia-TOL~ a-vyypacf>eva-L

TWV V1TEp{Jarwv ~

8u1

f.LLJLYJO*L~ 1r'i Ta Tijc; c/Jvo-Ewc; pya pETaL. roTE yap

~ 'TEXV'Y} TEAELO~, ~viK' av cpvo-Lc; EivaL OoKi}, ~ o' av

cf>vo-L~

E1TL'Tvx-rJ~,

t:l

TEXV'Y}V.

OTav

wo-1TEp

Aaveavova-av 1TEpLEXYJ

C,:n

\'

'A

TTJV

',...

o "-WKaEvc; uLovva-Loc; 1rapa rep

1\.EYEL

CHpo86rcp CCE7TL ~vpov yap aKf.Lijc; EXETaL ~f.LLV Ta

1Tpayf.LaTa, avOpE~ ~'IwvE~' EivaL EAEv{)f.poL~ ~ oov-

AoL~ Ka'i 'TOVTOLc; w~ 8pa1TETYJO*LV.

vvv JJv Vf.LELc; ~v

f.LEV f3ovA'YJo-{)E raAaL1rwpia~ v8xEa-{)aL, 1TapaxpiJf.La

f.LEV 1rovoc; Vf.LLV, oioi
2

'
'TOV~
~~

\
'
"
1TOI\.Ef.LLOVc;.

~'I

avopE~

TE

Eo-Eo-{)E

'
'"'{)' 'Y}V
-;EVTaV
TO'

V1TEpf3aA.f.a-{)aL

'(; LV"
KaTa' Tas

,. . KaLpoc;
' EO*'TLV
'
e ,...
VVV
Vf.LLV

WVE~,

'
1TOVOV~

ec W
-;~ '

'

E1TLOE-

XEo-{)a~ E1TL ~vpov yap aKf.Lijc; EXETaL ~f.LLV Ta 1Tpaye ~'

0 OE

f.La'Ta. "

e
Q' Q
avopEc; ''J WVE~ " V1TEpEtJLtJaO*EV"

ec ~/ ~

'
TO' f.LEV

Eve~~

1TpOELa-Ej3aAEV ovv 1
,
'
A...() ,
apx'YJv
'P
avwv

'

o-at TOVc;

'

a1TO 'TOV 6{Jov,

, A...
'
ro' E'PEa-rwc;

1rpo~

,,

~'

1TLTa

aKOVOVTa~

oEo~

'

w~

f.L'Y}O'

,...
1Tpoa-ayopEv-

,...

T'Y}V TWV VO'Y}f.LaTWV

a1TEa-rpt/J TU~LV" 1Tp0 yap 'TOV cpija-aL OTL avrovc; OEL

1rovE'iv

( rovro

yap

a-rLv

Ef.L-

1TapaKEAEvEraL)

1Tpocr(}Ev a1To8i8wcrL TTJV alTiav OL' ~v 1TOVELV OEL,

eeE7TL

~vpov aKf.LiJ~" -r]a-ac; CCEXETaL ~f.LLV ra 1Tpay-

w~

f.LaTa,"

f.LTJ

,,

'Y}VayKaCTf.LEVa.
A...'

'PVO*EL
c

E'TL

~'

OE

EO*KEf.Lf.LEVa

,... \ \

f.Lai\.1\.0V

8 OVKVVLV'Y}~
~ ,~

''~

AEYELV

'Y}VWf.LEVa KaL aoLaVEf.L'Y}Ta

1TaV'TW~

Q ,

OOKELV

'

V1TEpfJaa-0*LV a1T

'

,\ \

'\

~~

ai\.1\.'Y}I\.WV ayELV

t:/

&.A.A.'
' '
KaL Ta

Of.LW~

OELVOTaTO~.

,...

TaL~

~'

OE

~'Y}JLOo-fJf.v'Y}c; ovx OVTW~ f.LEV avfJaO'Y}c; WCT1TEp OfJTO~,

240

ON THE SUBLIME 22

thoughts first on one tack then another, and keep altering

the natural order of sequence into innumerable variations-so, too, in the best prose writers the use of hyperbata allows imitation to approach the effects of nature.
For art is only perfect when it looks like nature and
Nature succeeds only when she conceals latent art. Take
the speech of Dionysius the Phocaean, in Herodotus.a
"Our fortunes stand upon a razor's edge, men of Ionia,
whether we be free men or slaves, aye, and runaway
slaves. Now, therefore if you are willing to endure hardship, at the moment there is toil for you, but you will be
able to overcome your enemies." Here the natural order
was, "0 men of Ionia, now is the time for you to endure
toil, for our fortunes stand upon a razor's edge." He has
transposed ~~men of Ionia" and started at once with his
fears, as though the terror was so immediate that he could
not even address the audience first. He has, moreover,
inverted the order of ideas. Before saying that they must
toil-for that is the point of his exhortation-he first gives
the reason why they must 'toil, by saying, "Our fortunes
stand upon a razor's edge." The result is that his words do
not seem premeditated but rather wrung from him.
Thucydides is even more a master in the use of hyperbata
to separate ideas which are naturally one and indivisible.
Demosthenes, though not indeed so wilful as Thucydides,
a

Herodotus 6.11.

yap Spengel.

241

I
i

LONGINUS

,
o~' EV

TraVTWV
\'

""

YEVEL TOVTCf:J KaTaKopECTTaToc;

T(f;J

',

""~::

',

QQ/Y

'

KaL

':J'

'

1TOI\V TO aywVUTTLKOV EK TOV V1TEpfJLfJa:,ELV KaL ETL V'Y}

A /

'

~::

'(;

uLa TO

Es

TovToLc;

Etc; Tov

'

V1TOYVOV

,./...

'

1\EYELV CTVVEJ1"-tJaLVWV

Kiv8vvov

Twv

fLaKpwv

V1TEp{jaTwv

'

\\/

'

KaL 1rpoc;

'

TOVc; aKOVOVTac; CTVVE1TLCT1TWfLEVoc; 1TOI\I\aKLc; yap TOV

vovv ov WPfL'YJCTEV

Et1TELV

avaKpEfLUCTac;

TU~LV a'A'A'

Trwc; 1 Etc; aAAocpv'Aov Kat U1TEOLKVLav

:J/ \

'

'

:JI (;

() /

()

fLETa~v

Kat

E1T'

""

ai\1\0Lc; OLa fLECTOV KaL Es W EV 1TO EV E1TELCTKVKI\WV ELc;

cpo{jov EfLfla'Awv TOV aKpoaTT]v we; E1Tt 1TaVTEAEL TOV
~

\/

'

~::,,

1\0yov OLa1TTWCTEL KaL CTVVa1TOKLVOVVEVELV V1T

T~

'AyovTL

"" ,
fLaKpov TO

CTvvavayKaCTac;,

ElTa

1rapa'A6ywc;

/\
r
/
, /
, ,
Tral\aL :,'YJTOVfLEVOV EVKaLpwc; E1TL

'

""

""

'

'

aywvLac;

1::

/\
TEI\EL

8ul
1TOV

(.}/

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1
2

242

So Wilamowitz, for P's fLETa~v w~.

{}vvvov Vahlen for P's evvvwv.

ON THE SUBLIME 22-23

is the most lavish of all in this kind of use and not only
employs hyperbata to give a great effect of vehemence,
and indeed of improvisation, but also drags his audience
along with him to share the perils of these long hyperbata.
For he often suspends the sense which he has begun to
express, and in the interval manages to bring forward one
extraneous idea after another in a strange and unlikely
order, making the audience terrified of a total collapse of
the sentence, and compelling them from sheer excitement to share the speaker>s risk: then unexpectedly, after
a great interval, the long-lost phrase turns up pat at the
end, so that he astounds them all the more by the very
recklessness and audacity of the transpositions. But there
are so many examples that I must stay my hand.
23. Again, accumulation, variation, and climax, the socalled ''polyptota,n are, as you know, very powerful, and
contribute to ornament and to sublimity and emotion of
all kinds. And consider, too, what variety and liveliness
is lent to the exposition by changes of case, tense,
person, number, or gender~ In the category of number,
for example, not only are those uses ornamental where
the singular in form is found on consideration to signify a
plural-take the lines:
And straightway a numberless people
Scatter the length of the beaches and thunder, "the
Tunny, the Tunny! a
The source of this quotation is not known. If the text here
printed is right, the reference is to tunny-fishing, when the
approach of a shoal is watched for and eagerly announced to the
fishermen.
a

243

LONGINUS

dA.A.' EKELVa p.JlA.A.ov 1TapaTYJPTJO"EW~ a~La, O'TL la-O'

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KEifLEva1 av~YJa-Lv ~ 1TAYJ0vv ~ V1TEp{3oA.T]v ~ 1raOo~,

244

ON THE SUBLIME 23

-but it is still more worthy of notice that plurals sometimes make a grander impression, courting favour by the
sense of multitude given by the grammatical number.
This is the case with Sophocles, lines about Oedipus:
Curse on the marriages
That gave us birth and having given birth
Flung forth the selfsame seed again and showed
Fathers and sons and brothers all blood-kin,
And brides and wives and mothers, all the shame
Of all the foulest deeds that men have done. a
These all mean one person, Oedipus, and on the other
side Jocasta, but the expansion into the plural serves to
make the misfortunes plural as well. There is the same
sense of multi~lication in "Forth came Hectors and
Sarpedons too,,, and in the passage of Plato about the
Athenians, which we have also quoted elsewhere: "For no
Pelopses nor Cadmuses nor Aegyptuses and Danauses
nor any other hordes of born barbarians share our home,
but we are pure Greeks here, no semi-barbarians,"c and
so on. The facts naturally sound more imposing from the
accumulation of names in groups. This device should not,
however, be employed except where the subject invites
Tyrannus 1403-8.
b Source unknown: see Kannicht-Snell, Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta II (Adespota 1 fr. 289).
c Plato, Menexenus 245D. "Elsewhere" presumably refers to
another book.
a Oedipus

245

LONGINUS
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246

ON THE SUBLIME 23-26

amplification or redundance or exaggeration or emotion,

either one or more of these. To have bells hung all over
you is the mark of a sophist.
24. Yet again, the converse of this, the contraction of
plurals to singulars, sometimes gives a great effect of sublimity. ''Moreover, the whole Peloponnese was split," says
Demosthenes.a Again, "when Phrynichus produced his
Capture of Miletus the theatre burst into tears."h To compress the number of separate individuals into a unified
whole gives more sense of solidity. The ornamental effect
in both is due to the same cause. Where the words are
singular, to make them unexpectedly plural suggests emotion: where they are plural and you combine a number of
things into a well-sounding singular, then this opposite
change of the facts gives an effect of surprise.
25. Again, if you introduce events in past time as happening at the _present moment, the passage will be transformed from a narrative into a vivid actuality. "Someone
has fallen,>> says Xenophon, "under Cyrus> horse and, as
he is trodden under foot, is .striking the horse>s belly with
his dagger. The horse, rearing, throws Cyrus, and he
falls."c Thucydides uses such effects very often.
26. Change of person gives an equally powerful effect,
and often makes the audience feel themselves set in the
thick of the danger.
De corona (Oration 18) 18.
b Herodotus 6.21.
c Xenophon, Cyropaedia 7.1.37.
a

247

LONGINUS

Kat'

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Iliad 15.697-8.
b Aratus, Phaenom,ena 287.
a

248

ON THE SUBLIME 26-27

... You would say that unworn and

with temper undaunted
Each met the other in war, so headlong the rush of
their battle. a
And Aratus' line:
In that month may you never be found where the
sea surges round you.b
Herodotus does much the same: ''You will sail up from
the city of Elephantine and there come to a smooth plain.
And when you have passed through that place you will
board again another ship and sail two days and then you
will come to a great city, the name of which is Meroe."c
Do you see, friend, how he takes you along with him
through the country and turns hearing into sight? All
such passage~ with a direct personal address put the
hearer in the presence of the action itself. By appearing
to address not the whole audience but a single individualOfTydeus' son you could not have known with
which of the hosts he was fighting-d
you will move him more and make him more attentive
and full of active interest, because he is roused by the
appeals to him in person.
27. Again sometimes a writer, while speaking about a
person suddenly turns and changes into the person himself. A figure of this kind is a sort of outbreak of emotion:
Herodotus 2.29.
d Iliad 5.85.
c

249

LONGINUS
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250

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[rHpaKAEtDa~J del. Russell (1964).

1 1TpocrxpYJcrts
2

1"1

'

'

ON THE SUBLIME 27

Hector lifted his voice and cried afar to the Trojans

To rush back now to the galleys and leave the
blood-spattered booty.
Whomsoever I see of his own will afar from the
galleys,
Death for him there will I plan. a
There the poet has assigned the narrative to himself as his
proper share, and then suddenly without any warning
attached the abrupt threat to the angry champion. To
insert ''Hector said so and so'' would have been frigid. As
it is, the change of construction has suddenly run ahead of
the change of speaker. So this figure is useful, when a
sudden crisis will not let the writer wait, and forces him to
change at once from one character to another. There is
an instance in Hecataeus: "Ceyx took this ill and immediately bade the descendants be gone. For I cannot help
you. So to prevent perishing yourselves and hurting me,
away with you to some other people."b By a somewhat
different method Demosth~nes in the Aristogeiton has
used variety of person to suggest rapid shifts of emotion.
"And will none of you," he says, "be found to feel anger
and indignation at the violence of this shameless rascal,
who-oh you most accursed of villains, who are cut off
from free speech not by gates and doors which one might
very well open ... "cLeaving his sense incomplete he has
a

Iliad 15.346-9.

Hecataeus fr. 30 (FGrHist 1). By descendants, Hecataeus

means the descendants of Heracles, as the intrusive gloss indicates: Ceyx, king ofTrachis, is unable to help them, and so sends
them away. See Diodorus Siculus 4.57.2.
c [Demosthenes] Or. 25.27-8.
b

251

LONGINUS
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So Weiske, for rov 1rpo~ rov 'Apta-royEirova A.oyov. Editors have also proposed a lacuna before a1roAt1TELV, supplying,
1

252

ON THE SUBLIME 27-28

made a sudden change and in his indignation almost a

split a single phrase between two persons-"who-oh
you most accursed"- and thus, while swinging his speech
round on to Aristogeiton and appearing to abandon the
jury, he has yet by means of the emotion made his appeal
to them much more intense. Penelope does the same:
Herald, oh why have they sent you hither, those
high-born suitors?
Is it to tell the hand-maidens that serve in the
house of Odysseus
Now to desist from their tasks and make ready a
feast for the suitors?
Would that they never had wooed me nor ever met
here in our halls,
Would they might make in my house their last and
latest of banquets,
You that meet often together and utterly ravage our
substance!
... Nor yet from your fathers
Heard you ever at hoine long ago in the days of
your childhood
What manner of man was Odysseus. a
28. That periphrasis can contribute to the sublime, no

one, I fancy, would question. Just as in music what we call

accompaniment enhances the beauty of the melody, so
periphrasis often chimes in with the literal expression and
gives it a far richer note, especially if it is not bombastic or
tasteless but agreeably blended. A sufficient proof of this
a

e.g.,

Odyssey 4.681-9.
<rov~ Kp~ra~>.

The translation assumes this sense. See

Buhler (1964), 130.

253

LONGINUS
TOV

E1TLTacpiov

f:f:epycp

p...E.v

ot8'

vp...tv

exovo-L

Ta

1rpoo-~KOVTa CTcPLCTLV avTOt':;, &v TVXOVTE':; 1TOpEvovTaL

TTJV ELp...app...Ev'Y}V 1TOpEtav, 1Tpo1TEp...cp8vTE':; KoLvfj p...ev
e

'

""

'~I

1\

~'

el

'

""

V1TO T'YJ':; 1TOI\W':;, LOLCf: 0 EKaCTTO':; V1TO TWV 1TpOCT'YJKOVTWV."

ovKovv

Tov

~'
oE

I
1TOpELav,
TO'

8avaTov

El1TEV

ELp...app...v'YJv

/
""
TETVX'YJKEVaL
TWV

vop...L~::,op...Evwv

1TOP..,1T~V TLVa D'Y}p...oo-iav V1TO Tij':; 1TaTptDO':;.

1Tpo-

apa

s,ry

f3 '

I
I
!>/
'
I
\ '
\
TOVTOL':;
P..,ETpLW':;
WYKWCT
T'Y}V
VO'Y}CTLV,
'Y.,,} 'It
~LI\ 'Y}V 1\a
WV
'
\
1(;
'
\
I
()I
I
'
'
T'Y}V
/\ES LV EP..,EI\01TOL'YJCT Ka a1TEp app...ovLaV TLVa T'Y}V
f:

'

1"'\

,./...

'

1\

Kat

'

'i}v Y]8w':; i}yEp.,ova

vop.,t,ETE,

EK T'YJ':; 1TEpL\f-Jpaa-EW':; 1TEPLXEap...EVO':; EVP.,1\ELav;

SEvocPwv f:f:1rovov

8 Tov

1\ \
~'
I
'
\
I
Ka/\1\LCTTOV
0 1TaVTWV KaL 1TOI\P.,LKWTaTOV KT'Y}p_,a EL':;
1"'\

'

'
,It
'
I
()
,
I
'
""\ \
Ta':;
~vxa':; CTVYKEKOP.,LCT " 1TaLVOVP.,EVOL yap p_,a/\1\0V

TOt':;

aAAOL':;

()AETE"

1TUCTL

aVTL

TOV

f:f:1TOVtlJ

ee1Tovov i}yEp.,ova TOV 'ijv i}DEW':; 1TOtEta-8E''

'
'
9\\'
L1TWV
Kat' Tal\/\

xaipETE"

!>/

f:

OP.,OL(tJ':;

'
I
1\
E1TEKTEtVa':;
p_,Eyal\
'Y}V TLVa'

EVVOLaV T(f! 1TaLV(f! 1TpOCT1TEpLWpLCTaTO.

KaL' TO' ap_,Lp_,'Y}-

"!.Kv8wv TOL':;

1"'\

1"'\

f:f:

1"'\

TOV EKELVO TOV f:HpoDoTov

o-vA ~CTaCTLV
1"'\

VOVCTOV.

TO'

'
LEpov
f:

1"'\

TWV

f:

v{3aAEv

'Y}

1"'\

()~AELav

8Eoc;

"

29. 'E1TLK'YJpov p.,vToL To 1rpayp.,a, Y] 1TEpicppaa-L':;,

!>/ \

1"'\

'

'

'

TWV a/\1\WV 1TI\EOV, Et P.,'Y} CTVV P.,ETplp

' \

{.)

TtVt 1\ap_,fJa-

a{3AEp_,E':; 1TpOCT1TL1TTEt, KOVcPOAoyta':;

1TaXVT'YJTO':;. 2 o8Ev KaL TOV IIAaTwva (DEL-

VOLTO" Ev()v':; yap

TE

o'ov KaL

VO':; yap aEL 1TpL a-xi}p.,a Kav TtCTLV aKaipw':;)

1
2

254

avv pi.rplfJ Morus for CTVf.Lf.LETpwc;.

1TaXVTYJTOc; Manutius, for 1raxvrarov.

EV

TOt':;

ON THE SUBLIME 28-29

is the opening of Plato's Funeral Oration: HFirst then in

deeds we have given them their due reward, and, this
won, they travel now their destined journey, escorted all
in common by their country and each man severally by his
kinsmen."a Here he calls death a destined journey and
their enjoyment of due rites a sort of public escort by
their country. Is it a trivial dignity that he thus gives to
the thought, or has he rather taken the literal expression
and made it musical, wrapping it, as it were, in the tuneful
harmonies of his periphrasis? Again Xenophon says, ''You
hold that hard work is a guide to the pleasures of life and
you have stored in your hearts the noblest and most warrior-like of all treasures. For nothing pleases you so much
as praise."h By saying HYou make hard work a guide to living with pleasure" instead of HYou are willing to work
hard," and by similarly expanding the rest of his sentence,
he has invested the eulogy with a further grand idea.
Then there is that inimitable phrC"!se in Herodotus: HUpon
those Scythians that sacked her ten1ple the goddess sent a
female malady. ''c
29. However it is a risky business, periphrasis, more
so than any of the other figures, unless used with a due
sense of proportion. For it soon falls flat, smacking of
triviality and grossness. So that critics have even made
fun of Plato-always so clever at a figure, sometimes
Plato, Menexenus 236D.
b Xenophon, Cyropaedia 1.5.12.
c Herodotus 1.105.4.
a

255

LONGINUS

NOfJ-018 'A.E.yovTa 1:\v~ OVTE apyvpovv DEL 1TAOVTOV OVTE

xpva-ovv EV 1TOAEL iDpVfJ-EVOV E:iiv OLKE'iv'' 8taXAEva'ova-tv, w~ El 1Tpo{3aTa, YJa-LV, EKWAVE KEKTija-Bat,
8ij'A01/ OTt 1Tpo{3aTEtOV av Ka'i {3oEtOV 1TAOVTOV EAEyEv.
'A'A.'A.a yap a'A.t~ V1TEp Tij~ EL~ Ta Vt/JYJAa TWV a-xYJfJ-cLTWV xp~a-Ew~ EK 1TapEv8~K'YJ~ TOa-avTa 1TEt'A.o'A.oyi]a-Bat, TEpEVTtavf. i'ATaTE" 1TcLVTa yap TaVTa
L)
,
'
,
'
\""'
1TaU'YJTLKWTEpOV~ Kat a-vyKEKLV'YJfJ-EVOV~ a1TOTEI\Et TOV~
\ ,
, Ll
,
1\0yov~ 1rauo~ OE V~OV~ fJ-ETEXEL TOa-OVTOV, 01TO(JOV
~Bo~ Y,8ovi]~.
,
\ ,
,
~~
.rl.... ,
30 . 'E1TELO'~Y'J fJ-EVTOt
'Y~:J TOV"" 1\0yov
VO'Y}(Jt~ 'YJ TE ~paa-t~ Ta 1TAELW 8t' EKaTEpov DtE1TTVKTat, tOt 8~, [av] 1
Tov paa-TtKov fJ-Epov~ Et 2 Ttva 'A.ot1Ta ETt, 1Tpoa-E1Ttn
, n
,
,
""
,
,
uEaa-WfJ-Eua. OTt fJ-EV TOtVVV 'YJ TWV KVptWV Kat fJ-EyaAo1TpE7TWV OVOfJ-cLTWV EKAoy~ Bav/1-aa-Tw~ ayEt Ka'i
KaTaKYJAEL TOV~ UKO'Vovr.a~ KaL w~ 1Tiia-t TOL~ P~Topa-t
Ka'i a-vyypaEva-t . KaT' aKpov E1TtT~DEVfJ-a, fJ-EYEBo~
~I
'\ \
'
'
f3'apo~ ta-xvv
' ' KpaTo~
'
~I
~'
a11-a
Kai\1\0~ EV1TtVEtav
ETt
oE
'
'
""
\
'
~I
'
'\
\ \ '
yavwa-tv
Ttva rot~
Aoyot~ wa-1TEp ayaA/1-aa-t Kal\1\ta-Tot~ Ot' avTij~ E1Tav8ELV 1Tapaa-KEVa,ova-a Ka'i OLOVEL
tfivx~v rtva ro'i~ 1rpay11-aa-t wv'YJTLKTJV vTt8E'ia-a, 11-TJ
'
'
'~ ,
~
(; ,
.rl....
Kat' 1TEptTTOV
YJ.,. 1rp0~
EtOOTa~ OLE~ tEVat.
~W~ yap T(f!
1: ,
ovTt totov TOV vov Ta KaAa OVOfJ-aTa. o fJ-EVTOt YE
oyKo~ aVTWV ov 1TcLVT'YJ XPEtWDYJ~, E1TEL TOL~ fJ-tKpo'i~
,
L)'
'\
'
'
'
'
1TpayfJ-aTtOt~ 1TEptTtUEVat fJ-Eyal\a Kat a-EfJ-Va OVOfJ-aTa
''
~'
.rl....'
1:
TaVTOV
av
~atVOtTO, W~ EL TL~ TpaytKOV 1TpOa-W1TEtOV
~'

~~.,.

<:

I"\

~~

~:

I"\

,,~

,,

I"\

I"\

'

31

256

[av] del. Russell (1964).

'

'

I"\

'

I"\

ON THE SUBLIME 29-30

unseasonably so-for saying in his Laws ''that we should

not let silvern treasure nor golden settle and make a home
in a city.~~a Had he been forbidding people to possess
sheep, says the critic, he would clearly have said "ovine
and bovine treasure."
But, my dear Terentianus, this digression must suffice
for our discussion of the use of figures as factors in the
sublime. They all serve to lend emotion and excitement
to the style. But emotion is as much an element of the
sublime, as characterization is of charm.b
30. Now, since thought and diction are generally
closely involved with each other we must further consider
whether there are any elements of diction still left
untouched. It is probably superfluous to explain at length
to someone who knows, how the choice of the right word
and the fine word has a marvellously moving and seductive effect upon an audience and how all orators and
prose writers make this their suP.reme object. For this of
itself gives to the style at once grandeur, beauty, oldworld charm, weight, force; strength, and a sort of lustre,
like the bloom on the surface of the most beautiful
bronzes, and endows the facts as it were with a living
voice. Truly, beautiful words are the very light of thought.
However, their majesty is not for common use, since to
attach great and stately words to trivial things would be
Plato, Laws 7.801B
h Cf. the comparison between Iliad and Odyssey, above
9.11-15.
a

Spengel reads i], retaining

av.
257

LONGINUS
~\

()

fLeya 1TatOL 1TEpt ELTJ VTJ1TL(f!.

(:
1
Kat' L.

() pE1TTLKWTaTOV
I

31 .

~'2

yoVLfLOV, TO 0
'A JJaKpeovro'}
I
(:(:
,
I
8 pT]tKtT}'}
I
I \
3 ,
I
ovKETt
<1TWI\.ov> E1Ttcrrpe,.~.,.

o/OfLaL.
'

TaVTYJ
4

Kat
\

1'\

TO
'

Kat

TOV

1\

:)/

E1TatVETOV -ota TO aVal\.oyov EfLOL

~

:)1

'"'

r:l

Tara EXELV OOKEL-01TEp

,./.,.

(:(:

KaTafLEfLo/ETat.

'

OELVO'}

(:

:)/

WV,

"\

1'\

KatVOV
I

YE CFTJfLaVTLKW,
-;-~,
t:l

atKLI\.LO'} OVK OLO

,./.,.

o/TJCFLV,

dvayKoc/>ayija-at 1TpayfLaTa."
'

E01TOfL1TOV

E(TTLV
'

\ ' ,

(:(: (:

ap'

"""'"\

01TW'}

'-LI\.L1T1TO'}

lDtWTL-

,./.,.

(TfLO'} EVLOTE TOV KO(TfLOV 1Tapa 1TOI\.V EfLo/aVt(TTLKWTEpov E1Ttytvwa-KETat yap avroeev EK TOV KOLVOV {3iov,

TO

a-VVTJ()E'} 1/DTJ 1TL(TTOTEpov.

OVKOVV E1Tt TOV ra

ala-xpa Kat pv1Tapa TATJfLOVW'} Kat fLE()' iJSovij'} EVEKa

7TAEOVE~La'}

KaprepoVVTO'}

TO

dvayKoc/>aye'iv

1TpayfLara f.vapyf.a-rara 1TapetATJ1TTat.

'
Kat

' (:H poOOTEta"

~
Ta

ra'}

avrov

~8 1TW'} exet

K 1\.EOfLEVTJ'},
\
/
" o/TJ(TL,
,./.,. /

(:

/ ,./.,.()

OI\.OV Karaxopoevwv eavrov oteo/ Etpev,

ITv()T}'} EW'} rov8e E1Tt rij'} VEW'}

KaTEKpeovpyTj()TJ.,

tt

'

fLaVEL'}

~tc/>t8icp KareTEfLEV el'} Ae1rra,

a-apKa'}

<:/\

t:l

EW'}

tt t

ra

EfLUXETO,

Kat

EW'}

(:t (:

U1Ta'}

ravra yap f.yyv'} 1Tapa~VEL TOV

'~ /
'\ \ '
'
'~
I
'"'
'"'
LOLWTTJV,
al\.1\.
OVK
LOLWTEVEL
T(f!
(TT}fLaVTLKW'}.

ia-ropiq, (Toll) must be the word that is broken off.

Perhaps ro ravaKpeovro~ (Russell 1964); but it is possible
that ovKETt is not part of the quotation, and that the writer means
that Anacreon's phrase (by contrast with something just mentioned, and lost to us) is not admirable.
3 <7rwAov> supplied by Bergk.
4 So Vahlen; Kat rov E7r7}verov P.
2

258

ON THE SUBLIME 30-31

like fastening a great tragic mask on a little child. However in poetry and history ...
[Four pages are lost here.]
31. ... is most nourishing and productive; so, too, with
Anacreon's ~~No more care I for the Thracian :6lly."a In the
same way the novel phrase used by Theopompus is commendable; it seems to me extremely expressive because
of the analogy, though Caecilius for some reason :finds
fault with it. ~~Philip," he says, "had a wonderful faculty of
stomaching things."b Thus a common expression sotnetimes proves far more vivid than elegant language. Being
taken from our common life it is immediately recognized,
and what is familiar is there by the more convincing.
Applied to one whose greedy ambition makes him glad to
endure with patience what is shameful and sordid, ustomaching things" forms a very vivid phrase. It is much the
same with Herodotus' phrases: Uin his madness," he says,
"Cleomenes cut his own flesh. into strips with a dagger,
until he made mincemeat of himself and perished," and
"Pythes went on fighting in the ship until he was chopped
to pieces."c These come perilously near to vulgarity, but
are not vulgar because they are so expressive.
Anacreon, fr. eleg. 5 (D. A. Campbell, Greek Lyric II
p. 148).
h Theopompus fr. 262 (FGrHist 115 F 262).
c Herodotus 6.75, 7.181.
a

259

LONGINUS

32. IlEpt 8 1T'AT]f)ov~ [Kat] 1 J-Leracpopwv

f-LEV
'\
,,
,. ., OVO
~ ,
EOLK
a-vyKaTaTL'f) (T f) at.. TOL~
'Y.,,} TO'
K at..KLJ\LO~
1TAELCTTOV TpEt~ E1Tt TavTov VOJ-Lof)ETova-t.. TUTTEa-f)at..
yap ~'Y}f-LOCT()Ev'Y}~ opo~ Kat TWV TOLOVTWV" 0 T-ry~
,
~'
,
,, f)
'
'f)
,
~,
XPEt..a~ o Kat..po~, EV a Ta 1Ta 'Y} XELJ-Lappov ot..K'Y}V
'\
'
'
\
\ '{)
'
,...,
e
'
1\aVVETat..,
Kat..' T'Y)V
1TOJ\V1TJ\'Y}
Et..aV aVTWV
W~ avay,
'
,..., {)
,./... ' \
ee '' {)
,./...
'
Kat..aV
EVTaV
a CTVVEo/1\KETat...
av pw1TOL, " o/'YJCTL
eef-Lt..apot Kat KOAaK~, i}KpWT'Y}pt..aCTJ-LEVOL TQS EaVTWV
t: f
'
'\ f) ,
,
EKaCTTOL 1TaTpt..oa~, T'Y}V 1\EV Ept..aV 1Tp01T1TWKOT~
1TpoTEpov iPt..At1T1T4), vvvt 8 'AA.E~avDp(f), TV yaa-Tpt
f-LETpovvTE~ Kat TOL~ ala-xta-Tot..~ T~v EvOat..f-LOVtav, T~v
~'
' \ f) ,
' '
~ ,
,,
~
,
o 1\EV Ept..av Kat.. TO J-LYJOEva EXELV oEa-1TOTYJV, a TOt..~
1Tp0Tpov t::/EAAYJCTLV opot.. TWV dyaf)wv ~a-av Kat
KavovE~, dvaTETpocpoTE~." vTavf)a T(i> 7TATJ()Et.. Twv
Tpo1Tt..Kwv
KaTa Twv 1rpo8oTwv E1Tt..1Tpoa-f)E'i Tov pf]'
~ '
' 'Apt..a-TOT1\'Y}~
'\
'
TOpO~ f) Vf-LO~.
OL01Tp
0( fJcEV
Kat..' 0c: 8 0cppaa-TO~ f-LELAtyf-LaTa cpaa-t Tt..va Twv f)paa-Et..wv Etvat..
TaVTa f-LETacpopwv, TO eeW(T1Tpt" cpavat.. Kat eeOLOVEt"
Kat C:(El XP~ TovTov EL1TELv Tov Tpo1rov" Kat C:(El DEL
1TapaKt..v8vvEvTt..KWTEpov 'AE.~at..." Tj yap V1TOTtf-LYJCTL~,
cpaa-tv, laTaL Ta TOAJ-LYJPU. f.yw 8 Kat TavTa f-LEV a1T08E.xoJ-LaL, Of-LW~ 8 7TA~f)ov~ Kat TOAJ-LYJ~ f-LETacpopwv,
o1rEp E.cpYJv Ka1Tt 2 Twv a-xYJJ-LaTwv, Ta evKat..pa Kat
a-cpo8pa 1TU()'Y} Kat TO YEVVaLOV vt/Jo~ Etvat cp'Y)f-LL tOt..a
Tt..Va aAE~t..cpapJ-LaKa, OTL T(i> pof)tq} T-ry~ cpopa~ TaVTL

,~

t.\

1 Kat
2,

deleted by Robortelli.
'Pearce IOf

,,
KU1TL
KU1TEUTa.

260

,...,

ON THE SUBLIME 32
32. As to the proper number of metaphors, Caecilius

seems on the side of those who rule that not more than
two or at the most three may be used together. Demosthenes assuredly is the canon in these matters too. And
the occasion for their use is when emotion sweeps on like
a flood and carries the multitude of metaphors along as an
inevitable consequence. "Men,"' he says, "of evil life, flatterers, who have each foully mutilated their own country
and toasted away their liberty :first to Philip and now to
Alexander, men who measure happiness by their bellies
and their basest appetites, and have overthrown that liberty and freedom from despotism which to Greeks of
older days was the canon and standard of all that was
good.,'a Here it is the orator's indignation against the
traitors which screens the multitude of metaphors.
Accordingly, Aristotle and Theophrastus say that bold
metaphors -are softened by inserting "as if' or "as it were',
or "if one may say so" or "if one may risk the expression."b
The apology, they tell us, mitigates the audacity of the
language. I accept this, but at the same time, as I said in
speaking of :figures, the proper antidote for a multitude of
daring metaphors is strong and timely emotion and genuine sublimity. These by their nature sweep everything
a De corona (=Or.

18) 296.
b See Aristotle fr. 131 Rose, with Rhet. 3.7.1408b2, Cicero,
De oratore 3.165, Theophrastus fr. 690 Fortenbaugh.

261

LONGINUS

1TEcpVKEV a1TaVTa Tii'AA.a 1Tapaa-vpEtV Kat 1Tpow(}ELV,

pJi'A.A.ov 8 Kat W~ avayKata 1TUVTW~ Ela-1TpUTTEa-(}at
\ Kat' OVK
) Eq)~ TOV
' aKpOaT7JV
)
' CTXOI\at::,EtV
\ /7
Ta' 1Tapa'/3 01\a,
1TEp'i Tov Tov 1T A. ry}{}ov~ A.Eyxov 8ul To a-vvEv{}ovcrtav
,.., \
T(f! 1\E)'OVTt.
'AA.A.a J.L~V v '}'E ra'i~ T01T1J)'Opiat~ Ka'i 8taypa...J..
)
3/\ \
'
e
e
\flat~ OVK a/\1\0 Tt OVTW~ KaTacr7JJ.LaVTtKOV W~ OL CTVV,..,
'
)
'\ \
\
/
~ '
'F'
EXEt~ Kat E1Tal\l\ 1}1\0t Tpo1Tot.
ot
wv
Kat' 1rapa' =EvocpwvTt TJ Tav(} pw1TLVOV a-KrrJVOV~ avaTOJ.L~ 1TOJ.L1TtKW~
Ka'i ETt J.LUA.A.ov ava,wypacpELTat {}Eiw~ 1Tapa T~
IIA.aTWVL. T~V J.LEV KEcpaA. T]v aVTOV cp7]crtv aKp01TOA.tv,
lcr{}J.Lov 8 J.LEcrov 8tqJKo8oJ.LiJcr{}at J.LETa~v Tov crTTjOov~ TOV avxE.va, a-cpov8vA.ov~ TE V1TECTT1]p'ix{}ai
cp7]crtv oiov a-Tpocptyya~ KaL T~V J.LEV T]8ov~v av(}pw1TOt~ Eivat KaKwv 1 8f.A.Eap, y'A.wa-a-av 8 '}'EVCTEW~
8oKLJ.LtOV" avaJ.LJ.La 8 TWV cp'AE{3wv T~V Kap8iav Kat
1T1J'}'TJV rov 1TEptcpEpo.J.LE.vov a-cpo8pw~ atJ.LaTo~, El~ TTJV
8opvcpoptK~v o'iK7Jcrtv KararErayJ.LEV1JV" Ta~ 8 8ta8poJ.La~ TWV 1Topwv OVOJ.LU,Et (JTVW1TOV~ eeTi} 8
1T1]8rr}a-Et Tij~ Kap8ia~ f.v Ti} Twv 8Etvwv 1Tpoa-8oKiqKa'i TD Tov {}vJ.Lov E1TEypa-Et, E1TEt8~ 8ta1Tvpo~ ~v,
'
/
/
" ...J..
'
\
/
E1TtKOVptaV
J.L7JXaVWJ.LEVOt,
\.f-'7Jcrt,/ ee T1JV
TOV~ 1TI\EVJ.LOVO~
'<::' /
)
...J.. /
\
'
3/
tOEaV
EVE\.f-'VTEVa-av,
fLal\aK7JV
Kat' avatJ.LOV
Kat'
a-~payya~ EVTO~ xova-av o1ro'iov J.LaA.ayJ.La, Zv'
{}VJ.LO~ 01TOT' EV avTi} 'Ea-YJ, 1T1]8wa-a El~ 1J1TELKOV J.L~
A.vJ.LaLV1]Tat." Ka'i T~v J.LEV Twv E1Tt{}VJ.LtWV OLK7Jcrtv
1Tpoa-EL1TEV w~ yvvatKWVLTtV, 'T~V 'TOV {}VJ.LOV 8 W(J1Tp
av8pwv'iTtV" 'TOV YE J.L~V CT1TA.ijva 'TWV EVTO~ J.LayE'iov,
/

~I

1--i

262

ON THE SUBLIME 32

along in the forward surge of their current, or rather they

positively demand bold imagery as essential to their
effect, and do not give the hearer time to examine how
many metaphors there are, because he shares the excitement of the speaker.
Moreover in the treatment of a commonplace and in
descriptions there is nothing so expressive as a sustained
series of metaphors. It is thus that in Xenophona the
anatomy of the human tabernacle is magnificently
depicted, and still more divinely in Plato. b The head he
calls the citadel of the body, the neck is an isthmus built
between the head and chest, and the vertebrae, he says,
are planted beneath like hinges; pleasure is evirs bait for
man, and the tongue is the touchstone of taste. The heart
is a knot of veins and the source whence the blood runs
vigorously round, and it has its station in the guardhouse
of the body. The passageways of the body he calls alleys,
and for the leaping of the heary: in the expectation of danger or the arising of wrath, since this was due to fire, the
gods devised a support by implanting the lungs, making
them a sort of buffer, soft and bloodless and full of pores
inside, so that when anger boiled up in the heart it might
throb against a yielding surface and suffer no damage."
The seat of the desires he compares to the women's apartments and the seat of anger to the men's. The spleen
Xenophon, Memorabilia 1.4.5.
h Plato, Timaeus 65C-85E, quoted selectively and with considerable freedom; see Russell (1964) pp. 153-5.
a

1 KaKwv

K rnarg., Manutius (cf. Cicero de Senectute 44,

escammalorum): KaKov P.

263

LONGINUS

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264

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3/

ON THE SUBLIME 32

again is the towel for the entrails, "with whose offscourings it is filled and becomes swollen and fetid.n
"After this," he goes on, ''they shrouded the whole in a
covering of flesh, like felt, to shield it from the outer
world." Blood he calls the fodder of the flesh, and adds,
"For purposes of nutriment they irrigated the body, cutting channels as one does in a garden, and thus, the body
being a conduit full of passages, the streams in the veins
were able to flow as it were from a running stream.', And
when the end comes, the soul, he says, is loosed like a ship
from its moorings and set free. These and thousands of
similar metaphors occur throughout. Those we have
pointed out suffice to show that figurative writinga has a
natural grandeur and that metaphors make for sublimity:
also that emotional and descriptive passages are most glad
of them. However, it is obvious without my stating it, that
the use of metaphor, like all the other beauties of style,
always tempts writers to excess._ Indeed it is for these passages in particular that critics pull Plato to pieces, on the
ground that he is often carried away by a sort of Bacchic
possession in his writing into harsh and intemperate
metaphor and allegorical bombast. "It is by no means
easy to see,'' he says, "that a city needs mixing like a wine
bowl, where the mad wine seethes as it is poured in, but is
chastened by another and a sober god and finding good
company makes an excellent and temperate drink. ''h
This translation understands A.E.gets with rpo7rtKaL
b Plato, Laws 6.773C.
a

add. K marg., Manutius.

265

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266

ON THE SUBLIME 32-33

To call water "a sober god" and mixing ''chastisement,"

say the critics, is the language of a poet who is far from
sober.
Caecilius too, in attacking like defects, has actually
had the face to declare in his book on Lysias that Lysias is
altogether superior to Plato. Here he has given way to
two confused emotions: for though he loves Lysias even
better than himself, yet his hatred for Plato altogether
outweighs his love for Lysias. However he is moved by a
spirit of contentiousness and even his premises are not
agreed, as he supposed. For he prefers his orator on the
ground that he is immaculatea and never makes a mistake,
whereas Plato is full of mistakes. But the truth, we find, is
different, very different indeed.
33. Suppose we illustrate this by taking some altogether immaculate and unimpeachable writer, must we
not in this very connection raise the general question:
Which is the better in poetry .and in prose, grandeur
flawed in some respects, or moderate achievement
accompanied by perfect soundness and impeccability?
And again: is the first place in literature rightly due to the
largest number of excellences or to the excellences that
are greatest in themselves? These inquiries are proper to
a treatise on the sublime and on every ground demand
decision. Now I am well aware that the greatest natures
are least immaculate. Perfect precision runs the risk of
triviality, whereas in great writing as in great wealth there
Katharos, i.e ...pure," in language, possessing one of the
basic stylistic virtues.
a

267

LONGINUS
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268

p etra, .cror atrtac;.

' ,

ON THE SUBLIME 33

must needs be something overlooked. Perhaps it is

inevitable that humble, mediocre natures, because they
never run any risks and never aid at the heights, should
remain to a large extent safe from error, while in great
natures their very greatness spells danger. Not indeed
that I am ignorant of the second point, that whatever men
do is always inevitably regarded from the worst side:
faults make an ineradicable impression, but beauties soon
slip from our memory. I have myself cited a good many
faults in Homera and the other greatest authors, and
though these slips certainly offend my taste, yet I prefer
to call them not wilful mistakes but careless oversights, let
in casually almost and at random by the heedlessness of
genius. In spite, then, of these faults I still think that the
greatest excellences, even if they are not sustained
throughout at the same level, should always be voted the
first place, if for nothing else, for the greatness of mind
they reveal. Apollonius, for ins~ance, is an impeccable
poet in the Argonautica, and Theocritus-except in a few
extraneous mattersh-is supremely successful in his pastorals. Yet would you not rather be Homer than Apollonius? And what of Eratosthenes in his Erigone ?c Wholly
blameless as the little poem is, do you therefore think him
a greater poet than Archilochus with all his disorganized
flood and those outbursts of divine inspiration, which are
Presumably in other works.
b This refers either to the
parts of Theocritus which are not pastoral or (more probably) to
slips of factual detail noted by grammarians.
c A learned elegiac poem by the astronomer-poet (third century B.c.), in which was related the Attic myth of the death of
Icarius and the suicide by hanging of his daughter Erigone, the
principal characters being all translated into stars. See J. U.
Powell, C ollectanea Alexandrina 64ff.
a

269

LONGINUS
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3 del. Weiske: viJ ~[a Richards.
2

270

ON THE SUBLIME 33-34

so troublesome to bring under any rule? In lyrics, again,

would you choose to be Bacchylides rather than Pindar,
or in tragedy Ion of Chiosa rather than Sophocles? In
both pairs the first named is impeccable and a master of
elegance in the smooth style, while Pindar and Sophocles
sometimes seem to fire the whole landscape as they
sweep across it, though often their fire is unaccountably
quenched and they fall miserably flat. The truth is rather
that no one in his senses would give the single tragedy of
Oedipus for all the works of Ion together.
34. If achievements were to be judged by the number
of excellences and not by their greatness, Hyperides
would then be altogether superior to Demosthenes. He
has greater variety of voice and his excellences are more
numerous. He may almost be said to come a good second
in every competition, like the winner of the Pentathlon. b
In each contest he loses to the professional champion, but
comes first of the amateurs. Besides reproducing all the
virtues of Demosthenes, except his skill in word arrangement, Hyperides has embraced all the excellences and
graces of Lysias. He talks plainly, where necessary, does
not speak always in the same tone, as Demosthenes is said
to do, and has the power of characterization, seasoned
moreover by simplicity and charm. Then he has an
untold store of polished wit, urbane sarcasm, well-bred
Ion of Chios (mid-fifth century B.C.) was better known for
his prose works ("Memoirs" and "Visits of Famous Men"), but a
number of his tragedies were known in Hellenistic times (TGF i
pp. 95ff; A. von Blumenthal, Ion von Chios (1939)).
b The best result in all five contests taken together-jumping,
running, discus, javelin, wrestling-would doubtless be achieved
by an athlete who was not an outstanding performer in any one.
a

271

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LONGINUS
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TO /'E TOL

1rep'L iPpVVYJ~ ~ 'AOY)voyvov~ 'Aoyi8tov E1TLXEtprr]a-a~

ypacpEtV

ETL

fLa'A..'Aov

av

(T1Tepet8Y}V

O"VVEO"TY)O"EV.

' \ \ ' E1TELOYJ1TEp,

'
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,
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Ta' fLEV
Kal\a,
Kat' EL'
1TOA'A.a OfLW~ UfLEYEOY], Kap8iv vrr]cpovTo~ apya Kat

aAAa.

({Aa~ Tucker for

Kexvpi.vw~ Blass, for KEXVfLEVo~.

TL

Buecheler, for ETL.

Hyperides' lost Deliacus (frr. 67-75 Kenyon; the date is

about 343 B.c.) upheld the Athenian claim to the presidency of
the temple at Delos, where Leto gave birth to Apollo and
Artemis.
b The Funeral Oration (Oration 6) 322 B.C., on those who fell
in the Lamian War, is extant on a papyrus first published in 1858.
a

272

ON THE SUBLIME 34

elegance, supple turns of irony, jests neither tasteless nor

ill-bred, well-dressed with wit like the Attic masters,
clever satire, plenty of pointed ridicule and well-directed
fun, and in all this a quite indescribable charm. Nature
endowed him fully with the power of evoking pity and
also with a superb flexibility in narrating myths copiously,
and pursuing a theme with fluency. His story ofLeto,a for
instance, is in a more poetical vein, while his Funeral
Orationb is as good a piece of epideictic composition as
anyone could produce. Demosthenes, on the other hand,
has no gift of characterization or of fluency, is far from
facile, and no epideictic orator. In fact he has no part in
any one of the qualities we have just mentioned. When
he is forced into attempting a jest or a witty passage, he
rather raises the laugh against himself; and when he tries
to approximate charm, he is farther from it than ever. If
he had tried. to write the little speech on Phrynec or
Athenogenes, d he would have be~n an even better advertisement for Hyperides. But nevertheless I feel that the
beauties of H yperides, many as they are, yet lack
grandeur; ~~inert in the heart of a sober man,~~e they
Hyperides' defence of the courtesan Phryne (frr. 171-80
Kenyon) is lost, but was famous for the peroration, in which
Phryne's charms were displayed to the court (Athenaeus
13.590E).
d Against Athenogenes (Oration 3, a large part of which survives in a papyrus published in 1892) concerns a contract for the
purchase of slaves; it is lively and full of character, but the case is
a complicated one.
e Proverbial and perhaps a verse quotation.
c

273

LONGINUS

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Kaiptov Richards for Kvptov: ei(}',

rtva Manutius for oetva.
3 o~-twc; Toup foro 11-ev.
4 EKrure Seager.
2

274

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o8~ Kvptov Rohde.

1"'1

T
i

ON THE SUBLIME 34-35

do not trouble the peace of the audience. No one feels

frightened while reading Hyperides. But Demosthenes
no sooner "takes up the tale,,a than he shows the merits of
great genius in their most consummate form, sublime
intensity, living emotion, redundance, readiness, speedwhere speed is in season-and his own unapproachable
vehemence and power: concentrating in himself all these
heaven-sent gifts-it would be impious to call them
human-he thus uses the beauties he possesses to win a
victory over all others that even compensates for his
weaknesses, and out-thunders, as it were, and outshines
orators of every age. You could sooner open your eyes to
the descent of a thunderbolt than face his repeated outbursts of emotion without blinking.
35. There is, as I said, b a further point of difference as
compared with Plato. Lysias is far inferior to him both in
the greatness and number of his excellences; yet the
abundance of his faults is still greater than his deficiency
in excellences. What then was the vision of those
detnigods who aimed only at what is greatest in writing
and scorned detailed accuracy? This above all: that
Nature has judged n1anc a creature of no mean or ignoble
quality, but, as if she were inviting us to some great gathering, she has called us into life, into the whole universe,
there to be spectators of her games and eager competiA Homeric phrase (Odyssey 8.500).
b In chap. 32.
c If this reading is right, Nature ''admits" men as spectators
and competitors in the games of life: but Seager's conjecture-" created"-may well be right.
a

275

T
LONGINUS
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276

ON THE SUBLIME 35-36

tors; and she therefore from the first breathed into our
hearts an unconquerable passion for whatever is great
and more divine than ourselves. Thus the whole universe
is not enough to satisfy the speculative intelligence of
human thought; our ideas often pass beyond the limits
that confine us. Look at life from all sides and see how in
all things the extraordinary, the great, the beautiful stand
supreme, and you will soon realize what we were born for.
So it is by some natural instinct that we admire, not the
small streams, clear and useful as they are, but the Nile,
the Danube, the Rhine, and above all the Ocean. The little fire we kindle for ourselves keeps clear and steady, yet
we do not therefore regard it with more amazement than
the fires of Heaven, which are often darkened, or think it
more wonderful than the craters of Etna in eruption,
hurling up rocks and whole hills from their depths and
sometimes shooting forth rivers of that earth born, spontaneous fire. But on all such matters I would only say this,
that what is useful or necessary is easily obtained by man;
it is always the unusual which wins our wonder.
36. In dealing, then, with writers of genius, whose
grandeur is of a kind that comes within the limits of use
and profit, we must at the outset observe that, while they
are far from unerring, yet they are above all mortal range.
l
2

(JJ)'Awv Reiske for o'Awv.

'Y'YJYEvov~ Markland, for yvov~.

3 a1rrofLaTov
4 1ravTo~

Haupt, for avTov

Pearce, for 7TavTe~.

fLOvov.

277

LONGINUS
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1 rts

278

K marg., Manutius for ye.

Quoted in Plato (Phaedrus 264C) as part of an epitaph said

r
ON THE SUBLIME 36

Other qualities prove their possessors men, sublimity lifts

them near the mighty mind of God. Correctness escapes
censure: greatness earns admiration as well. We need
hardly add that each of these great men again and again
redeems all his mistakes by a single touch of sublimity
and true excellence; and, what is finally decisive, if we
were to pick out all the faults in Homer, Demosthenes,
Plato, and all the other greatest authors and put them
together, we should find them a tiny part, not the smallest
fraction, of the true successes to be found everywhere in
the work of these heroes. That is why the judgement of
all ages, which no jealousy can convict of mental incompetence, has awarded them the crown of victory, guards it
as their irremovable possession, and is likely to preserve
it,
So long as the rivers run and the tall trees flourish
and grow. a
As to the statement that the faulty Colossush is no better
than the Doryphorus of Polyclitus,c there are many obvious answers to that. For one thing, we admire accuracy in
art, grandeur in nature; and it is Nature that has given
man the power of using words. Also we expect a statue to
resemble a man, but in literature, as I said before, we
to have been written for Midas. See Anthologia Palatina 7.153.
b Perhaps the Colossus of Rhodes, damaged in an earthquake
when it had stood for sixty years; but more probably any colossal
statue: cf. Strabo 1.1.23, who speaks of kolossoi in which the total
effect is all-important, and the accuracy of the detail insignificant.
c The statue of the boy with a lance by Polyclitus of Argos was
regarded as a model of beautiful proportions (Pliny, Natural History 34.55).

279

LONGINUS
4

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280

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ON THE SUBLIME 36-38

'Jk for something greater than human. However (this

vice reverts to something with which we began our
~atise), since impeccable correctness is, generally
,eaking, due to art, and the height of excellence, even if
.-ratic, to genius, it is proper that art should always assist
J.ture. Their cooperation may well result in perfection.
tis much had to be said to decide the questions before
:- But everyone is welcome to his own taste.
- 37. Closely akin to metaphors (to return to them) are
.:nparisons and similes. The only difference is ...

[Two pages are lost here.]

38. . .. Laughablea also are such things as "If you do
L t carry your brains trodden down in your heels."b One
must know, then, where to draw the line in each case.
Tne hyperbole is sometimes ruined by overshooting the
y,;;:trk. Overdo the strain and the thing sags, and often
t ')duces the .opposite effect to that intended. For
1---~tance, !socrates fell into uqaccountable puerility
~~_1.rough his ambition to amplify everything. The theme
of his Panegyric is that Athens surpasses Sparta in her
benefits to Greece. But at the very outset he puts this:
1\1oreover words have such power that they can make
great things humble and endue small things with great~less, give a new guise to what is old, and describe recent
This assumes Reiske's supplement.
b [Demosthenes] Oration 7.45.
a

Reiske.

281

LONGINUS
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Tt~,

O""OKpaTE~,

A aKEOatp.,OVtWV
~
/

Kat' Ta' 1TEpt'

~'

\\/

r~..

1"1

OtEI\UEtV -OVKOVV,

apxatW~

'

'

1"1

'AnUYJ-

Kat'

\/

VatWV EVal\1\aTTEtV; O""XEOOV yap TO TWV 1\0YWV EYKWfLtOV

'

1"1

a1TtO""Tta~ TTJ~

il'

Kau

1"1

1"1

aVTOV

TOt~

'

oiJv apta-Tat

w~ Kat E1Tt TWV O""XYJfLUTWV 1TpOEL1TO-

TWV V1TEp{3o'Awv,
,

fL~1TOT'

yEAfLa Kat 1TpOOLfLtOV ete0YJKEV.

~

aKOVOVO""t 1Tapay-

1"1

L)/

t!/

'

fLEV, at aVTO TOVTO Otal\aVuavova-at OTt EtO""tV V1TEpQ

/L)

'

TLVL

8ovKv8i8YJ~
t!l

'

OL
,

evOv~

'

n /

1TEpta-TaO""EW~,

01TEp

'

'

yap

,/.,.

1"1

E1TL TWV ev 'itKEAtq- cpOetpOfLEVWV 1TOLEL.

""-"

~vpaKOVO""LOL,

1"1

1"1

DtecpOapTo,

XYJTov.,
/

,/.,.

/\

d'A'A'

aT !La Kat

Q /

~~ ,

,,

ov8v ,f}a-a-ov E1TLVETO OfLOV T/j>

Tot~ 1ro'A'Ao't~ ETt

1TYJAOV 1TtVOfLEVa op.,w~

~"~

''

'

~"~

ILaXYJTa ETt 1TOtEt 1Tta-Tov YJ TOV

/
1TEpta-Taa-t~.
/\

1TVI\at~

1 Add.

282

t!/

O""VVEK'+'WVWVTat

1TYJA/j> iJfLaTWfLEvov Kat

EK1TauEta~

'f'YJO""tV,
E1TtKaTafJaVTE~
rl.. r
' ' t!l~
ev T(f! 1TOTafLcp fLaAta-Ta ea-'f'a':,ov, Kat TO vowp

TE

rov~

'

ytVETat OE TO TOtOVOE, E1TEtOaV V1TO

fLEYEVEL

~~

fJOI\at.

,ryv 1TEptp.,aEtvat 1TEpt-

/L)

1rauov~

'

' ~H pooOTEtOV
~ /
' ' TWV EV
Kat' TO
E1TL

t!/

OfLOtOV.

1"1

~~,

EV

TOVT(f!

Manutius, from Herodotus.

,/.,.

'f'YJO""tV

'

VTTEPOXYJ Kat
'

~( , \

8 EpfLO-

ai\E~ OfLEVOV~

~
'i

ON THE SUBLIME 38

events in the style of long ago"a_"Why, !socrates," one

may say, ~~do you intend by this means to reverse the positions of the Spartans and the Athenians?" For his praise
of the power of words has all but issued a prefatory warning to the audience that he himself is not to be believed.
Perhaps then, as we said above of figures, b the best hyperbole is the one which conceals the very fact of its being a
hyperbole. And this happens when it is uttered under
stress of emotion to suit the circumstances of a great crisis. This is what Thucydides does in speaking of those
who were killed in Sicily. "For the Syracusans went down
and began to slaughter chiefly those in the river. The
water was immediately tainted but none the less they kept
on drinking it, foul though it was with mud and gore, and
most of them were still ready to fight for it.''c That a drink
of mud and gore should yet still be worth fighting for is
made credible only by the height of the emotion which
the circumstances arouse. It is the same with Herodotus'
description of those who fought at Thermopylae. ~~on
this spot," he says, "while they defended themselves with
daggers, such as still had daggers left, and with hands and
teeth, the barbarians buried them under a shower of
missiles."d Here you may well ask what is meant by actually ~~fighting with teeth" against armed men or being
"buried" with missiles; yet it carries credence in the same
way, because Herodotus does not seem to have introduced the incident to justify the hyperbole, but the
hyperbole for the sake of the incident. As I am never
tired of saying, to atone for a daring phrase the universal
!socrates, Panegyricus 8.
b See chap. 17.
c Thucydides 7.84.
d Herodotus 7.225.
a

283

LONGINUS
,
,
aKELa

Ta'

TL~

'
KaL' Ta

'

'

'

eyyv~ EKCTTaO"EW~

EV

,
' EL~
''
,
',
KaLTOLY
a7rLCTTLaV
EK1rL1r'TOVTa

KWfLLKa'

nteava ota To

~'()

3/
Epya
KaL' 1ra, () 'YJ

yE'Ao'-ov
'
'
aypov

E.a-x' 'AaTTw yijv E.xovT' nta-To'Aij~

<AaKWVLKij~>l
6

'
Kat' yap
o(

'\

' 'YJOOVYJ.
(~
na'() o~ EV
1"'1

YEAW~

~I

I
'
'
'"''f
Ka () U1rEp
E1TL
TO' fLELsOV,

~'
E1TELO'YJ
KOLVOV ap...o/OLV 'YJ
'

'

'

'

,./..,.

1"'1

OVTW~
'

at o~' V1rEPtJOAaL
(

(.}

'

'
'
-'I\
KaL' E1TL
TOVI\aTTOV,

KaL

E1rLTaCTL~

1TW~

~
OLaa-vp-

'
''C
ECTTLV
aVs
'YJCTL~.

fLO~ Ta1TELVOT'YJTO~

39. (H 1rEfl-1rT'YJ p...ol_pa Twv a-vvTEAova-wv El~ To

vlfio~' iJJv YE EV dpxiJ npov()p...E()a, .()' i}p...LV AEL1rETaL,
KpaTLCTTE, ljv
'?

e
'
V1rEp

'

''Y]~

EV

Tayp...aCTLV,
'TOCTOV'TOV

8 2

TWV Aoywv aVT'YJ 1rOLa a-vv()E(TL~.

~
'
OVCTLV

oa-a

'

'

a1TOOEOWKOTE~

CTVV-

Tij~ ()Ewpia~ ~v i}p...tv tKTa,

YE

dva.YKYJ~

'"'
e
'{)
1rapova-av
V1r0
ECTLV,

i}oovij~ i}

anoxpwV'TW~

e
W~

npoa-()ELYJfLEV

EL~

av

T~V

1
'
'
'"'
OV' fLOVOV
ECTTL
1TEL {) OV~
KaL'

apfLOVLa va-LKOV av{) pwnoL~

aAAa Kat

p.,EyaA'Y}yopia~ Kat na{)ov~ {)avp...aa-TOV TL opyavov.

OV yap
'

'

' \
'
aV/\0~

fLEV EVTL 'YJCTLV TLVa 1ra 'YJ

'

'

'()

, ()

1"'1
TOL~

aKpOW'

fLEVOL~ Ka'i oiov EKpova~ Ka'i Kopv{3avTtaa-p...ov nA.rr}pEL~ dnoTEAEL, Ka'i {3aa-LV EVOov~ TLVa pvOp...ov npo~
TaVTYJV dvayKa,EL 3 {3aivELv ev pvOp.,fi! Ka'i a-vvE~op...ot
ova-()aL Tfi!

p.,EAEL TOV aKpoaTry}v, Kav ap...ova-o~

i7

nav-

Tanaa-L, Ka'i v~ Ilia ()6yyot KL()apa~, ovov a1rAw~

1 Add.

284

Portus ( 1569).

ON THE SUBLIME 38-39

specific is found in actions and feelings that almost make

one beside oneself. Thus, too, comic expressions, even if
they result in the incredible, yet sound convincing
because they are laughable:
His field was shorter than a Spartan letter. a
Laughter indeed is an emotion based on pleasure.
Hyperbole may tend to belittle as well as to magnify: the
common element in both is a strain on the facts. In a
sense too vilification is an amplification of the low and
trivial.
39. Of those factors of sublimity which we specified at
the beginning,b the fifth one still remains, good friendthis was the arrangement of the words themselves in a
certain order. On this question I have in two books given
a sufficient account of such conclusions as I could reach,
and for our present purpose I need only add this, that
men find in melody not only a natural instrument of persuasion and pleasure, but also a marvellous instrument of
grandeur and emotion. The flute, for instance, induces
certain emotions in those who hear it. It seems to carry
them away and fill them with divine frenzy. It sets a particular rhythmic movement and forces them to move in
rhythm. The hearer has to conform to the tune, though
he may be utterly unmusical. Why, the very tones of the
The brevity of Spartan messages was proverbial. The line is
perhaps from comedy (cf. fr. adesp. 417-19 Kock).
bIn chap. 8.
a

Russell (1964), for iJ 8ul.

avayKa'Et. Manutius, for avayKaCTEt..

285

LONGINUS
UYJf.LatvovTEr;,
1Tpor;

Tatr;

Twv

1Jxwv f.LETa{3oA.a'ir;

Kat Tfj

aAA-r}Aovr; Kpaa-EtJ Kat f.LLtEL Tfjr; U"Vf.LcPWVLar;

'

(}

aVf.LaU"TOV

(}

EJ\YYJTpov

1\

-'I

\\1

E1TayoVU"L
(

('

1TOJ\J\aKLr;,
V~

"""

-'I

Wr;

E1TLU"TaU"aL,

'

I(}

KaLTOL TaVTa ELOWJ\a KaL f.LLf.LYJfl-aTa VO a

-'
'
-''
"""
-'
(}
I
A.._l
('
:~lA.._
EU"TL
1TEL (}"""
ovr;, OVXL
TYJr;
av
pw1TELar;
'Pva-Ewr;,
wr;
E'PYJV,

8'

EVEPY-r7fl-aTa yv-r}a-La), OVK OLOf.LE8a

apa TTJV a-vv8E-

(JLV, apf.LOVLav TLVa oi)a-av Aoywv av8pw1TOLr; Ef.LcpVTWV Kat Tfjr; tfivxf7r; avTfjr;, ovxt Tfjr; aKofjr; f.LOVYJr;
-',/..,.

E'Pa1TTOf.LEVWV,
I

VOYJU"EWV

1\

1TOLKtl\ar;
I

1Tpayfl-aTWV

'~I

"""

KtVOVU"aV
1\ \

Kai\1\0Vr;

tOEar;
-'

-'

OVOf.LaTWV

EVf.L1\Etar;,

1TaVTWV

TJf.LLV E.vTpocpwv Kat a-vyyEvwv, Kat af.La Tfj f.LLtEL Kat

1ToAvf.Lopcp[q.. Twv f.avTfjr; cp86yywv To 1TapEa-Twr; T(i>
1
\
I
'
'
tit
'
"""
/\
1\EYOVTt
1Ta (} or; ELr;
Tar;
'Yvxar;
TWV
1TEJ\ar;
1TapELU"-

I
'
I
-'"""''I
-''
ayova-av
Kat' ELr;
f.LETOVU"LaV
aVTOV
TOVr; aKOVOVTar; aEt

1Ta8ur:Taa-av, Tfj

Twv A.tEwv E1TotKoDof.L-r}a-EL Ta

f.LEYE(}YJ a-vvapf.Lo,ova-av., 8t' avTwv TOVTWV KYJAEtv 2 TE
TE

('
"""
'
:1/
'
'(;
I
'
~',It
'
Of.LOV
Kat' 7rpor;
oyKov
TE Kat a~ tWf.La Kat v'Yor; Kat
1TUV 0 EV avTfj 3 JrEpLAaf.Lf3avEL Kat TJf.LUr; EKUU"TOTE

~
(}'
I
('
"""
"""
~
I
-'
U"VVOLaTL
EVaL, 1TaVTOLWr;
YJf.LWV
TYJr;
OLaVOtar;
E1TLKpa-

""'
' \ \ '
I
"""
~~
e
\
TOVU"av;
al\1\
EL' KaL' f.LaVLa
TO' 1TEpL' TWV
OVTWr;
Of.LOJ\0-

( a1Toxpwa-a yap T] 1TEtpa

I
)
('.It \ I
I
~
""'4
I
'
:1/
"""
1TLU"Ttr; , V'YYJJ\OV yE 1TOV ooKEt VOYJf.La Kat EU"TL TC[J
yoVf.LEVWV

8ta1TopE'iv

ovTt 8avf.LaU"Lov,
A...

'PEpEt

('('

"""

'

o T(i>
tit

tfiYJcpLa-f.LaTL

I,/..,.

'

o ilYJf.LOU"8EvYJr;
I

""'

E1Tt-

1\

TOVTO TO '-f-JYJ'PtU"f.La TOV TOTE TYJ 1TOJ\Et 1TEpt-

'
I
~
\ ( } ""'
'
I
~~
I A.._
'-'
U"TaVTa
KtVOVVOV
1TapEJ\
EtV E1TOtYJU"EV
WU"1TEp
VE'Por;,

aAA' avT-ryr; T-ryr; DLavo[ar; OVK EAaTTOV Tfj apf.LOVtq..

1TEcpWVYJTaL. oAov TE yap E1Tt TWV DaKTVAtKWV ELPYJTat
pv8f.Lwv, EvyEvEa-TaTot

286

8'

oiJTot Kat fLEYE8o1ToLoi, Dto

ON THE SUBLIME 39

harp, themselves meaningless, by the variety of their

sounds and by their combination and harmonious blending often exercise, as you know, a marvellous spell. (Yet
these are only a bastard counterfeit of persuasion, not, as
I said above, a genuine activity of human nature.) Must
we not think, then, that composition, which is a kind of
melody in words-words which are part of man's nature
and reach not his ears only but his very soul-stirring as it
does myriad ideas of words, thoughts, things, beauty,
musical charm, all of which are born and bred in us, and
by the blending of its own manifold tones, bringing into
the hearts of the bystanders the speaker's actual emotion
so that all who hear him share in it, and by piling phrase
on phrase builds up one majestic whole-must we not
think, I say, that by these very means it casts a spell on us
and always turns our thoughts towards what is majestic
and dignified and sublime and all else that it embraces,
winning a complete mastery ov~r our minds? Now it may
indeed seem lunacy to raise any question on matters of
such agreement, since experience is a sufficient test, yet
surely the idea which Demosthenes applies to his decree
strikes one as sublime and truly marvellous: ''This decree
made the peril at that time encompassing the country
pass away like as a cloud."a But its effect is due no less to
the harmony than to the thought. Its delivery rests wholly
on the dactyls, which are the noblest of rhythms and
a

De corona 188.

K marg., Pearce, for Kpova-Et.

Kr(AEZv K marg., Manutius, for KaAEZv.
3 avT'O Toll, for avT'O.
4 1rov DoKEL Reiske, for Tov DoKELV.
2

287

LONGINUS
~p~ov ~v tO"fJ-EV KaAALa-Tov fJ-ETpov a-vv-

Kat To

[TO/

,...,

LO"TaO"L

~I

]1 7TLTOLYE
, /
, ,. .,
EK TYJ~

~ '

fJ-ETafJE~ 07TOL OYJ

/

~~

'(} / \

/\EL~

,...,

3~/

'

TOVTO TO

'

aVTO

xwpa~

~YJo/LO"fJ-a

W0"7Tp

LOLa~
,/ 1

~I

/ ,./.,.

' /
'
/
/
~
\(} ,..., " .,,
'
7TOLYJO" TOV TOTE KLVOVVOV 7rap1\ ELV, YJ VYJ

,./.,.

VEo/0~

Liia

11-iav
\

(}

,...,

7rap1\ LV

a-vAAaf3~v

a7roKot/Jov
/ ,./.,.

W~ VEo/0~,

vt/JEL O"VVYJXEL.

"

'

'I

~~E7TOLYJO"E

11-ovov
~

,...,

KaL ELO"YJ, 7TOO"OV YJ apfJ-OVLa

T~

~~W0"7Tp

E7Tt

aVTO yap TO

vcpo~"

fJ-aKpov Tov 7rpwTov pvfJ11-ov f3f3YJKE, TETpaa-L KaTafJ-ETpov/1-vov2 xpovoL~

f.~aLpEfJELO"YJ~ 8 T-Yj~ fJ-LU~

a-vAAa/31]~ ~\v~ vcpo~" EVfJv~ aKpWTYJpLa,EL Tfj a-vyK07Tll

~~

fJ-EYEfJo~,

TO
\(} ,. .,

7rap1\ LV

w~

'

'

'

'

'3

7TOLYJO"V

O"YJfJ-aLVEL, OV TO aVTO

EfJ-7TaALV,

/ ,./.,.

W0"7TpL

~ '

'I

E7TEKTELVYJ~

f.av
VEo/0~,

"

~I

'

ETL 7rp00"7TL7TTEL, OTL

, '

TO

aVTO

,...,

fJ-YJKEL

T~

TWV aKpwv XPOVWlJ O"VVEKAVETaL Kat 8LaxaAuTaL TO

' ,

~.,,

T.O a7TOTOfJ-OV.

V~O~

40.

'Ev

To'i~ 11-a/:tLa-Ta f.1-EYEfJo7ToLE'i Ta AEyo-

fJ-Eva, KafJa7TEp Ta a-wfJ-aTa ~ Twv fJ-EAwv E7TLa-vvfJEa-L~,

~v

EV

fJ-EV ov8v T,J.YJfJEv acp' ETEpov KafJ' EaVTO a~LO

Aoyov EXEL, 7TUVTa 8 fJ-ET' aAA'Y}Awv EK7TAYJpo'i TEAELOV

/
O"VO"TYJfJ-a

~I
OVTW~

/\
~
(} /
'
'
'
Ta' fJ-Eyal\a
O"KEOaO"
EVTa fJ-EV
a7T

aAA'Y}Awv aAAoa-' aAAYJ CLfJ-a EaVTOL~ a-vv8Lacpopli Kat

~1 .1 t

TO'

V~O~,

/
O"WfJ-aT07TOLOVfJ-EVa

'

/
'
TYJ,..., KOLVWVLf!:
Kat' ETL

DEa-fJ-{iJ Tij~ dpfJ-OVLa~ 7TEpLKAELOf.1-EVa, avT(iJ T(iJ KVKA~

,I...

'

~'

o/WVYJEVTa yLvETaL KaL a-xEoov Ev

v6~ EO"TL 7TA'YjfJov~ Ta fJ-EYEfJYJ.

1

ro

Manutius omitted
lacuna to follow it, e.g. TO
a-vvreTaKrat> Mazzucchi.

288

,...,

/~

TaL~ 7rEpLoooL~

'I

Epa-

aAAa fJ-~V OTL YE 7TOA-

rE; Pearce and others propose a

TE

<TEA.EvraZov KOf.Lf.La Bavf.Laa-rwr;;

ON THE SUBLIME 39-40

make for grandeur-and that is why the most beautiful of

all known metres, the heroic, is composed of dactyls.
Change the position of the phrasea to any place you like"'
~~
',I..
'
'
'
'
TOVTO
TO',/,',./...
\f-'YJ'PLO"f.La W0"7Tp
V'-{JO~ 7TOLYJCT TOV TOTE
Kiv8vvov 7TapEA0E'iv-or simply cut off a single syllable-E7TOLYJO"E 7TapEA0ELV w~ VE~O~-and you will real-

ize how truly the harmony chimes in with the sublimity.

Indeed the actual phrase wa-7rEp vf.cpo~ rests on its long
first rhythmical element, equivalent to four beats. Cut
out the one syllable-w~ vf.cpo~-and the curtailment at
once mutilates the grandeur. So again if you lengthen
it-7TapEA0E'iv E7TOLYJa-Ev wa-7TEpE'i vf.~o~-the meaning
is the same, but it does not strike the same upon the ear,
because the sheer sublimity is broken up and loosened by
the breaking up of the longs in the final syllables.h
40. Nothing is of greater service in giving grandeur to
what is said -than the organization of the various members. It is the same with the human body. None of the
members has any value by itself apart from the others, yet
one with another they all constitute a perfect system.
Similarly if these effects of grandeur are separated, the
sublimity is scattered with them: but if they are united
into a single whole and embraced by the bonds of rhythm,
then they gain a living voice just by being merely rounded
into a period. In a period, one might say, the grandeur
I.e. the words wcrrrep vf.o~.
b I.e. both the proposed changes involve losing the effect of
wcr;rep as two longs.
a

KaTafLE'Tpovpivov Toll for KaTafLETpOVfLEVov.

3 W(J"1TEpEL
(
'K marg. !Of
.c W(J"1TEp.
.,

289

I
I

LONGINUS
\ ' KaL' a-vyypa'f"EWV
rf-.. /
""'
'
1\0L
KaL' 1TOLYJTWV
OVK

rl-.. /

'

'

/f) EL~,

!>/

OVTE~

<:/

'f"VCYEL, fLYJ1TOTE OE KaL afLE'YE

e I~ \
'
V'f''Y}J\OL
1

1"'1

OfLW~

'

KaL

KOLVOL~

8YJfLW8Ea-L TOL~ OVOfLaCYL Kat ov8v E1Ta'YOfLEVOL~

'e
'
\\'
/
~'
/
""'
1TEpLTTOV
W~ Ta 1TOJ\J\a CYV'YXPWfLEVOL, OLa fLOVOV TOV
a-vvfJE'ivaL Kat apfLOCYaL ravra 8Eovrw~ 1 oyKov Kat

/3/

~
OLaCYTYJfLa
KaL TO fLY] Ta1TELVOL'~
OOKELV ELVaL 1TEpLE a/

'

'

'

1"'1

";'

AOVTO, KafJa1TEp a'A'Aot TE 7TOA'Ao'i Kat <I>['Ata-To~, , Aptrl-.. /

!>/

""'

TLCYLV, EV

EV

CYTO'f"aVYJ~

TOL~

iKavw~ ~fL'-v 8E8~A.wrat.

E vpt1TLOYJ~,
,
/
~

1TJ\ELCYTOL~

fLETa

rot r~v rEKvoKro-

v[av eHpaKAf}~ cpYJa-L

a-cp68pa 8YJfLW8E~ TO AEYOfLEVOV, a'A'Aa yeyovEv Vt/JYJ\

'

1"'1

1"'1

~'

!>/\ \

1\0V TYJ 1TAaa-EL avaAoyovv EL o

/

rl-..

fLOCYEL\;, 'f"aVYJCYETaL CYOL, OLOTL

0 EvpL1TL8'YJ~

ai\1\W~

1"'1

T'YJ~

CYVV

'

'

avro a-vvap-

f)/

'

ECYEW~ 1TOLYJT'YJ~

f.La'A.'A6v EU"TLV ~ TOV vov.

E1Tt

ri}~

a-vpOfLEVYJ~ V1TO TOV. ravpov i1LpKYJ~,

~ /

1TOV TVXOL
1reptg 'A.[ga~, ElAKE <1ravfJ'> 2 Of.Lov 'Aaf3wv
EL OE

1"'1

1"'1

\\/

yvvatKa 1TETpav opvv fLETaAAaa-a-wv aEL,

ECYTL fLEV
yeyovE

EV

yEvva'iov

Kat

TO

'A iJf.Lf.La,

a8porEpov

ref> T~V apfLOVLav fL~ KaTECY1TEva-fJaL fLYJ8' oiov

a1TOKVALa-fLaTL cpepEa-fJaL,
1

a'A'Aa CYTYJPL'YfLOV~ TE

8eovTws- von Amim for 8' op.,ws-; but it may be best to make
a lacuna after 8' (Mazzucchi).
2

290

Add. Bergk.

ON THE SUBLIME 40

comes from the multitude of contributors. We have

indeed abundantly showna that many writers both in
prose and poetry, who are not by nature sublime, perhaps
even the very opposite, while using for the most part current vulgar words, which suggests nothing out of the common, yet by the mere arrangement and fitting together of
these properly have achieved dignit~ and distinction and
a reputation for grandeur; Philistus, for instance, among
many others, Aristophanes occasionally, Euripides almost
always. After the slaughter of his children Heracles says:
I am loaded with woes and have no room for more.c
The phrase is exceedingly ordinary, yet becomes sublime
by being apt to the situation. If you put the passage
together in any other way, you will realize that Euripides
is a poet of word arrangement more than of ideas. Speaking ofDirce being torn apart by the bull, he says,
Andifperchanceithappened
To twist itself around, it dragged them all,
Woman and rock and oak, and juggled with them.d
The idea itself is a fine one, but it gains additional force
from the fact that the rhythm is not hurried along or, as it
a

Presumably in the (lost) work in two books referred to at

39.1.

Sicilian historian of the fourth century, imitator of Thucydides: FGrHist 556.

c Euripides, Hercules Furens 1245.
d From Antiope (fr. 221 Nauck2): Amphion and Zethus, having discovered that Antiope was their mother, inflict on the cruel
queen Dirce the punishment she had intended for Antiope.
h

291

I
(

LONGINUS

EXEtV 1Tpo~ aAAYJAa ra OVOf.LaTa KaL f.tEpELCTf.LaTa rwv

xpovwv 1Tpo~ 8patov 8ta{3E{3'Y}KOTa f.LEYE(}o~.

41.

MtKp01TOtOVV

ov8v ovrw~ f.v rot~ tn/JYJAOL~

8'

w~ pvfJf.LO~ KEKAaCTf.LEVO~ A.oywv KaL (J"f.(J"Of3'YJf.LEVO~,'

oiov Si} 1Tvppxtot KaL rpoxatot KaL StxopEtot, rEAEov

'
opxYJcrrtKov

c/JatVETat

ra

' 1ravra
/
EV'(}'v~ yap

Et~

crvvEK1Tt1TrovrE~.

Karappv(} f.La

KOf.Lt/Ja

KaL

f.LtKpoxapfJ

[ KaL] 1 a1Ta(}crrara 8ta riJ~ Of.LOEt8Eia~ E1Tt1TOAa,ovra

' ,,

'

~'

'

~'

~ /

Kat ETL TOVTWV TO XEtptCTTOV OTt, WCT1TEp ra q_Joapta

'

TOV~

'

aKpoara~

~
'
avra

/y

fJta~.:,Erat,

'

1"'1

a1TO TOV
'

'

',./...

Ta~

0'-PELJ\Of.LEVa~

, ,./... ' \

'

, ,./...'

1"'1

1"'1

/(}

1\EYOf.LEVWV OV TO TOV AOYOV 1Ta

aKOVOVCTt, TO

a'-PEAKEt Kat E'-P

/
Kat' ra' KarEppv (} f.LLCTf.LEVa
rwv

~'

ovrw~

1Tpayf.LaTO~

~ /~

1"'1

EVOtOW(J"L

0~

TOL~

TOV pv(}f.LOV, w~ EVLOTE 1Tp0Et-86ra~

\

/(;

KaTal\ 'YJC:, EL~

'

aVTOV~

1"'1

V1TOKpOVELV

TOL~

A.yovcrt KaL c{JfJavovra~ w~ f.v xopfi> TLVL 1TpOa1To8t-86-

'
Q /
VaL T'Y}V
fJaCTLV.

crvyKELfLEVa

Of.LOLW~

KaL

El~

~'
,
/f) 'YJ KaL' Ta' 1\LaV
\/
OE
af.LE'}'E

fLLKpa

KaL

{jpaxvcrvAAa{ja

crvyKEKOfLfLEVa KaL wcravEL YOfLcPOL~ TLCTLV E1TaAA -r}AoL~

KaT

'

,:~

E'}'K01Ta~

'

KaL

\
/
CTKJ\'Y}pOT'Y}Ta~

~~

E1TLCTVVOEOEfLEVa.

42. ''ErL YE fL~V vtfiov~ fLELWTLKOV KaL

T]

ayav rfj~

c/Jpaa-Ew~ crvyKo1T-r} 1T'YJpOt yap TO fLEYEeo~, orav El~

\/

(}

~'

1\tav crvvay'Y}rat tJPaxv aKovEcr w oE vvv f.L'YJ ra

1"'1

'

'

[ ov] 2 8Eovrw~ (J"VVEcrrpafLfLEVa,

dA.A.' ocra avrtKpv~

' yap
'
fLtKpa' KaL' KaTaKEKEpfLaTLCTfLEVa CTV'}'K01T'YJ' fLEV
/

KOAOVEL rov vovv, (J"VVTOf.LLa

1
2

292

[Kat] del. Russell (1964).

Manutius omitted ov.

S'

E1T' evev.

8fj'Aov

8'

w~

ON THE SUBLIME 40-42

were, running on rollers, but the words prop one another

up and are separated by intenrals, so that they stand firm
and give the impression of stable grandeur. a
41. Nothing damages an elevated passage so much as
effeminate and agitated rhythm, pyrrhics ( v v ) , for
instance, and trochees (- v or v v v ) , and dichorees
( - v - v ), which fall into a regular dance rhythm. For all
over-rhythmical passages at once become merely pretty
and cheap, recurring monotonously without producing
the slightest emotional effect. Moreover, the worst of it is
that, just as songs divert the attention of the audience
from the action and forcibly claim it for themselves, so,
too, over-rhythmical prose gives the audience the effect
not of the words but of the rhythm. Thus they sometimes
foresee the due ending themselves and keep time with
their feet, anticipating the speaker and setting the step as
if it were a dance. Equally deficient in grandeur are those
passages which are too close-paqked and concise, broken
up into tiny fragments and short syllables. They give the
impression of being bolted together, as it were, at frequent intenrals with rough and uneven joins.
42. Extreme conciseness of expression also tends to
diminish sublimity. The grandeur is mutilated by being
too closely compressed. You must understand here not
proper compression, but sentences which are, in absolute
terms, small and fragmented. For extreme conciseness
cripples the sense: true brevity goes straight to the point.
The point is that combinations of consonants delay the
smooth running of the words: note especially perix helixas and
petran drun in the passage just quoted.
a

293

I
I

LONGINUS
Ep.7TaALV

Ta

EKra8YJV

f.LYJKOc; avaxaAWf.LEVa.

43.

flEtvT]

8'

'"' ovop.arwv.
~
,
rwv
\

a7Tol/Jvxa

7Tap' 1 aKatpov

Ta

TJ

ala-xvvaL ra p.eye(}YJ KaL

'"' rep,. .
7rapa' yovv

/
~
/
'
YJP.f.LaTa
oatp.ovtwc;
ot XELf.LWV

ilia 7TEpLEXEL ri}c; v'A YJc;

ta-wc; tt 'E(TUU"Yjc;

~H

f.LLKpOTYJc;

~ '
' ra,
pooorcp
Kara' p.Ev

~'
rtva' oE
VYJ'

'A,.

7TE~paa-rat,

d8otorEpa.

ri}c; Oa'Aaa-a-YJc;,,

KaL 'TOV'TO f.LEV

we; 'TO

tt 'EU"UU"YJc;"

\ '
~ 2ft
'"'
~ '
/
~ \ \ '
7TOAV
ro' v~oc;
7TEpLU"7TCf:,
ota
ro' KaKoa-rop.ov
aAA
tt t ,,
, A,.
/
t~ ~
/
,
/ tt
'
'
'
0 avEp.oc;
~YJU"LV
EK07TLaU"EV,
Kat
'TOVc; 7TEpL 'TO

vavaytov

opaa-a-op.Evovc;

t.

E~

'\

EOEXE'TO

,,
' TO' K07TLaa-aL
/
,,~
'
aU"Ef.J.VOV
yap
LOLW'TLKOV

axapta-'TOV
KaL' 0~:

'(}

'TYJALKOV'TOV

8 E07TOfJ-7TOc;
'

,.~,.

,...

V7TEp~vwc;

' Q
, '
a-ov KaTafJaa-tv
E7T

7Ta OVc;

'TE/\Oc;

,,

axapt.

< OV,
,, >3 TO'

aVOLKELOV.

~'

0
/

Of.LOLWc;

II'Ep~~ \
TLa-L' ra' OAa

'
'
U"KEVaa-ac;
'TYJV
'TOV'"'

A''LYV7T'TOV ovop.artotc;
,
'

tt7Tota yap 7ToAtc; ~ 7To'iov E.Ovoc; rwv Kara

8t{3a'AEv.

,
'TYJV

'A a-LaV
'
' E7TpEO:fJEVE'TO
'
Q '
'
Q
\ '
~,
OVK
7Tpoc;
fJaU"LI\Ea;
'TL, OE
'"'
,
'"'
"'
.,, "'
'
'
rwv EK TYJc; y'Y}c; yEvvwp.Evwv YJ rwv Kara TEXVYJV E7TLTEAovp.evwv KaAw~ ~ TLf.LtWV OVK EKOp.ta-OYJ 8wpov we;
,
\\
' p.Ev
' Kat' 7TOAV'TEAELc;
\
\"'
avrov;
ov, 7TOAAaL
a-rpwp.vat' Kat'
/

\
~~
'
t \
"'
~'
\
/
~'
XAaVLOEc;,
Ta' f.LEV
ai\OVpyYJ,
Ta' OE
7TOLKLI\'Ta,
Ta' OE

\
/
\\
'~'
'
'"'
/
1\EVKa,
7TOI\I\aL
OE U"KYJVaL xpva-aL Ka'TEU"KEVaa-p.EVaL

"'
'"' XPYJU"Lf.LOLc;,
/
\ \ ' oE
~'
7Taa-t
rotc;
7TOAAaL
Kat'
\'"'

,,

'"'

'

~'

"'\

t.

~~

~ va-rtoEc;

,,

Kat'

'

KI\LVaL 7TOI\VTEI\ELc;; E'TL OE KaL KOLI\Oc; apyvpoc; Kat

''

,,

'

'"'

xpva-oc; a7TEtpyaa-p.EVOc; Kat EK7TWf.LaTa KaL KpaTYJpEc;,

1 1Tap' aKatpov

Pearce, for yap aKatpov.

avaxaAWfLEVa Toup, for avaKaAOVfLEVa.
3 <ov> add. Wilamowitz.
2

294

ON THE SUBLIME 42-43

It is plain that the opposite holds of fully extended expressions; what is relaxed by unseasonable length is dead.
43. The use of trivial words also has a terribly debasing effect on a grand passage. The storm in Herodotus,
for instance, is, as far as the ideas go, wonderfully
described, but it includes certain things which are
beneath the dignity of the subject. One might instance
perhaps "the sea seething,:a the word seething is so
cacophonous that it takes off a great deal of the sublimity.
But he does worse. "The wind,, he says, "flagged,, and
"For those who were clinging to the wreck there awaited
an unpleasant end.''h ~~Flagged, is too colloquial a word to
be dignified, and "unpleasant, ill befits so terrible a
disaster. Similarly Theopompus, c after fitting out the Persian king's descent into Egypt in the most marvellous
manner, discredited the whole description by the use of
some paltry_ words. "For what city or what people of
those in Asia did not send envoys to the king? What was
there of beauty or of value whether born of the earth or
perfected by art that was not brought as an offering to
him? Were there not many costly coverlets and cloaks,
some purple, some embroidered, some white; many
pavilions of gold furnished with all things needful, many
robes of state and costly couches? Then, moreover, there
was plate of beaten silver and wrought gold, cups, and
Herodotus 7.188.
b Herodotus 7.191, 8.13.
c Fr. 263a (FGrHist): the passage is quoted by Athenaeus
(2.67F), but somewhat differently. It refers to the expedition of
Artaxerxes Ochus against Egypt in the middle of the fourth century (cf. Diod. Sic. 16.44ff).
a

295

LONGINUS

6Jv TOV~ fLEV AtOoKoAATjrov~, rov~ 8' aAAw~ aKpt/3w~

Kat 1TOAVTEAW~ ei8e~ av EK1TE1TOVYJfLEVOV~. 1Tpo~ 8
TOVTOt~ avapUJfLYJTOt fLEV 01TAWV fLVpu8e~ TWV fLEV
CEAAYJVtKWV, rwv 8 f3apf3aptKWV, V1TEpj3aA.A.ovra 8
ro 1rAijOo~ v1To,vyta Kat 1rpo~ KaraKo1T~v 1-eplia
\ \
' fLEV
' apTVfLaTWV
'
/~
\ \
'
(TtTEVTa, Kat' 1TOI\I\Ot
fLEOtfLVOt,
1TOI\I\Ot
8 8vAaKOt Kat a-aKKOt Kat xvrpat f3vf3A.iwv 1 Kat TWV
a'A.Awv U1TUVTWV XPYJ(TLfLWV. roa-avra 8 KpEa reraptXEVfLEVa 1Tavro8a1TWV tEpELWV, w~ a-wpov~ avrwv
I(}
\
I
~~
'
I
I
yeveaat TYJAtKovrov~,
wa-re
rov~ 1rpoa-tovra~ 1Toppw0ev V1TOAafLf3avEtV oxOov~ Etvat Kat A.6cpov~ avrwn
)
"""
c ,/. \
/
.)
'
OVfLEVOV~.
EK
TWV
V'f'YJI\OTEpwv
Et~ ra ra1TEtVOTEpa
'
~ ~
I
~I
/
(}
'
~1(;
~I
a1TOOtopaa-KEt,
OEOV 1TOtYJa-aa- at TYJV avs Yj(TtV EfL1TaAtv aA.A.a ri} Oavi-Laa-ri} rij~ oAYJ~ 1rapaa-Kevij~ dyye\ / 1TapafLts
't: a~ rov~
' (} VAaKov~
\ /
'
/
Atf!:
Kat' ra' aprvfLaTa
Kat'
/
I
I
' I
Ta' a-aKKta
fLayetpEtOV.
TtVa'.,./...
'f"avraa-taV
E1TOtYj(TEV.
~~
'~I
''
'"""
'/
"""
W(T1TEp
yap
Et Tt~ E1T aVTWV EKEtVWV TWV 1TpOKO(TfLTJfLUTWV fLEratv TWV xpva-[wv Kat AtOoKoAATjrwv Kpar-r}pwv Kat apyvpov KOLAov (TKYJVWV TE oA.oxpva-wv
,
/
.,./... I
/
'I(}
I
Kat' EK1TWfLaTWV
'f"EPWV
fLEa-a
E YJKEV
Vl\aKta
Kat'
I
'
'
.,,
;;"
"""
/.It
' ~I
~I
a-aKKta
a1TpE1TE~ av YJV TYJ 1rpoa-o'f'Et ro epyov, ovrw
"""
c
/
'
"""
.)
Kat' TYJ~
EPfLYJVELa~ ra rot.avra OVOfLaTa ata-XYJ Kat
c
'
/
'
'
otovet
a-rtyfLara
Ka (}'ta-rarat 1rapa' Katpov
eyKaraTaTTOfLEVa. 1TapEKEtTO 8' w~ oA.oa-xepw~ E1TEA0liv Kat
ov~ oxOov~ Aeyet a-v!-Lf3ef3A. ija-Oat Kat 1TEpt rij~ aAA YJ~
1Tapaa-Kevij~ OVTW~ aA.A.ata~ EL1TELV KafL-r}Aov~ Kat
1rAijOo~ v1ro,vyiwv cpopraywyovvrwv 1ravra ra 1rpo~
,
'
1\
r"""
I
.,,
TPV'f"YJV Kat a1TOAava-tv rpa1TE:,WV XOPYJYYJI-Lara, YJ
/

(}

e\

.,~...,

296

:J/

'

ON THE SUBLIME 43

bowls, some of which you might have seen studded with

jewels and others embellished by some other means both
cunning and costly. Besides these there were countless
myriads of weapons, some Greek, some barbarian; baggage animals beyond number, and victims fatted for
slaughter; many bushels of spice, and many bags and
sacks and pots of papyrusa and of all other things needful;
and such a store of salted meat of every kind that it lay in
heaps so large that those who approached from a distance
took them for mounds and hills confronting them." He
descends from the sublime to the trivial, where he needs
rather a crescendo. As it is, by introducing bags and
spices and sacks in the middle of his wonderful description of the whole equipage he has almost given the effect
of a cook shop. Suppose that in all this show itself someone had brought bags and sacks and set them in the middle of the gold and jewelled bowls, the beaten silver, the
pavilions of solid gold and the drinking cups-that would
have presented an unseemly sight. In the same way the
untimely introduction of such words as these disfigures
the style, and puts a brand on it, as it were. He might
have given a comprehensive description both of what he
calls the heaped-up mounds and of the rest of the
equipage by altering his description thus: ''camels and a
multitude of baggage animals laden with all that serves
the luxury and pleasure of the table"; or he might
a

Or onions, if we accept Toup's conjecture.

1 Athenaeus

(2.67) has 1roAAot SE cniKKot- Kat 8vAaKot- {3t-{3A.wv; p has 7TOAAot S' oi 8vAaKOL Kat craKKOL Kat xaprat{3vf3A.wv. Toup proposed xvrpat- {3oA.{3wv, "jars of onions," and
the reference below to fLayELpliov perhaps supports this.

297

LONGINUS

' 'OVOf.LaCTaL 7TaVTOLWV CT7TEpf.LaTWV KaL' "TWV

"
crwpovc;
U7TEp 8tacpEpEL 7Tpoc; ol/Jo7TOLtac; KaL Tj8v7Ta0eiac;, ~
3/
/
'Q /\
' '
'
e
"" 1 (} ""
EL7TEp 7TavTwc; EJJOVI\ETO avTa Kat PYJTWc;
ELVaL, Kat'
ocra Tpa7TE,OKOJLWV EL7Tliv KaL ol/J07TOLWV Tj8vcrfLaTa.
ov yap 8e'i KaTaVTUV EV TOLe; vl/JECTLV ELc; Ta pv7Tapa
KaL E~v{3ptcrfLEVa, av fL~ o-cp68pa V7TO TLVOc; avayKYJc;
~
() a, a/\1\a
'\ \ '
""
.,, KaL'
CTVVOLWKWfLE
'TWV
7TpayfLaTWV 7TpE7TOL av
'
A-.
'
3/
'(;/
'
""
()
'
~
rae;
o/wvac;
EXELV
a~ Lac; Kat fLLfLELo- at TYJV OYJfLLovpy~cracrav cpvo-Lv TOV avO pw7TOV, ijTLc; EV TJfLLV Ta fLEPYJ
, /
, E3/()YJKEV EV
' 7TpOCTW7T([!
/
,~'
'
""
'Ta' a7ToppYJTa
OVK
OVOE Ta TOV
7TaV'TOc; oyKov 7TEPLYJ0ryJJ.LaTa, 2 a7TEKpvlfiaTO 8 we; f.v-ryv
A-. ""
' TOVTWV
/
~~
/
KaL KaTa TOV t:::.tEVOo/WVTa
TOVc;
OTL
7TOppwTaTW
/

'

'

'

1--1

OXETOVc; a7TEo-TpEl/JEv, ov8aJ.LiJ KaTaLo-xvvao-a TO TOV

~'\
r / Ka/\1\0c;.
/\ \
'\ \ ' yap
' OVK
' E7T
' ' ELOOVc;
'~
3 E7TELYEL
'
/
01\0V
s([!OV
a/\1\a
ra fLLKp07TOLa 8tapt0fLEtv 7Tpov7To8e8ELYfLEVWV yap
'TWV ocra evyeve'ic; KaL' vlfJYJA.ovc; f.pya,ETaL TOVc;
\ /
~""\
e
'
/
/
'
/
1\0yovc;,
OYji\OV
we;
Tq_' EVaVTLa
TOVTWV
Ta7TELVOVc;
7TOLYJ' 7TI\ELCT'TOV
\""
CTEL KaTa' 'TO
KaL' '
aCTXYJfLOVac;.
44. 'EKe'ivo fLEVTOL A.ot7Tov EVEKa Tijc; o-Tjc; XPYJo-ToJ.LaOeiac; ovK oKV~CTOfLEV E7TL7Tpoo-0E'ivat 4 <KaL> 5 Ota3

'

cracpijcrat, TepEVTLav cpiA. TaTE, 07TEp ryJTYJo-E TLc; TWV

cptA.ocrocpwv 7Tpoc; <EJ.LE> vayxoc;, 6 eeOavJ.La J.L' EXEL,"
\ /
ee e
'
/\
e /
\ \
/
""
1\EYWV,
we; afLEI\EL
KaL' ETEpovc;
7TOI\I\OVc;,
7TWc;
7TOTE
'
e
/
' ""
'
'
' aKpov
''
Kara' TOV
YJfLETEpov
atwva
7TL (} avat' fLEV
E7T
Kat'
7TOltLTLKai, 8ptfLE'iai TE KaL EVTPEXE'ic; KaL fLUltto-Ta
7Tpoc; Tj8ovac; A.oywv EvcpopoL, vlfJYJAaL 8 Aiav KaL
So Richards for avrapKYJ OVTW~ P; perhaps avra aKptJ3w~
(cf. TUVTU aKpt,f3ij OVTW~' Mazzucchi).
1

298

ON THE SUBLIME 43-44

have called them ''heaps of every kind of grain and of all

known aids to cookery and good living,,; or, if he must at
all hazards be explicit, "all the dainties known to caterers
and cooks., One ought not in elevated passages to
descend to what is sordid and contemptible, except under
the severe pressure of necessity, but the proper course is
to suit the words to the dignity of the subject and thus
imitate Nature, the artist that created man. Nature did
not place in full view our dishonourable parts nor the
drains that purge our whole frame, but as far as possible
concealed them and, as Xenophon says, a thrust their
channels into the furthest background, for fear of spoiling
the beauty of the whole creature. There is, however, no
immediate need for enumerating and classifying the factors of mean style in detail. As we have already laid down
all the qualities that make our utterance noble and sublime, it obviously follows that the opposite of these will
generally make it trivial and ungainly.
44. One problem now remains for solution, my dear
Terentianus, and knowing your love of learning I will not
hesitate to append it-a problem which a certain philosopher recently put to me. "It surprises me,,, he said, "as it
doubtless surprises many others too, how it is that in this
age of ours we find natures that are supremely persuasive
and suited for public life, shrewd and versatile and especially rich in literary charm, yet really sublime and trana

Memorabilia 1.4.6.

trEpt/ryfJT,ILara Pearce, for trEpdJT,/LaTa.

EtDov') Toll, for EtrLDov').
E1TLtrpolffJE'ivaL Manutius for E1TL7TpolffJijvaL.

3
4

etr'

5 <Ka'i>
6

add. K marg., Manutius.

trpo') <elL> vayxo') Cobet, for trpolfEvayxo').

299

LONGINUS

/{}

'

,...

V1TEpfLeyE ElS, 11'1\'Y]V Et fLYJ Tt 0"1TaVtOV, OVKETt YEVVWVrl. /

Tat

\ /

TOO"aVTYJ 1\0YWV KOO"fLtKYJ

o/VO"Et~.

Tt~

E1TEXEt

'

TOV

~ vT] di'" EcP'YJ ((1Tta-TEVTEOV EKEtvcp T(i>

{3iov dopia.

"'

w~

fJpvAOVfLEVCf,

ii

8'Y}fLOKparia TWV fLEya'Awv dyafJT]

rtfJYJv6~,
fLOVYJ a-xE8ov Kat a-vv~KfLaa-av oi 1TEpt
'Aoyov~ 8Etvo'i Kat a-vva1TfJavov; fJpl/Jat rE yap,
aa-iv, iKavT] Ta povf}fLaTa TWV fLEya'Aop6vwv T]
'\ {} /
' , \ /
' (/
~
/
1 '
/
EJ\EV Epta Kat E1TEJ\1Tta-at Kat afLa otEYELpEtv TO 1TpofJVfLOV Tij~ 1Tp0~ d'A'A~Aov~ Ept8o~ Kat Tij~ 1TEpt ra

,...

,/...\

1TpWTELa 'Pti\OTLfLLa~.
'
EV

,...

TaL~ 11'01\LTELaL~

7EpTJfLaTa TWV

'~''
yE fLYJV
oLa Ta 1TpOKELfLEVa

:J/

ETL

:J/
{} \
(
/
'
'
E1Ta
1\U EKaO"TOTE
Ta' \f'VXLKa
7Tp0-

PYJTOpwv

fLEAETWfLEVa

aKOVaTaL

Kat

oiov EKTpt{3ETaL Kat TOL~ 1TpayfLaO"L KaTa TO EiKo~

'AEvfJEpa

a-vvEKAafL1TEt.

oi

vvv

YJ

oiKafLEv"

~:~:1Tat86fLafJE'i~ Eivat 8ovAEta~ 8tKaia~, ro'i~ avTo'i~

:>/{}
' '
~
/
' (:
:JI
,/...
/
1:

,...

EO"L Kat E1TLTYJOEVfLaO"LV Es a1Tai\WV ETL 'PPOVYJfLaTWV

':J/

\\/

fLOVOV OVK EVE0"1TapyaVWfLEVOt Kat ayEVO"TOL Kai\1\L-

O"'TOV Kat yoVLfLWTaTOV 1\0YWV

(('Ayw,

ptav" EcPYJ

VafLUTO~,

'

{}

'\

T'Y]V EJ\EV E-

8t01TEp ov8v OTL fLTJ KOAaKEc;

EK-

{3aLVOfLEV fLEya'Aove'i~." 8ta TOVTO Ta~ fLEV a'A'Aa~

t:l(:

'

Kat

'

:J/ ,/...

"'\

~'

1Tt1TTELV Eo/aO"KEV, OOVJ\OV OE fL'Y]~ /

/ {} at pYJropa
~: /
' avasEtv
' r ,. . 2 To' a1Tap'
oEva
ytvEa EV'{}'v~ yap

Es EL~

EL~ OtKETa~

pYJa-iaa-Tov Kat oiov EfLpovpov V1TO O"VVYJfJEiac; aEt

~

KEKOVOVJ\LO"fLEVOV"

(( t:l

YJfLLO"V yap 7

'

('OfLYJpov ((a7Toaivvrat 8ov'Atov ~fLap."

Ef yE"
1

'

'

KaTa TOV

((wa-1TEp oilv,
crYJa-i ((TovTo 1TLO"Tov a-TLV <o> 3 aKovw, Ta

Morus, for CnEA.(}{iv.

2 ava,ELV Weiske, for ava,EL.

300

,...

apETYJ~

ON THE SUBLIME 44

scendent natures are no longer, or only very rarely, now

produced. Such is the universal dearth of literature that
besets our times. Are we really to believe the hackneyed
view that democracy is the kindly nurse of genius and
that-speaking generally-the great men of letters flourished only with democracy and perished with it? Freedom, they say, has the power to foster noble minds and to
:fill them with high hopes, and at the same time to rouse
our spirit of mutual rivalry and eager competition for the
foremost place. Moreover, thanks to the prizes which a
republic offers, an orator's intellectual gifts are whetted
by practice, burnished, so to speak, by friction, and share,
as is only natural, the light of freedom which illuminates
the state. But in these days we seem to be schooled from
childhood in an equitable slavery, swaddled, I might say,
from the tender infancy of our minds in the same servile
ways and practices. We never drink from the fairest and
most fertile source of eloquenqe, which is freedom, and
therefore we turn out to be nothing but flatterers on a
grand scale. n This is the reason, he alleged, that, while all
other faculties are granted even to slaves, no slave ever
becomes an orator. According to him, the inability to
speak freely, and the sense of being as it were in prison,
immediately assert themselves, the product of the
repeated beating of habit. As Homer says: "Surely half of
our manhood is robbed by the day of enslavement."a ''And
so," he adds, "if what I hear is true that not only do the
a

Odyssey 17.322.

<o> add. Pearce.

301

LONGINUS

1"\

or~ oi 1TV'Yf.taLOt,

EV

yAwTTOKOf.ta,
/,./...

'

KaAOVfLEVOt

1"\

'

vavot, TPEo/ovTat, ov fLOVOV KWJ\VEt TWV EYKEKJ\ECTfl.,E'

' l: YJCTEt~
/
' \ \ ' Kat' a-vvapatot 1 ota
~ ' Tov
' 1TEptvwv Ta~
avs
aJ\J\a
1"\

1"\

KEtfLEVOV

Yi

AELaV, Kav

' ,,
KOtVOV av
\

ye

Tt~

t:l /

V1TOJ\afJwv

<:1

CTWf.taCTt OECTfLOV,

TOt~

<:/

a1raa-av OOV-

OVTW~

lfivx~~ y'AwTTOKOf.tov KaL

' '
E'YW fLEVTOt

8tKatoTaT'YJ,

'
,./... /
~
/
"
a1TOo/TJVatTO OECTfLWT'Y}ptOV.
2

cc ~ /~

pq.otov,

"

,, ,./...

t:l /\

cc ";'

Eo/YJV

'

,,~

w fJEJ\TtCTTE, Kat totov

'(}
/
/,./...
(}
'
/
<:/
av
pw1rov
TO' KaTafLEf.to/Eaat Ta' '
aet
1rapovTa
opa

f.t~ 1TOTE ovx

8
'

/\

Ta~

,./.../

fLEyaJ\a~

1"\

'

YJfLWV

'

A /
Kat' VYJ' uta
'

Kat KaT

'

(}

Vf.tta~

'

KaTEXWV

OVTOCTt

/\
1TOJ\Ef.t0~,

1"\\\

f.taJ\1\0V

OE

a1TEptopta-TO~

'

/
,./...
{.:l/
TOVT(f!
Ta' o/povpoVVTa
TOV VVV fJtOV

'
1rp0~

,,

~'

\'

1TOJ\V

o/VCTEt~,

E1Tt

Ta~

T~~ olKOVfLEVYJ~ elp~VYJ 8ta4>(}eipet

T]

1"\

,,

'

'

,./... /

1"\

'

/(}

ayovTa Kat o/epovTa TaVTt 1ra 'YJ

aKpa~

YJ

yap cptAOXP'YJf.taTLa, 1rp0~ i}v U1TaVTE~ a1TA~CTTW~ 7}8'Y}

voa-OVfLEV, KaL

cpt'AYJ8ovia 8ov'Aaywyova-t, f.ta'A'Aov

w~ av EL1T0t Tt~, KaTa{3v(}i,ova-tv avTav8pov~ ~8'YJ

8,
'

Q/

1TOtov, cptAYJ8ova

8'

,./...

1"\

'\

(}

'

lfVf.to/V'YJ TOVT(f! KaKa

fl.,~

'

''

'

1"\

.It

'

'

'

Et~ Ta~ 'rvxa~

1Tapa8xea-(}at.

\/

1TAOVTOV dopta-TOV EKTtfl.,f,-

TE

TO 0~' aJ\'Y} ElfTEpOV Et1TEtV, EK

'

f.ttKp0-

ov 8~ exw 'Aoyt-

ayevvEa-TaTov.

'OfLEVO~ EVpELV, w~ oi6v

a-aVTa~,

<yap
' >3 VOCTTJf.ta
/

,./... \
/
'
o/tJ\apy"!pta
fLEV

TOV~ fJtOv~

Y]

aKo'Aov(}el,

\/

(}

Etaa-aVTa~,
/

Ta
'

~
'YJfLWV
E1TEtlftOVTa
1"\

yap

'

Tip

,,,

afLETPCf!
,./...

1TJ\OVT(f! Kat aKOJ\alfT(f! lfVV'Y}f.tfLEVYJ Kat to-a, o/aa-t,

{.:l

/\

'

,,

Ta~

<:I

fJatvova-a 1TOJ\VTEJ\Eta, Kat af.ta

1"\

/\

'

TWV 1TOJ\EWV Kat OtKWV

'

Kat

/r

lfVVOtKt~ETat.

1 o-vvapatot

302

'

'

'

avotyovTo~

/~

'(}'

EV

EtCTOOOV~

XPOVtlfaVTa

Schmidt for o-vvapot.

~'

OE

1"\

TaVTa

V~
'

'

EKEtvov

4 Ef.tfJatVEt
' t:l /
1"\

a/

EV TOt~ fJtOt~

ON THE SUBLIME 44

cages in which they keep the pygmies or dwarfs, as they

are called, stunt the growth of their prisoners, but enfeeble them by the bonds applied to their bodies, on the
same principle all slavery, however equitable, might well
be described as a cage for the soul, a common prison. n
However I took him up and said, "It is easy, my good
friend, and it is characteristic of human nature always to
find fault with things as they are at the moment. But consider. Perhaps it is not the world's peace that corrupts
great natures but much rather this endless warfare which
besets our hearts, yes, and these passions that garrison
our lives in present days and make utter havoc of them. It
is the love of money, that insatiable sickness from which
we all now suffer, and the love of pleasure, that enslave
us, or rather one might say, sink our ship of life with all
hands; for love of gold is a withering sickness, and love of
pleasure utterly ignoble. Indeed, I cannot discover on
consideration how, if we valu~ boundless wealth, or to
speak more truly, make a god of it, we can possibly keep
our minds safe from the intrusion of the evils that accompany it. In close company with vast and unconscionable
Wealth there follows, cstep for step,' as they say, a Extravagance: and no sooner has the one opened the gates of
cities or houses, than the other comes and makes a home
there too. And when they have spent some time in our
a

Cf. Demosthenes, Oration 19.314.

1nroA.af3wv Buhler, for 1nroAafLf3avw.

3 <yap> add. Spengel.
4 evOvc; Mathews, for elc; ac;.

303

LONGINUS
""'
'
A..'
'
/
/
VEO'T'T07TOtEt'Tat
Ka'Ta' 'TOV~
CTO'POV~ Kat TaXEW~ YEVOfLEVa 7TEpt 'TEKV07Tottav aAa,OVEtav 'TE YEVVWCTt Kat
Tvcpov Kat Tpvcprr}v, ov v6()a f.avTwv yEvvry}f.LaTa dA.A.a
,, OE
~'
\
Kat' 7TaVV YVYJCTta. EaV
Kat' 'TOV'TOV~ 'Tl8 'TOV""' 7TI\OV'TOV Tov~ Kyovov~ El~ ~AtKiav A.()liv acrn, Taxw~
8ECT7TO'Ta~. TaL~ lflvxa'i~ EV'TLK'TOV(TtV a7Tapat'TrrJ'TOV~,
/ Kat' 'avatcrxvvTtav.
/
""' yap
'
v~'(3 ptv Kat' 7TapaVOf.Ltav
Tav'Ta
ovTw~ dvayKYJ yivEcr()at Kat f.LYJKE'Tt Tov~ dv()pw7Tov~
dvaf3 AE7TEtv fL YJ8' VCT'TEpocpYJ fLLa ~ 1 'TEAEcr tov pyE'icrO at
Ka'T' oA.[yov 'T~V 'TWV {3iwv 8tacp0opav, cpOivEtV 8 Kat
/
(}
3/ I
\
/
Ka'Taf.LapatVECT
at 'Ta' .I.
'rVXtKa' f.LEYE/(} 'YJ Kat' as
'YJAa
ytVEcr(}at, ~VLKa 'Ta ()VYJ'Ta f.av'TWV f.LEPYJ Kat aVOYJ'Ta 2 EKeav/La,OtEV, 7TapEV'TE~ av~ELV Taeava'Ta. ov yap E7Tt
~
~
KptCTEL f.LEV 'TL~ OEKaCT
EL~ OVK av E'TL 'TWV OtKatWV Kat
KaAwv. EAEv0Epo~ Kat vy~-~~ av Kpt'T~~ YEVOL'TO
( dvayKYJ yap Tip 8wpo86.K4J Ta olKE'ia f.LEV cpaivEcrOat
\ ' Kat' OLKata
~/
3) , 07TOV
~~
~'
e
""'
e
/
,
Kal\a
OE YJfLWV EKaCT'TOV 'TOV~
oAov~ ~8'YJ {3iov~ 8'EKaCTfLOt {3pa{3EVOV(Tt Kat d'AA.oTPLWV ()T]pat eava'TWV Kat v8pat tua()YJKWV, 'TO 8' EK
TOV 7TavTo~ KEp8aivEtv wvovfLEOa TTJ~ lflvxf}~ EKacrTo~
7Tpo~ 71}~ <cptAOXP'YJf.La'Tta~> 4 ~v8pa7To8tcrf.LEVOt, dpa
8~ v Ti] 'TOCTaVTYJ AOtf.LtKi} 'TOV {3iov 8tacp0opii: 8oKovfLEV E'Tt A.Ev()Epov 'Ttva KptTi}v Twv fLEyaA.wv T] DtYJKovTwv 7Tpo~ 'TOV alwva Ka8EKaCTTov 5 a7TOAEAEtcp0at
Kat IL~ KaTapxatpEcrta,EcrOat 7Tpo~ Ti]~ Tov 7TAEovE""'
'
(}
/
' \ \ '
/
/
'? /
K'TELV
E7Tt
VfLLa~; a/\1\a f.LYJ7TO'TE 'TOtOV'TOl8, OLOL 7TEp
/

10

304

()

'

'

.,,

3/

""'

'

ON THE SUBLIME 44

lives, philosophers tell us, they build a nest therea and

promptly set about begetting children; these are Swagger
and Conceit and Luxury, no bastards but their true born
issue. And if these offspring of wealth are allowed to
grow to maturity, they soon breed in our hearts inexorable
tyrants, Insolence and Disorder and Shamelessness. This
must inevitably happen, and men no longer then look
upwards nor take any further thought for future fame.
Little by little the ruin of their lives is completed in the
cycle of such vices, their greatness of soul wastes away
and dies and is no longer something to strive for, since
they value that part of them which is mortal and foolish,
and neglect the development of their immortal part. A
man who has been bribed for his verdict can no longer
give an unbiased and sound judgement on what is just and
fair (for the corrupt judge inevitably regards his own
interest as fair and just). So, seeing that the whole life of
each one of us is now governed. wholly by bribery and by
hunting after other people's deaths and laying traps for
legacies, and we have sold our souls for profit at any price,
slaves that we all are to our greed, can we then expect in
such pestilential ruin of our lives that there is left a single
free and unbribed judge of the things that are great and
last to all eternity? Are we not all corrupted by our passion for gain? Nay, for such as we are perhaps it is better
a

Cf. Plato, Republic 9.573C.

Kat aVOYJTa Toup, for KWTTaVYJTa.

Spengel, with reason, suspected a lacuna here: the sense
of the missing words would be "but other people's interests
4 <cptA.oxpYJfJ-aTia~> add. Toll.
improper."
5 KaDEKacrTov Toll, for Ka0KacrTov
3

305

LONGINUS
~fLElS, afLEtVOV apxEa-eat ~ EAEv(}pot~ Etvat

EO"fLEV
,

'

, .r/... (} Eta-at
""'

E7TEt70t/'E ao/E

'

""'

'
\
TO' O"VVOI\OV,

TOt, KaTa TWV 1TI\Y}O"tOV at

11

O"EtaV l

""'

""'

TOt~ KaKOt~

W~

'C

Es

C'

7T/\EOVEs tat

'
'
/
TYJV
OtKOVfLEVYJV.

'' .r/...

""'

ao/E-

'

\ ,

EtpKTYJ~

.,,

KaV E1TtKI\V-

~'\

~'

01\W~ OE

~ /
oa1Ta-

VOV2 E.cpYJv Eivat rwv vvv yEvvwfLvwv cpva-Ewv T~v

pfJ:(}VfLtav,

' ,, \ \

OVK

Yl

1TA~v oAtywv 1TUVTE~ f.yKaTaj3tOVfLEV,

""'

a/\1\W~ 1TOVOVVTE~

., ' \ f3 /

YJ aVal\afL

VOV KaL ~8ov-ry~ f.vEKa,

12

d~ia~ 1TOTE wcpEAEta~."

E1TL

aVOVTE~

' fLY}' E1Tat' /

Et

dA.A.a IL~ T-ry~ '~A.ov

KaL TtfL-ry~

~~KpaTtO"TOV ELK-ry TavT' E.av,"

Ta O"VVEX-ry xwpE'iv ljv

TaVTa Ta 1TU(}YJ, 1TEpL

Cbv E.v l8i 41 1rpoYJyovfLvw~ v1TEa-xofLEea ypalj;Etv v1TofLV~fLaTt, UTE 3 T~V TE TOV aAAov Aoyov KaL aVTOV TOV
~',It

v._,.,ov~

""'
'
'
~
~ ""'
fLOtpav
E1TEXOVTWV,
wr;
Y}fLtV
. ... 4

1 E7TLKAl)(TEtav Markland, for E7TLKUVO"Etav

2 8a1ravov Toll, for Da1ravwv
3

Mazzucchi foro.
The next few words can only be guessed; perhaps
aTE
/

KpaTLO"TYJV ...

306

ELPYJTaL,

ON THE SUBLIME 44

to have a master than to be free. Were it given complete

liberty, like released prisoners, as it were, to prey on our
neighbours, greed would swamp the world in a deluge of
evils. In fact," I said, "what wastes the talents of the present generation is the idleness in which all but a few of us
pass our lives, only exerting ourselves or showing any
enterprise for the sake of getting praise or pleasure out of
it, never from the honourable and admirable motive of
doing good to the world.,, ''Ifs best to let this be,,a and
pass on to the next question, which is that of the Emotions, a topic on which I previously undertook to write a
separate treatise, for they seem to me to form part of the
general subject of literature and especially of sublimity
[The rest is lost. ]
a

Euripides, Electra 379.

307

DEMETRIUS
ON STYLE
EDITED AND TRANSLATED BY
D 0 R E E N C. I N N E S
BASED ON THE TRANSLATION BY
W. RHYS ROBERTS

r
I

INTRODUCTION

On Style may well be the earliest post-Aristotelian

treatise on literary theory to survive complete; and even if
it is not, it is an important early source on an exceptionally
wide range of topics. In contrast to the more stimulating
but idiosyncratic Aristotle>s Poetics and Longinus> On the
Sublime, it is not likely to be highly innovative, 1 but that
in itself makes On Style a particularly useful introduction
and guide to our understanding of the strengths and
weaknesses of classical literary criticism.
The author gives us our most extensive surviving
account of the theory of styles, a particularly popular
framework for critical analysi~ and judgment, and he does
so in a complex theory of four styles for which we have no
exact parallel. He also gives succinct, clear, and usually
perceptive accounts of standard topics such as sentence
theory and metaphor, and shows a more personal interest
NoTE. I thank Donald Russell and Rudolf Kassel for their
benevolent and helpful comments on this introduction and the
text respectively.
1 See 179, where Demetrius is .. forced" to be original
because no one else has treated the subject before; he also fails
to integrate some of his disparate sources, especially in the ele. gant style. His strength is in analysis of individual topics and
examples.

311

INTRODUCTION

in less usual topics, such as the letter, music, and acting,

and in less usual authors, such as Sophron, Ctesias, and
Demades. Theory is consistently illustrated with typically
brief and well-chosen examples, and in contrast to many
of our other sources, particularly in Latin, there is no bias
towards oratory.

Date and authorship

The author of On Style is conventionally called Demetrius. The most famous critic by this name is Demetrius
of Phaleron (ca. 360-280 B.C.), the student of Aristotle
who governed Athens 317-307 B.C. and wrote on anumber of literary and rhetorical subjects, 2 and On Style is
mistakenly attributed to him in the superscription of the
tenth-century manuscript P. 3 But this attribution is a
later _addition, as we can see from the simpler version in
the subscription of the same manuscript, UDemetrius On
Stylen (~YJfLYJTpiov 7TEpt EPfLYJVELac;). This will be the
original text. Demetrius is also the form in the few earlier
references to name the author of On Style. 4 The eventual
2

The fragments are edited by F. Wehrli, Die Schule des Aristoteles vol. 4 [Basell968]).
3
AYJJLYJTpiov <l>aAYJpEw~ 7TEp'i EPJLYJVEta~, E(JT~ 7TEp'i /Jpa(JEW~ (so also N and H; on the manuscripts see below).
Manuscript attributions are in any case unreliable, as we can see
from P's misattribution of Aristotle's Rhetoric to Dionysius and
the similar problem of "Longinus".
4 Probably first in the fourth to fifth centuries in Syrianus, In
Hermog. com,m. 1.99-100 Rabe; then in the sixth century by
Ammonius' commentary on Aristotle's De Interpretatione
(Comm. 'in Arist. Graeca 4.5), p. 4 Busse, and Phoebammon,

312

INTRODUCTION

identification of a Demetrius with the most famous critic

by that name was probably inevitable (and may well have
ensured the work,s survival), but it has no authority, and
seems in any case inconsistent with the way in which
Demetrius of Phaleron is cited in 289. We cannot even
be sure that the author was called Demetrius; if so, it was
a common name, and no identification with any specific
Demetrius is possible.
The date of the work is equally uncertain, and controversy continues. For much of this century scholars
favoured a date in the first century A.D. (especially
Roberts and Radermacher), but more recently scholars
have argued for an earlier date; so ca. 270 B.C. (Grube),
second century B.C. (Morpurgo Tagliabue), late second or
early first century B.C. (Chiron), and a reworking in the
first century A.D. of contents reflecting the second or early
first century B.C. ( Schenkeveld). I would agree with this
growing consensus that the contents at least do not preclude and may best reflect the second century B.C. Firm
evidence is, however, hard to find since we have no complete texts and only fragmentary knowledge of literary
and rhetorical theory between Aristotle and authors of
the first century B.C., a period including Theophrastus,
On Style (1TEp'i AE~Ew~) and the development of the
theories of styles, tropes, and figures which we see in the
Proleg. Syll. 377 Rabe. More frequently authorship is vaguely
ascribed to "the ancients". Grube 53-54 suggests that the report
of Demetrius of Phaleron's criticism of the long periods of
!socrates' followers in Philodemus, Rhet. 1.198 Sudhaus = F 169
Wehrli refers to On Style 303, but !socrates is not mentioned
there, and we have similar contexts in other surviving fragments
of Demetrius ofPhaleron (cf. F 161-68 Wehrli).

313

INTRODUCTION

works of Cicero and his contemporaries. 5 Textbooks are

also prone to conservatism, so that early material may not
prove early date, and "updating" revisions 6 may produce
isolated later references which prove nothing about the
rest of the work.
The latest known persons 7 to be named in On Style
are roughly of the first half of the third century B.C.: Praxiphanes, Sotades, Demetrius of Phaleron, and Clitarchus
(57, 189, 289, and 304), and the references to Demetrius and Sotades both suggest a date after their deaths.
Grube stresses the number of quotations from authors
of the fourth and early third century B.C., but we may
compare two other texts with an unusual range, the Antiatticist and Rutilius Lupus. 8 Equally striking, and to be
5 Particularly Ad Herennium IV (probably 86-82 B.c.), and
Cicero, especially De Oratore (54 B.c.) and Orator (46 B.C.).
6
A possible example: 38 ovTrep vvv Aoytov ovof.La,ovcrtv.
On Aoyto~ see note 22.

7 But likely to be somewhat later are Archedemus and Artemon ( 34-35, 223), both perhaps second century B.C.; see Chiron, p. xxxiii and J. M. Rist, "Demetrius the Stylist and Artemon
the Compiler," Phoenix 18 (1964) 2-8. Reference to the Augustan critic Theodorus of Gadara, in 237, is very doubtful, and
the context suggests a historian, not a critic. Chronological
deductions in general depend also on whether Demetrius cited
contemporaries, as Aristotle did, or followed the usual later practice of citing earlier authors.
8 Text of the former in Anecdota Graeca 1.77-116 Bekker
(Berlin 1814) and of the latter in Rhetores Latini Minores 3-21
Halm (Leipzig 1863), also ed. E. Brooks (Leiden 1970); Rutilius
based his treatise on figures of speech on the Greek critic Gorgias the Younger, who lived in the late first century B.C. and early
first century A.D.

314

INTRODUCTION

explained by Demetrius' Peripatetic sympathies, is the

focus on examples from the circles of Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle. 9
The claim in 179 to be the first to discuss elegant
composition, y'Aacpvpa (ruvfJE(TtS, implies ignorance of
the treatment of this topic in Dionysius, De Camp. Verb.
23, written some time after 30 B.C. This fits the absence
of other standard later material. In particular, there is no
mention of a three-style theory in the defence of four
styles against those who allow only two ( 36-37); 10 and
Demosthenes is virtually restricted to the forceful style in
contrast to his later preeminence as the master of all
styles, a position generally acknowledged by the time of
Cicero (e.g. De Or. 3.199; cf. e.g. DH. Dem. 8). This
partly results from Demetrius' recognition of independent grand and forceful styles and the parallel virtual
restriction of political oratory to the forceful style, but
even there Demosthenes is givep no special praise comparable to that of Thucydides for the grand style, the
"divine" Sappho for charm, and Aristotle for the letter
( 40, 127, and 230).
Perhaps most tantalising of all is the question of Demetrius' relationship to Aristotle and the early Peripatos.
Is it exceptionally close, does it have implications for the
9

Cf. 296-98 with the choice of three philosophical styles

from Aristippus, Xenophon, and Socrates in contrast to Zeno,
Diogenes, and Socrates in Epictetus 3.21.19 and 23.33; and perhaps the interest in Demades ( 282-86, cf. Theophr. F 706
Fortenbaugh).
10 See further below. But conversely the silence about four
styles in Cicero, Dionysius, and others proves nothing, since they
also ignore the (different) four-style theory mentioned in
Philodemus, Rhet. 1.165 Sudhaus.

315

INTRODUCTION

date, and did Demetrius know Aristotle's writings directly, or through intermediaries? A Peripatetic debt is to
some extent inevitable, since the early Peripatos, especially Aristotle and Theophrastus, was exceptionally influential in the development of critical theory; 11 but it is
striking that the only critics named in On Style are either
Peripatetics (Aristotle, Theophrastus, and Praxiphanes),
or appear in contexts closely linked to Aristotle (Archedemus and Artemon). It seems also a sign of special admiration that the Peripatetics head the authors praised for
elegance ( 181), while Aristotle himself is supreme at
letter-writing ( 230), and, if the text is sound, heads the
authors illustrating comic charm ( 126). Yet the reference to the Peripatetics also suggests that Demetrius was
not himself one, and could look back on the early Peripatos as an identifiable group with a shared elegance of
style (cf. Cic. Orator 127).
Aristotle's influence is .particularly strong in the discussion of the clause and period ( 1-35), prose rhythm
( 38-43), metaphor ( 78ff), frigidity ( 116, where the
text of the Rhetoric even allows us to fill a lacuna), and
clarity ( 191ff, including the distinction between writing and oral delivery). But it is not clear that Demetrius
had read Aristotle. None of the four apparently direct
quotations ( 11, 34, 38, 116) is verbally exact, and
though the usual practice of quotation from memory and
adaptation to the new context may explain the discrepancies, it is troubling that the quotation in 38 distorts Ar.
Rhet. 1408b32ff in a way that implies later theory on the
11

E.g. Cic. De Or. 1.43. See F. Solmsen, "The Aristotelian

Tradition in Ancient Rhetoric," American Journal of Philology 62
(1941) 35-50 and 169-90 (on style especially 43ff and 181ff).

316

I
I

INTRODUCTION

grandeur of the paean (cf. Cic. Orator 197, a contrast of

the iamb of the plain style with the grander paean, paean
autem in amplioribus").
Demetrius has been accused of a fundamental misunderstanding of Aristotle's theory of the period ( 10ff),
but this depends on a doubtful and controversial interpretation of Aristotle. More plausibly, Demetrius may
confuse a detail (see on 12, a confusion of terminology),
but he rightly interprets Aristotle, 12 while also following
later theory. There is agreement on the fundamental
point, that a period is a unit of thought, a structured
whole where thought and form end together. The differences are that Aristotle confined the period to one or two
clauses (a restriction Demetrius explicitly rejects in 34),
and favoured periods with antithesis and/or assonance,
typically illustrated from !socrates. Demetrius first
defines and illustrates the period in accordance with postAristotelian theory ( 10), 13 with focus on the ending and
an example which is from Demosthenes and shows conSee R. A. Fowler, "A~istotle on the Period," Classical
Quarterly 32 (1982) 89-99, and D. C. Innes, "Period and Colon:
Theory and Example in Demetrius and Longinus," Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities VI, New Brunswick
(1994). For a contrary view, that for Aristotle it is not the
thought but prose-rhythm that shapes a period, see J. Zehetmeier, "Die Periodenlehre des Aristoteles," Philologus 83 (1930)
192-208, 255-84, 414-36, and Schenkeveld, Ch. II, especially
pp. 28ff.
13 E.g. Hermogenes 178 Rabe, "A period is an independent
(av7o7EAs) shaping of a whole thought in verbal form, succinctly
brought to a conclusion ((J"VJJTOfJ-W~ a1TYJPTL(J"fJ-EVov), and succinct hyperbata in it shape periods well."
12

317

INTRODUCTION

spicuous hyperbaton. Only then does he bring in Aristotle ( 11). Aristotelian influence is then seen particularly
in periods with parallelism of structure ( 22ff), in some
of the terminology (e.g. 12 KaTecrrpafLf-LEVYJ) and in the
inclusion of the one-clause period ( 17). 14 Yet other
vocabulary is post-Aristotelian (e.g. a1TYJpTtCTf-LEVoc;, KvKAoc;, 1TEptaywyTj), as is the upper limit of four clauses,
and the three types of period ( 16 and 19-21).15 So too
"enthymeme>> in 30-33 has the Aristotelian meaning,
but some of the terminology is later, as is the possible
confusion with the epiphoneme in 109 (we may compare Quint. 8.5.11, where the enthymeme may be used
for decorative purpose, added "epiphonematis modo").
Demetrius also gives strong personal endorsement in 15
to a moderate use of periods, a formulation which suggests the Peripatetic mean but is not in Aristotle.
This combination of material from Aristotle modified
by later theory is typical. In 78ff, for example, the theory of metaphor16 shows' strong Aristotelian influence,
14

A type unimportant in later theory, but cf. Quint. 9.4.124,

with the same criteria of length and rounding, "simplex, cum
sensus unus longiore ambitu circumducitur." See also Hermogenes in the next note.
15 In itself a triad found only here, but compare the looser
style of philosophy and the distinction of periods for history and
rhetoric in Cic. Orator 62ff. For the number of clauses, cf. Hermogenes 180 Rabe, "There are single-clause periods; there are
also two-clause and three-clause periods, formed from <two or>
three clauses, and a four-clause period formed from four clauses;
and a clause is a thought brought to a conclusion." Cic. Orator
221 and Quint. 9.4.125 allow more than four.
16 For a more detailed analysis see Schenkeveld, Ch. IV;
D. C. Innes, "Cicero On Tropes," Rhetorica 6 (1988) 307-25;

318

INTRODUCTION

but adds material which is found elsewhere in later theory, especially on the simile and dead metaphors; and
metaphor from adding a privative adjective ( 85) is
unimportant in later theory and so likely to reflect a special interest in Aristotle, who provides the example: yet
Demetrius adds the author's name, Theognis. In similar
minor modifications Aristotle provides the theory and
some but not all the examples in 22ff and 116.
Some of these adaptations may derive from Theophrastus, for example the grandeur of the paean (cf. 41).
There are four explicit references to him( 41, 114, 173,
and 222). He is also the likely source for the analysis of
wit and charm in the elegant style, and he or other early
Peripatetics for the interest in delivery, and the recurrent
sequences of topics analysed under diction and composition.l7
The theory of figures and tropes in On Style is less
developed than that found in Ad Herennium and in
Cicero, who dismissively assumes a familiarity with endless lists of figures (De Or. .3.200). Some specifically Stoic
influence is likely here, perhaps especially in the figures
in the forceful style, the only style in which Demetrius
distinguishes figures of speech and thought, 263ff). 18
Marsh McCall, Ancient Rhetorical Theories of the Simile and
Comparison, Cambridge, Mass. 1969. For an interesting Peripatetic fragment of ca. 200 B.C. see Pap. Hamburg 128, discussed
by D. M. Schenkeveld, Zeitschrift fiir Papyrologie und
Epigraphik 97 (1993) 67-80.
17 See F. Solmsen, "Demetrios 1rep'i epp..'YJVELa~ und sein peripatetisches Quellenmaterial," Hermes 66 (1931) 241-67;
Schenkeveld, pp. 21ff.
18 See Schenkeveld, Chs. V and VI. Given the Stoic praise of

319

INTRODUCTION

The Stoics also influence his theory of neologism, the

vocabulary for some terms of grammar in 60, 201, and
214, and possibly the use of da-rEto<; = "good" in 114
and p.,Eraopa 1TAEova,ova-a, the definition of the simile
in 80.19 Archedemus ( 34) may well be the Stoic
Archedemus, and Chrysippus (280-207 B.C.) may be the
source of the proverbs in 172. But these Stoic traces are
superficial or in language theory, an area where the Stoics
influenced all later theory. What we have, then, in On
Style is a work showing unusually strong and evident
Peripatetic influence, but an influence often adapted and
supplemented to fit standard later theory. As we shall
see, it is also set into a very different conceptual framework of four styles.
Finally, there is linguistic evidence, an uncertain
guide since we know too little about standard, educated
Hellenistic prose, in particular the beginnings of linguistic Atticism, the conscious imitation of classical Attic
Greek. But in terms of our current state of knowledge
such Atticism is less .likely as early as the second century
B.C.; yet some signs of it are to be seen in Demetrius, as in
brevity, Stoic origin may also lie behind the second series of
items on arrangement in 103-5 and 253-.58, brevity, aposiopesis, and cacophony. But much about Stoic theory of style
remains obscure and controversial: see C. Atherton, "Hand over
Fist: the Failure of Stoic Rhetoric," Classical Quarterly 38
(1988) 392-427.
19 On grammar see Schenkeveld, p. 137 (but Peripatetic
interest in connectives is seen in Theophr. F 683 Fortenbaugh
and Praxiphanes, quoted in 55). For ao-TELO~, cf. e.g. SVF
iii.674 (Chrysippus), and for the definition of the simile, cf. opfL~
1TAEova,ovo-a, the Stoic definition of emotion, e.g. SVF iii.130.

320

INTRODUCTION

ovo

the use of the dual for forms other than

and af-Lcpw, 20
and the preposition af-Lcf>L,21 in 288. Vocabularly, however, is in general not decisive, since many forms which
used to be thought "late" have been found to have early
instances or comparable forms (see the valuable lists in
Grube, Appendix I; Schenkeveld, p. 145, n. 1). The most
interesting are the few terms specifically said to be recent
usages, Aoyto~ of grandeur in 38, 22 and the group
KaKO,YJAo~, KaKO,YJAia, and ( 239) ~'YJPOKaKO,YJAia.
The last is attested only here, and it is tempting to relate it
to the "novum genus cacozeliae" which a hostile contemporary attributes to Virgil (Donatus, Vit. Virg. 44), a new
affectation said to be neither swollen nor arid but produced from ordinary words and so less obvious. There
may then be a few points of language to suggest a date of
composition as late as the early first century B.C.
20

Particularly striking in Demetrius are the examples in

36 (two verbs) and 235 (genitives); see Chiron, p. xxiii,
Schenkeveld, p. 140. Aristotl~ has only one dual involving a
verb, Polybius has none, and seems the last to use the genitive
dual. Later use of the dual was a choice artificial revival, to our
knowledge first in the second half of the first century B.C. There
are two examples of
xeZpe in the scholarly Parthenius, verbs
and genitives seem to occur first in Dionysius, and verbal forms
are rare even in Atticist authors.
21 See Schenkeveld, p. 144. It has disappeared already from
Aristotle, Parthenius has one example, Dionysius about thirty.
22 See E. Orth, Logios, Leipzig, 1926; Grube, p. 150. It is
first securely used meaning "eloquent" in Philo, and linked with
grandeur perhaps first in the period of Plutarch, e.g. Mor. 350c.
But see also note 6.

rw

321

INTRODUCTION

Structure
The overall structure of On Style is clear and methodical,
a preliminary account of sentence theory( 1-35), followed by analysis of four styles: the grand, elegant, plain,
and forceful ( 36-304). In the absence of any formal
introduction or conclusion, these may seem two independent accounts, but there are links and cross references
(e.g. 6 and 121, 7-9 and 241-42), and the first, a
useful preliminary to a topic common to all the styles in
the second part, is too long to fit within any one style: contrast, for example, the inclusion of general remarks on
prose rhythm, metaphor, and neologism on their first
occurrence within the grand style ( 38 and 78ff), clarity
and vividness within the plain style ( 191 and 209ff),
and forms of open and oblique rebuke in the forceful
style( 287ff).
Clauses and periods are analysed in an orderly textbook progression of top'ics ( 1-35). 23 The unusually
detailed account of the clause ( 1-9) moves from origin
and definition to appropriate use of long and short
clauses, while the period is analysed under definition, origin and history, length, and subtypes, with remarks interspersed on use. Finally, there are two appendices, reverting to definition ( 34-35), just as additional topics tend
to follow the main analysis in the individual styles.
After a preliminary defence of the four-style theory,
Demetrius analyses each of the four styles in turn. Each.
ends with a brief discussion of its faulty counterpart, the
23

Cf. e.g. Cic. Orator 174. The sequence of definition and

use is natural and common, cf. 22-29, M. Fuhrmann, Das systematische Lehrbuch, Gottingen 1960.

322

I
I

INTRODUCTION

frigid, affected, arid, and unpleasant, and, with the partial

exception of the elegant style, each is analysed under the
same three aspects of diction, composition, and content. 24 This basic structure is seen at its simplest in the
brief accounts of the faulty styles, in the grand style, and,
if we remove the digressions, the plain style ( 190-91
and 204-8). In the forceful style the three headings are
covered in 240-76, but then comes a ragbag of extras:
further figures of speech, Demades, forms of rebuke, and
disapproval of hiatus. The elegant style is more complicated and in part confused by the immediate subdivision
of two types of charm, the gracefully poetic and the wittilycomic ( 128-31), and-an intrusion from traditional
accounts of wit-analysis under two headings of style and
content ( 132-62, cf. Cic. De Or. 2.248). Af.tts, normally diction, now includes some topics of arrangement
(and then in . 142-45 is confusingly restricted to single
words). At this point the main. discussion seems concluded, since appendices follow on the differences
between charm and laughter, appropriate and inappropriate use of gibes( 163-72), and on Theophrastus~ definition of beautiful words and musical theory ( 173-78). 25
But then we find elegant arrangement, y A.acf>vpa crvv0Eo-ts ( 179-85), as if Demetrius had noticed a gap and
wished to complete his usual structure of three aspects.
24

I
i

The three headings are traditional, and all appear in the

context of the styles in Ad Herennium 4.8.11 and Cic. Orator 20.
Further use of traditional material appears in the recurrent
series of items found under diction and arrangement, where at
least the opening items show Peripatetic influence (see note 17).
25 This amplifies the reference to beautiful words in 164, a
good example of how appendices would often be footnotes in
modern texts.

323

INTRODUCTION

This final section apologises for originality, and reintroduces the generic term for the style, yAacpvpo~, which
with one exception ( 138) had been OUSted by xapL~ and
cognates. Taken together with the other structural peculiarities, it confirms that Demetrius adopted and modified
an aCCOUnt of xapL~ because he had no detailed model
for his elegant style.

The four styles

The early history of the theory of styles, xapaKTijpE~, is
obscure and controversial, particularly the contribution of
Theophrastus, but the fundamental criterion is propriety,
TO TrPETrov: certain subjects fit certain styles, and violation of this is normally a fault (e.g. 120). A division into
two styles, grand and plain, is found already in Aristophanes~ Frogs, where Euripides is accused of using an
unsuitably plain style, tpough "great ideas and thoughts
must father equally great WOrds" (1058-59, aVU')IKYJ
JLE"yaAwv '}'VWJLWV Kat 8LaVOLWV La-a Kat Ta pf]JLaTa
TLKTELV). This match of content and form is why the the-

ory of styles regularly gives content an integral place, as in

Cicero, Orator 100, an example of a three-style theory,
the standard number in the Roman period: ccthe true orator can express humble subjects in a plain style, elevated
subjects in a weighty style, and intermediate subjects in a
middle style." The emphasis is however on style, and
Demetrius, discussion of suitable subject matter is always
brief. Since the choice of style depends on appropriate
context, all the styles are equally valid, and though he
rather scorns the plain style ( 207), Demetrius expresses
no preference (nor does Ad Herennium 4.8.llff; contrast
324

INTRODUCTION

the supremacy of the grand style for the orator in Cic.

Orator97).
The analysis of styles has two functions: to evaluate
existing writers and to instruct the future writer. Both are
normally present, though one may predominate. Demetrius is primarily prescriptive (he uses many imperatives
and futures), whereas, for exa1nple, Dionysius' Demosthenes is analytic. Individual authors may also be classifled under a specific style, as Demetrius may implicitly
classify Thucydides under the grand style, while other
authors such as Homer and Plato will control and mix
more than one style ( 37; compare Demosthenes' mastery of all three styles in Cic. Orator 26). But these two
functions are difficult to disentangle when past authors
are analysed to provide models for the present.
Demetrius' formulation of four styles is in itself unusual,
but its nature and use are not essentially different from
the formulations of other critics. 26
We can distinguish various strands in the development
of the styles found in De:q1etrius. The theory of two
1
styles, grand and plain, remained influential (e.g. Cic.
Brutus 201), and as he almost admits in 36-37, this is
where Demetrius derives his four styles, by subdividing
grand into grand and forceful, and plain into plain and
elegant. He ignores the three-style theory, first securely
! attested in Ad Herennium 4.8.11ff and Cicero, De Or.
3.177, 199, 210-12 (cf. Orator 20ff), and it concerns us
here only because this silence is very curious if it was
, known to Theophrastus. 27 Probably, however, Theo1

26

I.

27

Contrast the view of Schenkeveld, Ch. III.

Cf. D. C. Innes, "Theophrastus and the Theory of Style,"
j Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities II, New

325

INTRODUCTION

phrastus recognised only one good style (or diction), a

mean between excessive plainness and elaboration, while
defining this mean with vocabulary which was later associated with a specifically grand style. This at any rate fits
the few surviving fragments: he recognised three types of
diction, recommending as a mean the type blended from
the other two, he discussed grandeur in diction, 70 fLEya
Ka'i a-EfLVOv Ka'i 1TEpL77ov (DH. Dem. 3 and Isoc. 3 = F
685 and 691 Fortenbaugh), and he defined frigidity as
what exceeds (70 V1TEp{3a'A'Aov) the appropriate form of
expression ( 114), a definition suggesting a single fault of
excess. If so, Theophrastus developed what was in
essence already in Aristotle, who advised appropriate
diction, neither low nor too elaborate, and illustrated
excess diction under 70 l/Jvxpov (Rhet. 1404b3-4 and
1405b35ff).
Another strand in the Demetrian styles is the theory of
qualities or virtues (ap7at). To simplify yet another controversial issue, 28 Arisfotle's one good style or diction, a
single virtue blenqing clarity and distinction, was turned
by Theophrastus into a list of four necessary virtues,
purity, clarity, propriety, and pleasing stylistic elaboraBrunswick 1985, pp. 251-67; and G. M.A. Grube, "Theophrastus as a Literary Critic," Transactions of the American Philological Association 83 (1952) 172-83.
28 See previous note; add D. A. Russell, Criticism in Antiquity, London 1981, Ch. IX; S. F. Bonner, The Literary Treatises
of Dionysius of Halicamassus, Cambridge 1939; and on the later
and more elaborate theory of Hermogenes, ITept 'I8ewv,
C. Wooten, Hermogenes on Types of Style, Chapel Hill 1987
(with translation). This theory of qualities also influenced Longinus' concept of the sublime.

326

INTRODUCTION

tion, ''omatum illud suave et affluens" (Cic. Orator 79).

But later critics added to the list and already by the time
of Cicero and Dionysius (who notes in Thuc. 22 that others had elaborated the theory before him), it is divided
into necessary and additional virtues. The latter no
longer allow a single pack of simultaneously required
qualities, and an author may be strong in one and weak in
another. Distinctions between styles and qualities now
become inevitably blurred, since any style, for example
the grand style, is speech shaped to embody a specific
quality, for example grandeur, and Demetrius, like other
later critics, moves freely between vocabulary of styles
and qualities (e.g. 240, "forcefulness ... like all the previous styles,,). But the list of qualities also provides our
closest parallel for the stylistic categories which
Demetrius distinguishes as separate styles, since for
Dionysius ~he additional virtues form three groups,
grandeur, force, and charm (cf. DH. lmit. 3, Thuc. 22, Ad
Pomp. 3). The plain style can then be seen to use only the
necessary virtues, while the grand, forceful, and elegant
styles show the qualities of grandeur, force, and charm.
The grand style is appropriate for great battles and big
natural phenomena ( 75), 29 and the examples show a
preference for epic and history, Homer and Thucydides,
figures such as Ajax (e.g. 48) and set pieces of historical
narrative and description, such as the plague at Athens,
the river Achelous, and the sea battle at Pylas ( 39,
45-46, and 65); this is very much Cicero,s view of history
as literature, "et narratur ornate et regia saepe aut pugna
describitur,, (Orator 66). Oratory is absent, save for an
29

Cf. Cic. Part. Or. 56, Hermogenes 242-46 Rabe.

327

INTRODUCTION

atypical descriptive passage from Antiphon ( 53) and a

metaphor from Demosthenes ( 80), which is cited more
aptly in 272 for its force. Oratorical grandeur will often
mix force and grandeur, and it would seem that
Demetrius prefers to concentrate on what is basic to the
style. This at least would explain why emotion is in general almost excluded. Allegory ( 99-102) evokes awe
and To cpo{3Epov, but this aspect, 30 usually prominent in
theories of grandeur, is not developed, probably because
of the overlap with the forceful style where the same
examples reappear( 241-43).
The elegant style has a much less satisfactory unity, as
is clear from the initial division into two types, dignified
charm and comic gibes. Homer's simile of Artemis and
Lysias' toothless hag seem to have little in common
( 128-29). These are, however, the two extremes, where
charm. edges into the grand and forceful styles respectively, and in practice Demetrius moves the main focus to
a more unified area, the elegant wit of a Sappho or
Xenophon. As we have seen, Demetrius probably lacked
any better source and tried to modify an account of wit,
xapt.s. Thus this section has its own unity and perceptive
comments, and shares a common tradition with Cicero
and Quintilian. 31 But though xapt.s means both charm
30

In 57-58 particles are said to evoke emotion as \vell as

grandeur: this is a digression, and emotion is distinct from
grandeur.
31 Cf. Cic. De Or. 2.216-90, Quint. 6.3. The common source
is probably Theophrastus. Cf. E. Arndt, De ridiculi doctrina
rhetorica, Bonn 1904, M.A. Grant, The Ancient Rhetorical Theories of the Laughable in the Greek Rhetoricians and Cicero,
Madison, 1924, and especially the commentary on Cicero's De

328

INTRODUCTION

and wit, and both concepts are part of T]Sovf], the pleasurable, in contrast to grandeur and force, 32 they do not
always coincide, and it is charm, not wit, that is suggested
by the subject matter recommended in 132-33, gardens of the nymphs, wedding songs, love, birds, and
spring.
Within Demetrius the elegant style has closest links
with the plain style (note how ''small" birds and flowers
contrast great battles in 76), and classification of it as
part of the plain style, its probable origin (cf. 36), may
be compared to Cicero, Orator 20, where the plain style
has two subdivisions, the first deliberately like ordinary
speech (cf. Demetrius 207), but the second "more elegant and witty, even given a brightness and modest ornamentation." Yet when exemplified by the smoothly
euphonious Isocratean type of sentences, elegance may
also both be in polar contrast to forcefulness ( 258,
300-301) and combine with. grandeur ( 29). Since
Demetrius is struggling to express this style, parallels in
other authors are hard to find, but we find a more unified
concept of charm in the later quality of sweetness, yA.vK'VTYJ~, with its beautiful landscapes and themes of love
(Hermogenes 330-39 Rabe), and the importance of
charm as an independent element of style is already clear
in the first century B.C. from its place in the theory of
qualities and from the varying attempts to add it to the
theory of styles, as part of the middle style (Cic. Orator
Oratore, Vol. III, ed. A. D. Leeman, H. Pinkster, and E. Rabbie,
Heidelberg 1989.
32 As in the theory of qualities. Compare Longinus 34.3,
where Demosthenes lacks both charm and wit.

329

INTRODUCTION

69), or as an independent style, y'AavporYJc; (Philodemus, Rhet. 1.165 Sudhaus).

The account of the plain style is brief and traditional:
simple subjects, diction, and arrangement. To judge from
the few examples, it fits private speeches and domestic
scenes (as in Lysias) and Socratic dialogues, and we can
compare the similar range of subjects which the plain
style illustrates in Dionysius, Demosthenes 2 and Ad
Herennium 4.10.14 (an incident in a bathhouse, a forensic
narrative, with dialogue), and Ps.Plutarch, Vit. Hom. 72
(the domestic scene of Hector and his son in Hom. Il.
6.466ff). Since he has little to say, Demetrius adds more
general discussions of clarity, vividness, and persuasiveness. He is here adapting the virtues of narrative (these
were traditionally clarity, brevity, and persuasiveness, but
some added vividness, Quint. 4.2.63-64), and much is
standard later theory: compare on clarity e.g. Cic. De Or.
3.49 and Quint. 8.2; on vh(idness Quint. 8.3.61-71; and on
persuasiveness Quint. 4.2.52-60. Demetrius also has the
same two types of vividness which Quintilian recognises,
the use of every detail and good circumstantial detail
e'tota rerum imago,>> "etiam ex accidentibus,), but originality is seen in the examples, where quick allusion to
familiar passages of Homer is followed by a more detailed
excursus on the much less usual figure of the historian
Ctesias ( 212-16), including a powerful analysis of the
dramatic tension as a mother is told of her son,s death.
Demetrius concludes the plain style with an example
of a mixed style, the combination of charm and simplicity
suited to the letter. This is our earliest extant analysis of
letter-writing, and perceptively explores the differences
between the letter and dialogue and letters to friends and
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INTRODUCTION

kings, emphasising the importance of character in the letter of friendship, since the letter mirrors the writer,s soul.
In terms of classical prose theory this is a rare extension
beyond the usual limits of history, philosophy, and
oratory. 33
The forceful style fits the expression of strong emotion,
particularly anger and invective, 34 and the main source of
examples is oratory, especially Demosthenes and, in an
appendix, Demades ( 282-86). Appendices continue
the focus on accusation but dilute the unity of the style by
including milder forms of oblique and even tactful censure. In the three-style theory such force falls under the
grand style, and in Ad Herennium 4.8.12 it is an invective
passage which illustrates the grand style. But independent concepts of force and grandeur were recognised in
the theory of qualities (see above), and forcefulness
already interested the early Peripatetics, particularly the
distinction between a smooth. unemotional epideictic
style and a more vigorous forensic style of oral delivery:
note the A.E.tts dywvurTLk-r} in Ar. Rhet. 1413b3ff, the
recognition of Demosthenes, boldness (Dem. Phal. F 163
Wehrli), and !socrates, lack of such vigour (Hieronymus F
52 Wehrli).
The faulty styles: each style has a neighbouring faulty
33

But much was probably traditional, if we compare the brief

remarks in e.g. Cic. Ad Fam. 2.4.1, Quint. 9.4.19, Theon, RG
2.115. See H. Koskenniemi, Studien zur Idee und Phraseologie
des griechischen Briefes his 400 n. Chr., Helsinki 1956; K.
Thraede, Grundziige griechisch-romischer Brieftopik, Munich
1970.
34 But not the softer emotions of pity and lament, cf. 28,
and Russell (ed. 1964) on Lon gin us 8.2.

331

INTRODUCTION

counterpart. This is a familiar theory, e.g. Ad Herennium

4.10.15-11.16 and Longinus 3-5. Yet despite their traditional nature, Demetrius' faulty styles are not entirely
convincing. The affected and unpleasant styles seem an
agglomerate of points derived from their correct styles,
and though the frigid and arid styles have more unity,
they complement each other rather than their corresponding correct style. The arid style is a great theme
given trivial language, the frigid style a trivial theme
given rich language( 114, 119, and 237). The arid style
is also not a fault of excess like the other faults-we
should expect something like the excessively plain style of
the bathhouse quarrel in Ad Herennium 4.10.16. It is
then an attractive deduction that there were originally
faults for only the grand and plain styles, and that the
nature of the arid style in Demetrius reflects an earlier
stage when good style was a Peripatetic mean located
between faults of excess and deficiency (v7rEp{3oA~ and
EAAELl/Jts), frigidity and aridity. 35
.

Text and manuscripts

The text is based on Parisinus gr. 1741 (P), a manuscript
of the tenth century which is of great importance for
other texts, including Aristotle's Poetics. 36 Corrections in
35

Compare Aristotle's ethical theory of JLEyaA.ot/Jvx[a as a

mean between xavvoTYJ~ and f.LLKpotfivx[a (Eth. Nic. 1125al718), and see Russell (ed. 1964) on Longinus 3.4. Use of the term
tfivxpo~ may itself suggest Peripatetic influence since the usual
term is the swollen, To oloovv, "tumidus," "sufflatus."
36 D. Harlfinger, D. Reinsch, "Die Aristotelica des Parisinus
Gr. 1741," Philologus 114 (1970) 28-50.

332

T
'

INTRODUCTION

a later hand (P 2 ) seem to show in at least some cases

access to a second (lost) manuscript. 37 There are a further forty-four manuscripts, some of them fragmentary, 38
but virtually all derive fro1n P, and where the reading in P
is not followed, the apparatus criticus reports significant
differences.
For the very beginning, 1-3 fLEV, two manuscripts
of the fourteenth century, Matritensis 4684 (H) and
Neapolitanus II E 2 (N), give some readings independent
ofP.39
Closely resembling Pis Marcianus gr. 508 (M), of ca.
1330-1380. Chiron argues that it is independent ofP and
cites its readings fully in his apparatus criticus. M offers
variOUS linguistically more "correcf' readings (e.g. U1TOKaTEO"TYJO"EV and aVEfLVYJO"EV in 196 and 298 eliminate
the only two examples in P of the double augment), and it
includes so1pe more accurate and fuller versions of passages quoted (e.g. 4, 21, 61, 199, and 250). Most strikingly, it adds one extra lengthy quotation, but, quite independently of the question of the relationship of M to P,
this addition seems to derive from a scribal marginal
annotation (see note on 53). In various places M seems
to aim to improve the faulty text in P (not always successfully, e.g. 287 Dta1TAE'vO"avra~ <lDE'iv> ), and I suspect
M is ultimately an idiosyncratic descendant of P, 40 subseRadermacher, pp. vff.
Chiron, p. cviii.
39 For Has copy of N in the text of the Alexander Rhetoric,
see M. Fuhrmann, Untersuchungen zur Textgeschichte der
pseudoaristotelischen Alexander-Rhetorik, Mainz, 1965.
40 This is also the view of H. Gartner and R. Kassel (private
correspondence). ForM as a copy of P for the text of Dionysius
37

38

333

INTRODUCTION

quent to the corrections in P 2 (examples of readings

shared with P 2 : 28, 66, 89, 122, 194, 229, 237, 288, and
291). In the apparatus criticus I give some of the more
interesting readings, and I also give it precedence for
readings accepted in the text but conjectured previously
by various scholars. Collations of other manuscripts
might well produce further conjectures or reattributions. 41
There is also a thirteenth-century medieval Latin
translation (Lat.) published by Wall in 1937. 42 It is often
more of a paraphrase, and it omits many passages, in particular the less usual material (especially all mention of
the fourth style, since it conflicted with the medieval tradition of a theory of three styles; much of the discussion
of wit; and poetic examples). It is close to P, but has a few
"better" readings which may suggest independence (e.g.
194) ..
Finally, in the indirect tradition, 43 there are some subof Halicarnassus, see G. Aujac, "Recherches sur la tradition du
7TEp'i a-vvOea-Ewc; de Denys d'Halicarnasse," Revue d"Histoire des
Textes 4 (1974) 1-44.
41 H. Gartner gives a few examples in "Demetriana Varia,"
Hermes 118 (1990) 213-36. See especially p. 214, n. 6 (on conjectures wrongly attributed to Victorius ); p. 216, n. 12 for Vaticanus gr. 1904, of the early fifteenth century and the oldest
known descendant ofP; and p. 221, n. 29 for Dresdensis Da 4, of
the earlier fifteenth century.
42
B. V. Wall, A Medieval Latin Version of Demetrius" De elocutione, Washington 1937.
43
H. Gartner, "Zur byzantinischen Nebeniiberlieferung von
Demetrios, IlEp'i EPfLYJVELac;," Kyklos, Festschrift Rudolf Keydell,
ed. H. G. Beck, A. Kambylis, and P. Moraux, Berlin, 1978.

334

INTRODUCTION

stantial quotations in the commentaries on Hermogenes

by Gregory of Corinth (Greg.), Byzantine scholar of ca.
1070-1156. No excerpt is verbally exact, some are paraphrases, but their common archetype seems a close but
independent relative of P.
SYNOPSIS
1-35: Sentence Structure
1-9: clause (kolon)
1-3: definition of clause
4-8: length and use of clause
9: definition of short clause or phrase (komrna)
10-35: period and combinations of clauses
10-11: definition of period
12-15: periodic and unperiodic; origin and use
16-18: length of period: number of clauses
19-21: t)pes of period: historical, dialogue, rhetorical
22-29: periods with symmetrical clauses
22-24: antithesis
25-26: assonance
27-29: their use
31-33: period and enthymeme: the difference
34-35: definition of clause in Aristotle and Archedemus
36-304: The Four Styles, xapaKrijpec;
Each is analysed under subject, diction and composition (1Tpayp.ara, A.e~t_c;, (rvvOea-ts), each with its
neighbouring faulty style.
36-37: introductory: the grand, elegant, plain, and
forceful styles
335

INTRODUCTION

38-127: the grand style, f-LeyaAo7Tperr~c;

38-74: composition: series I
38-43: rhythm
44: length of clauses
45-47: period
48-49:cacophony
50-52: word order
53-58: connectives and particles
59-67: figures
68-74: hiatus
75-76: subjects: battles; earth and heaven
77-102: diction
77: introduction
78-90: metaphor and simile
91-93: compounds
94-98: neologisms: onomatopoeia and derivatives
99-:-102:allegory
103-5: composition: series II
103: brevity and repetition
104: oblique construction
105:cacophony
106-11: the epiphoneme (appendix I)
112-13: poetic words in prose (appendix II)
114-27: the frigid style, lfivxpoc;
114: definition
115: subjects
116: diction
117-18: composition
119-23: propriety
124-27: appendix on hyperbole
128-89: the elegant style, yA.acpvpoc;
128-35: introductory: the types of charm
336

INTRODUCTION

128-31: two types

132-35: two sources
136: introduction to the two sources (T07TOL) of charm
137-55: diction/style
137-41: composition: brevity, word order, figures
142-45: single words: metaphor, compounds,
idiosyncratic words and neologisms
146-55: comparison, change of direction, allegory,
the unexpected, assonance, innuendo
156-62: subjects: proverb, fable, groundless fear, comparison, and hyperbole
163-72: comparison of laughter and charm
173-78: beautiful words
176-78: digression on types of word in musical theory
179-85: elegant composition: rhythm, length of
clauses, cacophony
YJAO~
186-89:-the affected style,
subjects, diction, composition

KaKo'

190-239: the plain style, lcrxv6~

190: subjects
191: diction: no metaphor, compounds or neologisms
192-203: clarity
204-8: composition
209-20: vividness
221-22: persuasiveness
223-35: the letter style (a mixed style): difference from
dialogue, character of writer, brief and unperiodic
composition, subjects, addressee
236-39: the arid style, ~YJp6~
subjects, diction, composition; mixture of the arid
and affected
337

INTRODUCTION

240-304: the forceful style, DEtvo~

240: subjects
241-71: composition
241-52: series 1: length of clauses, period,
cacophony, word order, frequency of period
253-58: series II: brevity, cacophony
259-62: digression on forceful wit of the Cynics
263-71: figures (series I): of speech, of thought
272-76: diction
272-74: metaphor and simile
275-76: compounds and matching words
277-301: appendices
277-81: figures (series II)
282-86: forceful wit of Demades
287-95: innuendo
296-98: styles of Aristippus, Xenophon, and
Socrates
299-301: composition: hiatus
302-4: the unpleasant style, xapL~
subjects, composition, diction; link with frigid
style

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Select editions

Aldus Manutius, Venice 1508 (editio princeps)

Victorius, P., Florence 1552 (with Latin translation and
commentary, 1562)
Gale, T., Oxford 1676 (ed. Glasg. = revised reprint, Glasgow, 1743)
Schneider, J. G., Altenburg 1799
Goeller, F., Leipzig 1837
338

INTRODUCTION

Spengel, L., Leipzig 1856

Radermacher, L., Leipzig 1901
Roberts, W. Rhys, Cambridge 1902
Roberts, W. Rhys, 1927 (Loeb, based on 1902 edition)
Wall, B. V., Washington 1937 (editio princeps of medieval
Latin translation)
Grube, G. M. A., Toronto 1961 (English translation with
substantial introduction, notes and appendices)
Chiron, P., Paris 1993 (Bude edition)

Books and articles

Brief general interpretations are to be found in most
surveys of classical criticism, e.g. G. A. Kennedy, Cambridge History of Literary Criticism, Vol. I, Cambridge
1990, pp. 196-98; G. M. A. Grube, The Greek and Roman
Critics, Toronto 1965; and D. A. Russell, Criticism in
Antiquity, London 1981, pp. 129~7. See also:
Gartner, H., "Demetriana varia," Hermes 118 (1990)
213-36
Grant, M. A., The Ancient Rhetorical Theories of the
Laughable in the Greek Rhetoricians and Cicero, Univ.
ofWisconsin Studies 21, Madison 1924
Grube, G. M. A., <<Theophrastus as a Literary Critic,"
Transactions of the American Ph,ilological Society 83
(1952) 172-83
Hendrickson, G. L., "The Peripatetic Mean of Style and
the Three Stylistic Characters'' and ''The Origins and
Meaning of the Ancient Characters of Style," American
Journal of Philology 25 (1904) 125-46 and 26 (1905)
249-70
Innes, D. C., "Theophrastus and the Theory of Style,"
339

INTRODUCTION

Rutgers University Studies in Classical Humanities II,

New Brunswick 1985, pp. 251-67
Innes, D. C., "Period and Colon: Theory and Example in
Demetrius and Longinus," Rutgers University Studies
in Classical Humanities VI, New Brunswick 1994, pp.
36-53
Kroll, W., RE. Suppl. VII, Rhetorik, coli. 1039-1138,
Stuttgart 1940
Morpurgo-Tagliabue, G., Demetrio: della stile, Rome
1980
Schenkeveld, D. M., Studies in Demetrius On Style,
Amsterdam 1964
Solmsen, F., "Demetrios 1T'Ep'i E.p~YJVEtac; und sein peripatetisches Quellenmaterial," Hermes 66 (1931)
241-67
Solmsen, F., "The Aristotelian Tradition in Ancient
Rhetoric,'' American Journal of Philology 62 (1941)
35-50 and 169-90
ABBREVIATIONS
Ar.
Art. Scr.

DH.

EGF

340

Aristotle
Artium Scriptores (Reste der
voraristotelischen Rhetorik), ed.
L. Radermacher, Vienna 1951
Dionysius of Halicarnassus (CV =
On Composition ofWords)
Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker,
ed. H. Diels, W. Kranz, revised edition, Berlin 1951-52
Epicorum Graecorum Fragmenta,
ed. M. Davies, Gottingen 1988

INTRODUCTION

FGrHist

Giannantoni
Kaibel

Kock

L-P
Overbeck

Paroem. Gr.

PCG
PLG

PMG
P.Oxy.
Powell

RE

Die Fragrnente der Griechischen

Historiker, ed. F. Jacoby, Berlin
1923-30, Leiden 1940-58
Socraticorurn reliquiae, ed. G. Giannantoni, Naples 1983-8.5
Comicorum Graecorum Fragmenta,
Vol. I (Doriensium comoedia), ed.
G. Kaibel, Berlin 1899
Comicorum Atticorum Fragmenta,
ed. T. Kock, Leipzig 1880-88
Poetarum Lesbioru,m Fragmenta, ed.
E. Lobel, D. Page, Oxford 1955
Die antiken Schriftquellen zur
Geschichte der bildenden Kunst bei
den Griechen, ed. J. Overbeck,
Leipzig 1868
Corpus Paroemiographorum
Graecorum, ed. E. L. Leutsch, F. G.
Schneidewiil, Gottingen 1839-51
Poetae .Comici Graeci, ed. R. Kassel,
C. Austin, Berlin 1983Poetae Lyrici Graeci, ed. T. Bergk,
revised edition Leipzig 1882
Poetae 1nelici Graeci, ed. D. Page,
Oxford 1962
The Oxyrhynchus Papyri
Collectanea Alexandrina, ed. J. U.
Powell, Oxford 1925
Real-Encyclopiidie der classischen
Altertumswissenschaft, ed. A. Pauly,
G. Wissowa, Stuttgart/Munich,
1894-1978
341

T
i

INTRODUCTION

RG

Sauppe
Supp. Com.
SVF
TGF
TrGF

Wehrli
West

342

Rhetores Graeci, ed. L. Spengel,

Leipzig 1853-56 (Sp.-H. =Vol. 1.2,
revised edition, 1894, L. Spengel,
C. Hammer)
Oratorum Atticorum Fragmenta, ed.
H. Sauppe, Turici 1845
Supplementum comicum, ed. J.
Demiaficzuk, Cracow 1912
Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta, ed.
J. von Arnim, Leipzig 1905
Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta,
ed. A. Nauck, 2d ed., Leipzig 1889
Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta,
ed. B. Snell, R. Kannicht, S. Radt,
Gottingen 1971Die Schule des Aristoteles, ed.
F. Wehrli, Basel1967-78
Iambi et Elegi Graeci, ed. M. L.
Wes't, Oxford 1971-72

ITEPI

EPMHNEIA~

EPMHNEIA~

IIEPI

~'llo-7TEp ~ 1TOtYJo-ts DtatpEtTat Tot~ pi.Tpot~,

(1)

oTov ~f-LtfLETpot~ ~ E~afLETpot~ ~ TOL~ a'A.'A.ot~, OVTW

KaL rT]v EPJ.LYJVEtav TTJV 'A.oytKTJV DtatpEt KaL DtaKptvEL
\
""'\
,
'
Ta' KaAOVJ.LEVa
KWAa,
Ka ()/a1TEp ava1TaVOVTa
TOV
' / Kat' EV
' 1TOAJ\Ot~
\\ ""'
AEYOVTa TE Kat Ta AEYOJ.LEVa 1 avTa,
'/
' \
,
' .,, ,,
'
opot~ opt&:,OVTa TOV 1\0yov, E7TEt TOt J.LaKpo~ av EtYJ Kat
a1TEtpo~ Ka'i aTExvw~ 1rviywv Tov 'Aeyovra. (2) f3ovAE/
~
/
,
/'j
""'\
""'
Tat J.LEVTOL
otavotav
a1TapTtsEtv
Ta' KWAa
TavTa,
1TOTE'
J.LEV o'A YJV 8uivotav, otov 2 w~ eEKaTato~ cPYJo-tv EV Ti}
dpxiJ Ti]~ to-ropia~, eeeEKaTaLO~ Mt'A.~o-to~ (8E J.LVBEt/\
' OtaVOta
~
\
~~\
~~\
Tat , o-VVEtAT}1TTat.
yap
T([J""' KWA([J
OA([J OAYJ,
KaL UJ.LcPW o-vyKaTa'A-r}yovo-tv.
E.vioTE J.LEVTOt TO
KWAov oAYJv 3 J.LEV ov o-VJ.L1TEpatot 8ufvotav, J.LEpo~ 8
OAYJ~ o'A.ov w~ yap ri]~ XEtpo~ OVo-YJ~ o'A.ov TtVO~
J.LEPYJ avTi]~ o'A.a OAYJ~ 4 E.a-riv, otov DaKTVAot 5 KaL
1ri}xv~ 6 ( l8iav yap 1TEptypacPT]v EXEt rovTwv Twv
/

\/

~~

'

'

1 1\E"YOVTa
\ I
I
'
'
\
I
TE Kat Ta 1\E"YOfLEVa

F'lllCkh : 1\0"fOV
\

PNH.
om. NH.
3 oAYJV P: o'Aov NH (tatum Lat.).
4 o'ATJ~ Hp.c.: o'ATJ PNHa.c.
5 8aKrv'Aot PN (digiti Lat.): 8aKrv'Ao~ H.

AE"fOfLEVa
2 olav

344

TaI TE KaTa-

ON STYLE

(1) Just as poetry is organised by metres (such as

half-lines,a hexameters, and the like), so too proseh is
organised and divided by what are called clauses. Clauses
give a sort of rest to both the speaker and what is actually
being said; and they n1ark out its boundaries at frequent
points, since it would otherwise continue at length without limit and simply run the speaker out of breath. (2) But
the proper function of such clauses is to conclude a
thought. Sometimes a clause is a complete thought, for
example Hecataeus at the beginning of his History:
"Hecataeus of Miletus speaks as follows."c Here a complete clause coincides with .a complete thought and both
end together. Sometimes, however, the clause marks off
not a complete thought, but a complete part of one. For
just as the armd is a whole, yet has parts such as fingers
and forearm which are themselves each a whole, since
For half-lines cf. 180, and see note on 5 where a halfhexameter illustrates short metres.
h More literally "prose expression," implying formal prose.
Elsewhere "style" most often translates E.pp.,ryveia.
c FGrHist 264 Hecataeus, F 1A (cf. 12).
d Since kolon or clause is literally a limb of the body (cf. Latin
membrum), comparisons from the body are common.
a

1TTJXV~ H: 1r-r}XH~ PN (cubiti Lat.).

345

DEMETRIUS
~I

1"1

~~~

'

~/

'

fLEpwv EKaa-TOV, Kat LOLa fLEp'Y} , OVTW Kat

oA 'Y}~

TLVO~
/

'

OV(J"'Y}~ fLeyaA 'Y}~ EfL7TEptAafLf3avotT' av

'

fLEp'Y} TtVa

~
/
otaVOLa~

1"1

aVT'Y}~

I:\

~~

'

01\0K/\'Y}pa OVTa Kat avTa

(3)

~~

Wa-7Tp

T1j~ 'Ava{3aa-Ew~ T1j~ 2 SEVOcPWVTO~ TO

~"~
c:e A
'
' ~ " fLEXPL
I
TOLOVTOV,
uapEtOV
Kat' II apva-aTLOO~
TOV,..,
EV rfj apxfi
~::~::

E(J"Ttv Ta
/

' K vpo~,
,. ,
,

oE

VEWTEpo~

<;:<

1"1

a-vvTET1\Ea-fLEV'Y} 1raa-a otavota

EV avTfj KWAa 8vo fLEP'YJ fLEV avT1j~ EKaT/

~'
,
I:
/
\
3
otaVOta 0 EV EKaTEp(f! 7TI\'Y}pOVTat TL~,

8'

<;:<

pov (TTL,

1"1

T8tov xova-a 1repa~, otov c:c:LlapEtov KaL ITapva-aTt8o~

/
,..,<;:<
"4 ''
/
c: \
\
/
e <;:<
/
ytvovTat 7TatoE~.
EXEL yap Ttva OI\OKI\'Y}ptav 'Y} ota'
'
aVT'Y}

VOLa

Ka (}'

/ <;:<
II apva-aTLOL

~~
OTL

c:
/
aVT'Y}V,

'5

'"'~
7TaLO~.

c:

A
/
uapEtqJ

'
'
EYEVOVTO
/

~I

'

Kat'

'"'\

Kat wa-aVTW~ TO ETEpOV KWI\OV,

oTt c:c:7TpEa-{3vTEpo~ fLEv 6 'ApTa~ep~'YJ~, vEwTEpo~ 8

'"'
"
K vpo~.

~I

'

'

wa-rE TO fLEV

'"'\

KWI\OV,

c:

w~

,/..,.

<;:<

-.p'Y}fLL,

otavotav

7Tpte~" Ttva 7TaVTTJ 1ravTw~, 1]Tot oATJv ~ fLEpo~ o'A.TJ~

~1\

01\0V.

(4)

LlEZ

ovTE 1ravv fLaKpa 7TotEt7J Ta KwAa, E7TEt

afLETP~~ ~ a-vvOEa-t~ ~ 8va-7TapaKoAovO'Y}To~ ov8 yap ~ 7TOL'Y}TLK~ V7TEp ~afLETpov ~A0Ev, EL

Tot yivETat

IL~ 7TOV EV oA.iyot~

yEAOLOV yap TO fLETpov UfLETpov

KaTaA~yovTo~ TOV fLETpov E7TtAEAija-Oat

~!La~ 7TOTE 1}p~aTo. ovTE 8~ 7 To fL1JKo~ Twv KwAwv

Elvat,

KaL

1
7Tp7TOV

T'YJ~,

'

~"~
\/
TOt~ 1\0yot~
I

~'''
/
''
1
Ota
T'Y}V afLETptaV,
OVT
'Ye} fLLKpo,.,,

I:\

7TL TOt ytVOLT av 'Y} 1\EYOfLEV'Y}

(;'

~ 'Y}pa

/(}

a-VV

Ea-t~,

otov ~ TOta8E ~:eo {3io~ {3paxv~, ~ TEXV'YJ fLaKpa,

1 DLavo[a~

2 rfj~ PN: rov H.

P: 8ufvoLav NH.
3
4 8vo add. M, codd. Xen.
rL~ P: rfj~ N: ro H.

346

ON STYLE 2-4

each of these has its own shape and indeed its own parts,a
so too a complete thought, when it is extensive, may subsume within it parts which are themselves whole, (3) as at
the beginning of Xenophon's Anabasis in the words ''Darius and Parysatis" down to "the younger Cyrus."h This is a
fully completed thought, yet it contains two clauses, each
is a part of it, and in each part a thought is completed
within its own limits. Take the words "Darius and
Parysatis had sons": the thought that Darius and Parysatis
had sons has its own completeness. In the same way the
second clause has the complete thought, "the elder was
Artaxerxes, the younger Cyrus." So a clause will, I maintain, in all cases and circumstances form a thought, either
a complete one or a complete part of a whole one.
(4) You should not produce very long clauses; otherwise the composition has no limitsc and is hard to follow.
Even poetry only rarely goes beyond the length of the
hexameter, since it would be ab.surd if metre had no limits, and by the end of the line we had forgotten when it
began. But if long clauses are out of place in prose
because they have no limit, so too are brief clauses, since
their use would produce what is called arid composition,
as in the words "life is short, art long, opportunity
I.e. sub-parts, such as fingernails, cf. Quint. 7.10.7. Clauses
may similarly contain sub-clauses or phrases, as in the bipartite
second clause of the Xenophon example in 3.
h Xen. Anab. 1.1 (cf. 19).
c The Greek is more pointed, since metron/metre means also
limit or measure.
a

KaL om. NH.

7 S~ Victorius:

post fLEV des. NH.

Sf. P.

347

DEMETRIUS
' ' ( ; / "1
/
':)/
e
/{)
Katpoc; Os Vc;.
KaTaKEKOfLfLEVYJ yap EOLKEV YJ a-vv E/
,./... /
~''
a-Le; KaL' KEKEp/-LaTLa-1-LEVYJ,
KaL' )
EVKaTa'PpOVYJTOc;
oLa
TO

1-L'-Kpa a-v!-L7TavTa EXELV.

1'"'1

I \

(5)
1'

yivETaL !-LEv ovv 7TOTE Kat

l

1'"'1

I()

/-LaKpov KWI\OV Kat-poe;, OLOV EV TOLe; /-LEYE Ea-LV, We; 0

\ /
,./. . / ccTO' yap
'
~ '
I ~
'
'
2 :l '
II 1\fLTWV
'PYJa-L,
OYJ
7TaV TOO
TOTE /-LEV aVTOc;
1'"'1

o BEoc;

7TopEvo!-LEvov a-VfL7T08YJyEt 3 Kat a-vyKvKAEt."

a-xE8ov yap T~ /-LEyBEt- TO'v KwAov a-vvEtijpTaL Kat

'A6yoc;. 8t-a TovTo Kat <To> 4 E.ta~-LETpov ~p~6v

,
/r
c
'
""
/
'
/

TE

~,

OVO/-La<::,ETaL V7TO TOV /-LYJKOVc; KaL 7TpE7TOV YJpWa-LV, KaL

, .,

' co /-LYJPOV
I

OVK av TYJV

'I\1\Laoa
I~
/
/
7TpE7TOVTWc; TLc; ypa-

t/JELEVS TOLe; 'Apxt-'Aoxov (3paxa-t-v, oiov Ct:axvv!-LEVYJ

/\ "
' t:C /
'
/
,./... /
"
)~ '
a-KVTal\ YJ KaL TLc; a-ac; 1TapYJELpE 'PPEVac;; OVOE TOLe;
, AvaKpEOVTOc;, <wc;> 6 TO t:Ccpp' v8wp, cpp' oivov, 6J
1'"\

7Tat" 1-LE()vovToc; yap

/

o pv()1-Loc; aTEXvwc; ypovToc;, ov

~'

/-LaXO/-LEVOV YJpwoc;.

(6)

'
I
'
:!J/
l\1aKpov 1-Lf.v 8~ ISWAov Kat-poe; YLVOLT av 7TOTE

8t-a TaVTa. yivoLTO

8'

av 7TOTE Kat (3paxoc;, oiov 7/ToL

!-LLKpov TL TJfLWV AEyovTWV, we; 0 SEvocpwv cpYJa-Lv, OTL

' ,.~... /
\ \ YJVEc; E7TL
' ' TOV
' TY}I\EfJOaV
\ a/
/
a'PtKOVTO
Ott: e'E 1\1\
7TOTa/-LOV"
,....

'

TYJ yap

8 1rlipa a-c/JaAEp~ add. M (cf. 238).

TOTE fLEV cod d. Plat.: TO fLEV P.

1 T]
2

3 1TopEvOfLEvov a-VfL1TOOYJyE'i

codd. Plat.: 1TopEvOfLEVo~ 1TOOYJ-

yE'i P.
4

To add. Radermacher.

5 ypat/JHEv
6 w~

348

Victorius: scriberet Lat.: ypat/JH .v P.

add. Roberts.

ON STYLE 4-6

fleeting.''a For the composition here seems chopped up

and minced fine, and it fails to impress because all its
parts are minute. (5) Occasionally, however, a long clause
is appropriate, for example in elevated passages, such as
Plato's sentence, "Sometimes God himself helps to escort
and revolve this whole universe on its circling way."b The
elevation of the language virtually corresponds to the size
of the clause. That is why the hexameter is called heroic, c
because its length suits heroes. Homer's Iliad could not
be suitably written in the brief lines of Archilochus, for
example "staff of grief"d or "who stole away your mind ?"e
nor in those of Anacreon, for example ~~bring water, bring
wine, boy. "f That is plainly the rhythm for a drunk old
man, not for a hero in battle.
(6) Sometimes, then, a long clause may be appropriate
for the reasons given, at other times a short one, for
instance whep. our subject is small, as in Xenophon's
account of the Greeks' arrival at the river Teleboas, "this
river was not large, it was beautiful however."g The short,
Hippocr. Aphorism. 1.1. In 238 the quotation continues
with a further clause, which appears here in M but not P.
b Pl. Pol. 269c.
c See on 42.
d Archil. 185.2 West. The staff is the Spartan staff used for
messages in cipher, and the phrase became proverbial for a message of grief, e.g. Plu. Mor. 152e (cf. Paroem. Gr. ii.323). It is
half a hexameter, and the other two examples are dimeters: short
clauses or phrases are similarly like half-lines and less than a
trimeter( 1, 205).
e Archil. 172.2 West.
f PMG 396 Anacreon 51.1.
g Xen. Anab. 4.4.3 KaAo~ fLEV, fLEYa~ S'
Here and in
121 Demetrius misquotes, but retains the abruptness.
a

ov.

349

DEMETRIUS

fJ-tKpoTrrrt Kat a7ToKo7Tfj Tov pvOf.l-ov crvvavEcpavYJ Kat

/
/
~ '
~I
'
YJ~ fJ-tKpOTYJ~
TOV,.., 7TOTafJ-OV,.., Kat' xapt~
Et' OE
OVTW~ EK'TEtVa~ avTo El7TEV, ~~OVTO~ 8 f.J-EYE(}Et f.J-EV i}v f.AaTTWV
rwv 7To'A'Awv, Ka'A'A.Et 8 v7TEpE{ja'A'AEro 1ravTa~," Tov
1TpE7TOVTO~ a7TETvyxavEV av, Kat f.yiyvETO 0 AEYOfJ-Evo~ t/Jvxpo~ a'A.'Aa 7TEpt t/JvxpoTYJTO~ f.J-EV VCTTEpov
AEKTEOV.
(7) Twv 8 fJ-tKpwv Kw'Awv Kav 8EtvoTYJTt xpiJcri~
,
~
' 'TO' EV
, OJ\ty<p
'\
\ ' , ,./...
ECTTt.
OEtVOTEpov
yap
7TOJ\V
EfJ-~atVOfJ-EVOV
Kat crc/Jo8poTEpov, 8to Kat ol AaKWVE~ {3paxv'Aoyot
~
'~
'' ',
'
V7TO
OEtVOTYJTO~ Kat TO f.J-EV E7TtTaCTCTEtV CTVVTOfJ-OV Kat
{jpaxv, Kat 1ra~ 8Ecr7ToTYJ~ 8ov'A.<p f.l-ovocrv'A'Aa{jo~, To
~' tKE'TEVEtV
~
/ fJ-aKpov
' Kat' TO' OOVpECT
,~ /
(} at. < Kat' yap
' >1 at~
OE
\ ' Kat' pvcrat
~
' V7TO
~ ' fJpa(.)
A tTat' Ka (}' ~'0 fJ-YJpov Kat' XWJ\at
~,..,
~'
\
'~
OVTYJ-r:O~, 'TOVTECTTtV V7TO fJ-aKpOJ\Oyta~, Kat Ot yEpOVTE~ f.l-aKpo'Aoyot 8ta T~v dcrOE.vEtav. ( 8) 1Tapa8Etyf.La
8 {jpaxEia~ crvvOE.crEw~ To ~~AaKE8atfJ-OVtot c:I>tAt7T7T<f!"
A
/
,
K optv
/. (} <f! , 7TOJ\V
\ ' yap
' OEtVOTEpOV
~
/
,./. . /
o.tOVVCTtO~ EV
~atVE/

Kat yap addidi (Kat iam Richards).

In 114-27.
h 241-42 repeat the same advice and the example in 8.
For Spartan brevity cf. e.g. Hdt. 3.46.
c Strongly iambic, perhaps from comedy (Adesp. 538 Kock).
Later citation as a proverb derives from Demetrius (Paroem. Gr.
ii.606).
a

350

ON STYLE 6-8

broken rhythm brings into relief both the smallness of the

river and its charm. If Xenophon had expanded the idea
to say, "this river was in size inferior to most rivers, but in
beauty it surpassed them all," he would have failed in propriety, and would have become what is called the frigid
writer-but frigidity is to be discussed later. a
(7) Short clauses should also be used in forceful
passages,h for there is a greater force and vehemence
when a lot of meaning is packed into a few words. So it is
because of this forcefulness that the Spartans are brief in
speech. Commands too are always terse and brief, and
every master is monosyllabic to his slave, c but supplication and lament are lengthy. For the Prayers in Homerd
are represented as wrinkled and lame in allusion to their
slowness-that is, their length in speech. Old men too
speak at length, because they are weak. (8) Take this
instance of brevity in composition, "The Spartans to
Philip: Dionysius in Corinth.,,e These brief words have a

I.
l

Hom. Il. 9.502-3:

Kat yap rE Atrai Elcrt. Llto~ Kovpat tJ-EyaA.oto,
xwA.a[ 'TE pvcra[ TE napa{3Aw7rE~ r' ocp8aAtJ-W.

Allegorical interpretation of the Prayers refers elsewhere to the

physical appearance of suppliants, not their speech, e.g. Ps. Heraclitus, Hom. Alleg. 37. The sequence of examples suggests that
Demetrius intends the aged Phoenix, whose long suppliant
speech in Iliad 9 includes the Prayers passage.
e Cf. 102, 241. It is a stock tag (e.g. Plu. Mar. 511e). The
tyrant Dionysius was expelled in 344 B.C., and his retirement into
private life in Corinth attracted apocryphal detail, such as the
version in 241 that poverty forced him to become a schoolmaster, cf. Ovid, Ex Pont. 4.3.39-40 (for an alternative motive, the
wish to rule, see e.g. Cic. AdAtt. ix.9).

351

DEMETRIUS
TaL pYJ()v OVTW (3paxw~, ~
/
TELVaVT~

TVpavvo~

0ov.

-;-

~~

EL'TTOV,

OTL 0

~'
WO"TTEp
O"V'

ELTTEP

A
,
/
u.LOVVCTLO~

~'
Of.LW~

avTO f.LaKpw~ EK7TOT

/
f.Leya~

"" LOLWTEVWV
'~
,
, ""
VVV
OLKEL

.,,

WV

K opLV,

ov yap rt 8ta TTo'A'Awv pYJOf.v ETTLTT'ATjtEt c[JKEt

d'A'Aa

DLYJYTJf.LaTL, Kat f.La'A'Aov TLvt 8L8aa-KovrL, ovK

',./...(.}""
~'
'
/
'\"
K'0tJOVVTL
OVTW~
KTLVOf.LEVOV
KI\VTaL
TOV""\"
1\0yov
To Ovf.LLKov Kat a-cpo8p6v.
/' II

'

o-vo-Tpe'fJavTa

wa-TTep <yap> 1 Ta f)YJpia

EavTa !LaXETaL,

TOLaVTYJ

TL~

.,,

~I

av

,./...'
\/
,
/
O"VO"TPO'YJ
KaL' 1\0yov
Ka ()"
aTTEp 0"7TLpaf.LEVOV

ELYJ

'

7rpo~

DELvorYJra. (9) T] 8 ToLaVTYJ (3paxvTYJ~ KaTa TTJV

/ f)
/
,
/7
~
/7
~'
, ' 'e' ~
O"VV fO"LV KOf.Lf.La OVOf.Laf:JE.TaL. opLf:JOVTaL 0 aVTO WOE,
/
'
'
/ \
~'\
'e'
/
KOf.Lf.La
EO"TLV
TO' KWJ\OV
1\aTTOV,
OtOV
TO' 7TpOELpYJf.LE-

VOV, TO' [ T ] 2

~~ A

/
.u.LOVVCTLO~

/ , KaL' TO'
O"EaVTOV,
'
yap

,
EV

K opLV
/ 0cp, ,

KaL' TO'

0E(f),
"" , Ta' TWV
""
, ,./...0EYf.LaTLKOV
' YJ~ tJPaXVTYJ~
(.}
)'
KaL' aTTO'

~~

,./. . ""
CTO'WV.

~~ ~'

7TOV

"" 0L
yvw
~'
EO"TL

\
KaL' YVWf.L0/\0-

, . '
,./... /
' ' '\ /
\\'
~
/
'}'tKOV, KaL O"Oo/WTpOV TO V 01\t'}'(f) 'TT0/\1\T}V OLaVOLaV
~f) po'io-f)aL, Kaf)aTTep v To'i~ o-TTEpf.Lao-Lv 8E.v8pwv
o'Awv OVVUf.LEL~

EL S'

EKTELVOLTO TL~ TTJV YVWf.LYJV EV

fLaKpo'i~, DLDao-KaA[a yivETai Tt~ Kat PYJTOpEia avTt

/

'}'VWfLYJ~

(10) Twv

o-vvTL()EfLEVWV 7rpo~
,

7"

.,,

aAAYJAa
'

~~

OVOf.Lal:JOfLEVaL.
/

'

/\

fLEVTOL KWJ\WV KaL KOfLfLaTWV TOLOVTWV

o-vvio-TavTaL at TTEpioDoL
~

ECTTLV yap YJ
/

KWJ\WV YJ KOfLfLaTwv

7TEpLOOO~
/

,./...

EVKaTao-Tpoo/w~

CTVCTTYJfLa EK

'

TTpo~

'

TYJV oLa-

voLav TTJV VTTOKELfLEVYJV UTTYJPTLCTfLEVov, oiov ~~fLaALo-ra

1
2

352

yap add. Markland.

TE

del. Hahne.

ON STYLE 8-10

much more forceful impact than if the Spartans had

expanded the sentence at great length to say HAlthough
once a mighty tyrant like yourself, Dionysius now lives in
Corinth as an ordinary citizen." This lengthened version
no longer seems a rebuke but a piece of narrative, and it
suggests a wish to instruct rather than intimidate. With
this expansion the passion and vehemence of the words
are dissipated, and just as a wild beast gathers itself
together for an attack, speech should similarly gather
itself together as if in a coil to increase its force. (9) Such
brevity in composition is called a phrase.a A phrase is generally defined as ~~what is less than a clause," for example
the words already quoted, HDionysius in Corinth," and
the sayings of the sages, "know yourself' and Hfollow
God."b For brevity characterises proverbs and maxims;
and the compression of a lot of meaning into a small space
shows more skill, just as seeds contain the potential for
whole trees. Expand a maxim at great length and it
becomes a piece of instruction or rhetoric.
( 10) From the combination of such clauses and
phrases are formed what are called periods. The period is
a combination of clauses and phrases arranged to conelude the underlying thought with a well-turned ending.
For example: ~~Chiefly because I thought it was in the
Literally a cut segment or chip (cf. Latin incisum), the
komma or phrase is a short clause, independent, as here, or part
of a complex ( 10). On its length see note on 5.
h Cf. e.g. Cic. De Fin. 3.73, Paroem. Gr. ii.19 and 40.
a

l.

I
1
I

353

DEMETRIUS
'

<:I

,-.

f.J--EV ELVEKa 'TOV

(J ()

'

aL TOV VOf.J--OV,

X(3
a pLOV,
1

..,./...I

')'

'

,-.

EL'Ta KaL 'TOV

\1

Wf.J--01\.0YYJO"a

,-.

1\

~'

EK

<:I

''

av

'e'l

,-.

OLO~

')'

'TE W, O"VV-

rpLwv KwAwv o-3a-a

I
I
'
..,./... '
~~
'
'
Kaf.J--1TYJV
'TE 'TLVa KaL a-va-TpO'PYJV EXEL Ka'Ta To

'ApLa-'TO'TEAYJ~

ELVEKa 'TOV

1TaLOO~

1
e
TOVTOL~, W~

EpELVH avTYJ yap ~ 1Tep[o8o~

(11)

O"Vfl--'PEPELV 'T"[J 1TOAEL 1\.EAV-

VOf.J--L~::,ELV

1\

TEAO~.

opL,ETaL TY]v 1TEp[o8ov OV'TW~,

ee1TEpio86~ EO"TL AE~L~ apxY]v EXOVO"a KaL 'TEAEV'T~v,"

1\

fl-'aAa

,....

Kai\.W~

'

KaL

1
e
1
1TpE1TOV'TW~ OpLO"af.J--EVO~

'{)'

'

yap

V~

EV

TY]v 1TEpio8ov Aeywv Ef.J--cpaiveL, O'TL rfjpKTai 1roOev KaL

'
\
I
'1 '
I
'I
1\
t::l
a1TOTEAEVTYJO"EL 1TOL KaL E1TELYETaL EL~ 'TL 'TEJ\.0~, W0"1TEp
oi 8pof.J--EL~ dcpeOevTe~ Kat yap eKeivwv a-vvefl--cpaivedpxfl Tov 8pof.J--OV 'TO 'TEAo~. EvOev Ka'i 1TEpi-

rf}

TaL

o8o~

WVOf.J--aO"BYJ,

'TaL~

a1TELKaa-0ELa-a

KVKAOELOEO"L Kat 1TEpLw8EVf.J--EVaL~.

ODOL~

'TaL~

Kat Ka06Aov 2 ov8v

~ 1repio86~ ea-TL 1rAY]v 1TOLa a-vvOea-L~. ei yovv AvOeiYJ

'

,-.

aV'TYJ~

~
I
I
'
'TO' 1TEpLWOEVf.J--EVOV
KaL' f.J--E'TaO"VV'TE (} EtYJ,
'Ta' f.J--EV

'

'

1Tpayfl--aTa f.J--EVEL 'Ta aVTa,

I~
1TEpLOOO~

~'

'

OE OVK

'I

EO"'TaL,

oiov ei TY]v 1TpOELPYJf.J--EVYJV TL~ Tov ilYJf.J--Oa-OE.vov~ 1TEpio8ov avaa-Tpel/Ja~ EL1TOL

6J

&8

1TW~, eea-vvepw 'TOV'TOL~,

av8pe~ 'AOYJVaLOL. cpiAo~ yap f.J--OL EO"'TLV

Xa{3piov, 1roAv

f.J--UAAov TOV'TOV

1TELV f.J--E 8[KaLOV EO"'TLv."

~

000~

TrOLEL,. .,

Ti

a-vvEL-

ov yap E'TL ov8af.J--OV ~ 1TEpL-

EVpLa-KETaL.

a7rOTEAEVT~CTEt, TrOt, Kat

H. Stephanus:

KaL'p.

2 Kat Ka06A.ov

354

~ 1TOAL~,

0 VLO~

Radermacher:

Ka06A.ov

P.

aTrOTEAEvTija-aL

r
I

ON STYLE 10-11

interest of the state for the law to be repealed, but also for
the sake of Chabrias' boy, I have agreed to speak to the
best of my ability in their support."a This three-clause
period has a sort of backward bend and compactness at
the end. (11) Aristotle gives this definition of the period,
"a period is a portion of speech that has a beginning and
an end."h His definition is excellent and apt. For the very
use of the word "period" implies that it has had a beginning at one point, will end at another, and is speeding
towards a definite goal, like runners sprinting from the
starting place. For at the very beginning of their race the
end of the course is already before their eyes.c Hence the
name "period," an image drawn from paths which go
round and are in a circle. In general terms, a period is
nothing more nor less than a particular arrangement of
words. If its circular form should be destroyed and the
arrangement changed, the subject matter remains the
same, but there will be no period: Suppose, for example,
you were to invert the period I have quoted from Demosthenes to say something like this, "I will speak in their
support, men of Athens. For Chabrias' son is dear to me,
and much more so is the state, whose cause it is right for
me to support. "d No longer is there any trace of the
period.

'

aDem. Lept. 1 (cf. 11, 20, 245).

h Ar. Rhet. 1409a35-bl.
c Demetrius intends the diaulos, the two-lap race where the
runner ran back along the same or parallel track to the starting
point. The period is literally a path which goes round (cf. Latin
ambitus, circuitus), and so at its end returns us to its beginning,
just as the period bends back on itself by hyperbaton or the completion of some pattern such as antithesis.
d Cf. 10.

355

l
i.

DEMETRIUS

( 12) rf.vEO"lS 8' avTfj~ ij8E Tfj~ EP!LYJVEta~ T] !LEV

'
''1
/
'e'
~
'
/~
OVO/La~::,ETaL KaTEO"Tpa/L/LEVYJ, OLOV YJ KaTa 1TEpLOOOV~
E.xova-a, w~ T] TWV 'Ia-oKpaTELWV PYJTOpEtwv 1 Kat rop/
~ ,
~'\
'
~ '
,~
YLOV
KaL' 'A\1\KLOa/-LaVTO~
01\aL
yap
OLa
1TEptOOWV
ELO"tV O"VVEXWV ov8f.v TL EAaTTOV ~1TEp T] f:OIL~POV
1TOLYJO"L~ 8t' E:~a/LETpwv T] 8 TL~ 8tYJPYJ!LEVYJ EP!LYJVEta
KaAliTaL, T] EL~ KWAa AEAV!LEVYJ ov 1-LaAa aAA ~AOL~
O"VVYJPTYJ/LEVa, w~ T] f:EKaTaiov Kat ra 1TAELO"Ta TWV
f:Hpo8oTOV Kat oAw~ T] apxaia 1Taa-a. 1Tapa8ELY!La
avTfj~,
f:EKaTaLO~ MtA~O"LO~ &8E !LV()ELTaL" Ta8E
ypaw, w~ !LOL 8oKEL UAYJ0Ea Elvat OL yap ~EAA~vwv
A,./
1\0YOL 11'01\1\0L TE KaL YEI\OLOL, (J)~ E/LOL '1-'aLVOVTaL,
'
, W0"1TEp
~'
' O"EO"WpEV/LEVOL~ E1T
, ' a/\1\
, \ \ Y}I\OL~
\
ELO"LV.
yap
Ta'
'"' \
,,
'
' EXOVO"LV
"
KWI\a
EOLKEV
Kat' E1TEPPL!L!LEVOL~
Kat' ovK
a-vv8Ea-Lv ov8' avTEpEta-tv, ov8 f3oYJ0ovvTa aAA~Aot~
~'
, TaL~
'"' 1TEpLOO,OL~.
/~
( 13) EOLKE
,,
'"' Ta' /LEV
'
W0"1TEp
EV
yovv
1TEpto8LKa KwAa TOL~ A.iOoL~ TOL~ UVTEpEi8ova-L Ta~
1TEptEpEL~ O"TEya~ Kat O"VVEXOVO"L, Ta 8 Tfj~ 8taAEAV!LEVYJ~ EP!LYJVEta~ 8tEppt!L!LEVOL~ 1TAYJa-iov A.iOot~
1-Lovov Kat ov a-vyKEL!LEVOL~. (14) 8to Kat 1TEpLE~EO"~LEvov EXEL TL YJ EP/LYJVELa YJ 1Tptv Kat EVO"TaAE~, W0"1TEp
Kat Ta apxata ayaA/LaTa, &v TEXVYJ 8oKEL T] O"VO"TOATJ Kat la-xvOTYJ~, T] 8 TWV /LETa TaVTa EP!LYJVELa
Tot~ <l>Et8iov E.pyot~ ~8YJ E.otKEv E.xova-a TL Kat 1-LEyaf:f:

\/

\\

'

'"'

f:

'

'

,,

f:

f:

f:

'

'

t:l

friJTOpEdrlv Weil: PYJTWJJ P.

The source is Aristotle (see Rhet. 1409a26ff), but the term

356

T
I

ON STYLE 12-14

(12) The origin of the period is as follows. There are

two types of style. The first is called the compact style, a
namely that which consists of periods, as in the rhetorical
displays of !socrates, Gorgias, and Alcidamas,h where
period succeeds period no less regularly than the hexameters in Homer's poetry. The second style is called the
disjointed style, since it is divided into clauses which are
not closely attached to each other, as in Hecataeus,
Herodotus for the most part, and the older writers in general. Here is an example: ''Hecataeus of Miletus speaks as
follows. I write these things as they seem to me to be
true. For the stories told by the Greeks are, as it appears
to me, many and absurd. "c Here the clauses seem thrown
one on top of the other in a heap without the connections
or buttressing or mutual support which we find in periods. (13) The clauses in the periodic style may in fact be
compared to the stones which support and hold together
the roof which encircles them, and the clauses of the disjointed style to stones which are simply thrown about
near one another and not b:uilt into a structure.d (14) So
the older style has something of the sharp, clean lines of
early statues,e where the skill was thought to lie in their
succinctness and spareness, and the style of those who
followed is like the works of Phidias, since it already to
for the nonperiodic style, the "disjointed," seems a confused
memory of Rhet. 1409b32 where it refers to the nonantithetical
form of period.
b For Alcidamas, pupil of Gorgias, cf. 116.
c FGrHist 264 Hecataeus F 1A (cf. 2).
d A traditional comparison, cf. DH. CV 22.
e For comparisons to the parallel development of style and
sculpture, cf. DH. Isoc. 3, Quint. 12.10.7-9.

357

DEMETRIUS

,./.... \
'
e ~/
e
""
e
'
'
""
'
/
K6yal\aL
pq.ounc:;
ECrraaTV,
we;
E1TL
TWV
OLVWf.LEVWV,
OL~~
,
""
~ '
' , )'(}
' ~'
'
TE aKOVOV'TEc:; VaVTLWCTL OLa TO a1TL aVOV, TOTE OE Kat.,
)'

'

""

,./....

""

)'\

)'~

'

)'

EK'PWVOVCTL Ta TEI\Y} TWV 1TEpLOOWV 1TpOELOOTEc:; Kat.,

1Tpoava{3owcrL.

( 16) Twv

1TEpu58wv ai f.LLKpoTEpaL f.LEV EK 8vo'iv

~ '

/ \
/
KWI\OLV
CTVVTL/(} EVTaL, aLe f.LEYLCTTaL

8'

OE

'
/
EK
TETTapwv
TO'

V1TEp TETTapa OVKET' av EVTOc:; ELY] 1TEpLo8LKijc:; CTVjL-

( 17) y[vovTaL

f.LETp(ac:;.
f.LOVOKWAOL

as

8,

Ka'i TptKwAo[ TLVEc:; Ka'i

KaA(?'VCTLV a1TAOS 1TEpLoDovc:;.

yap To KwAov f.LiJKoc:;

TE

OTav

xn Ka'i Kaf.L1TTJV KaTa To

TEAoc;, TOTE f.LOVoKwAoc:; 1TEpio8oc:; yivETaL, Ka0a1TEp

/ ~

eeeH

TOLaoE,
~

OES

~~~

poooTov

/\

eA \

""

1\LKapvaCTYJOc:;

Lc:; YJOE . Kat., 1Tai\LV,

ee e

'

,./.... '

LCTTOPLYJc:;
,./....

'

i]
/

a1To\ '

YJ yap CTao/YJc:; 'Ppaa-Lc:; 1TOI\V

,./....""
/
""
""
'
/
~
/
"
o/Wc:;
1TapEXETaL
TaLc;
'TWV
aKOVOVTWV
OLaVOLaLc:;.

e
'
V1T

df.Lcf>o'iv f.LEVTOL CTVVLCT'TaTaL -ry a1TAij 1TEptoDoc:;, KaL V1TO

TOV f.L'Y}Kovc:; Ka'i V1TO Tijc:; Kaf.L1Tijc:; Tijc:; 1TEp'i TO TEAoc;,
V1TO

OaTEpov

1TEpLo8oLc:;

TO

ov8

1TOTE.

TEAEV'TaLOV

( 18) EV

KwAov

f.LaKpOTEpov

TaLc; crvvOETOLc:;
xpT]

-;~'
\
,./.... '
,, \ \
ELVaL,
Kat.,' WCT1TEp
1TEpu:xov Kat.,' 1TEpLELI\
YJo/Oc:;
Ta/\1\a.
)'

ovTw yap f.LEyaAo1TpE1TT]c:; ea-TaL Ka'i CTEf.LVTJ 1TEpio8oc:;,

358

ON STYLE 15-18

some degree unites grandeur and finish. (15) My own

personal view is that speech should neither, like that of
Gorgias, consist wholly of a series of periods, nor be
wholly disconnected like the older style, but should
rather combine the two methods. It will then be simultaneously elaborate and simple, and draw charm from the
presence of both, being neither too ordinary nor too artificial. Those who crowd periods together are as lightheaded as those who are drunk, and their listeners are
nauseated by the implausibility; and sometimes they even
foresee and, loudly declaiming, shout out in advance the
endings of the periods.
(16) The smaller periods consist of two clauses, the
largest of four. Anything beyond four would transgress
the boundaries for a period. (17) There are also periods
of three clauses, and others of one clause, which are
called simpJe periods. Any clause which has length and
also bends back at the end forms the one-clause period, as
in this example, "The History of Herodotus of Halicarnassus is here set out,,,a and again "Clear expression sheds
much light on the listeners, thoughts.,,h For the simple
period these are the two essentials, the length of the
clause and the bending back at the end. In the absence of
either there is no period. (18) In compound periods the
last clause should be longer than the rest, and should as it
were contain and envelop them all. This is how a period
Hdt. 1.1 (cf. 44).
h Author unknown. The "bend" is probably the completion of
the antithesis of word and thought provided by the first and last
word-groups.
a

8 Schneider: TE P.
359

T
I

DEMETRIUS
'

"'\

~\

'

ElS O"EfJ.-VOV Kat p.,aKpOV 1\'Y}yova-a KWI\OV" EL

a1TOKKOf1-f1-EV'Y}

KaL

xw'Aij

op.,ota.

fl-'YJ,

8'

1Tapa8Etyp.,a

av'T-ry~ 'TO 'TOLOV'TOV, ccov yap 'TO EL1TLV Ka'Aw~ Ka'A6v,

' \ \
\
'
I
~
I
"
a/\1\a
TO\ EL1TOV'Ta
opaa-at
Ta Etp'Y}p.,Eva.
1"1

(19)

Tpia

'

yv'Y} 1TEpu58wv Ea-Ttv, ta-ToptK~, 8ta-

'AoytK~, P'YJTOptK~.

Y,

ta-ToptKTJ p.,v

p.,~TE 1TEP'-'YJYf1-EV'Y}

fl-~'T' aVELfJ.-EV'Y} a-cpo8pa, aAAa fJ.-E'Ta~v ap.,cpotv, W~

I

~1(;

'

fl-'Y}'TE P'YJTOptK'Y} oos ELEV Kat

I

l{j

a1Ttuavo~

''

ota 'T'Y}V 1TEpt-

'

aywy'Y}V, TO O"EfJ.-VOV T EXOVO"a Kat LO"'TOpLKOV EK

c
\ I
a1TI\O'T'YJ'TO~,

I ~

1'

cc A

OLOV 'Y} 'TOLaOE,

'

uapELOV Kat

8o~ yiyvovTat" fJ.-EXP'- Tov

ccvEwTEpo~

1"1

'T'YJ~

II apva-a'TLI

Kvpo~."

8paiq- yap 'TLVL Ka'i aa-cpaAEL KaTaA ~~EL EOLKEV av'T-ry~

r,

a1To0Ea-L~. ( 20) 'T-ry~

1

Ea-Tpap.,p.,EVOV 'TO

";'~

P'YJTOPLK-ry~ 1Tpt68ov a-vv\

Kat KVKI\LKOV Kat OEOfJ.-EVOV

ELOO~

a-Tpoyyv'Aov a-Top.,aTo~ Ka'i xetpo~ a-vp.,1reptayop.,v'YJ~

T[i> pvfJp.,(i>, oiov Tij~ ccp.,~'Ata-Ta fJ.-EV ELVEKa 'TOV vop.,i'ELV a-vp.,cppetv Tij 1ro'Aet 'AeA.va-Oat Tov v6p.,ov, EtTa
Ka'i TOV 1Tat8o~ ELVEKa 'TOV Xaf3piov, wp.,o'A6y'Y}a-a

'TOV'TOL~, w~ av oio~ TE

evOv~ EK T-ry~ apxij~

r,

tiJ,

a-vvEpELV., a-x8ov yap

1TEpto8o~

r,

TOta8e O"VV0"Tpap.,-

f1-EVOV 'TL EXEL Ka'i f.p.,cpa'ivov O'TL OVK av a1TOA TJ~ELEV el~
a1T'Aovv 'TEAo~. (21) 8taA.oyLKTJ

<p.,a'A'Aov> 1
1"\

K'YJ~,

W0"1TEp
1

Kat

r,

360

E'TL

avELfJ.-EV'Y} Ka'i a1TAOVO"'TEpa 'T-ry~ LO"'TOpL1\

fJ.-01\L~

'

rf...

~~

Efl-'-PaLVOVa-a, O'TL

1TEpLOOO~

'

EO"'TLV,

'TOta8e, CCKaTE/3'Y}V xfJ~ el~ [ 'TOV] 3 ITetpata"

fLUAAov add. Goeller.

io-ToptK~~ Victorius: PYJTOptK~~ P.
3 Tov add. P: om. M Plat. codd.
2

r,

EO"'TL 1TEpto8o~

ON STYLE 18-21

will be imposing and impressive, if it ends on an imposing, long clause; otherwise it will break off abruptly and
seem to limp. Here is an example: "For it is not to speak
nobly that is noble, but after speaking to perform what
has been spoken."a
(19) There are three kinds of period, the historical, the
dialogue, and the rhetorical. The historical period should
be neither too carefully rounded nor too loose, but
between the two, in such a way that it is not thought
rhetorical and unconvincing because of its rounding, but
has the dignity and aptness for history from its simplicity,
as in the period "Darius and Parysatis" down to ''the
younger Cyrus.,,b Its closing words resemble a firm and
securely based ending. (20) The form of the rhetorical
period is compact and circular; and it needs a wellrounded mouth and hand gestures to follow each movement of the rhythm. For example: "Chiefly because I
thought it was in the interest o( the state for the law to be
repealed, but also for the sake of Chabrias, boy, I have
agreed to speak to the best of my ability in their
support. "c Almost right from the very beginning such a
period has compactness, and shows that it will not stop on
a simple ending. (21) The dialogue period is one which is
still looser and simpler than the historical period, and
scarcely shows that it is a period. For instance: "I went
down yesterday to Piraeus" as far as the words ''since they
Author unknown.
b Xen. Anab. 1.1 (cf. 3).
c Dem. Lept. 1 (cf. 10-11, 245).
a

361

DEMETRIUS
/

cc

1"'1

fLEXpt TOV
'

t:l

1"'1

:v

1"'1

arE VVV 1TpWTOV

/\

'

'A..'

1"'1 \

ayovTE~.

yap a/\1\ Y}I\Ot~ Ta KWI\a E'P ETEpqJ

,,

E1TEppt-1TTaL

<:/

<:/

ETEpov, W0"1TEp EV

TOt~ 8t-aAEAVfLEVOL~ 'Aoyot~, Kat a1To'A'Y}~avrE~ fLOAL~

av EVVOYJ ELfLEV 2 KaTa' TO'
,,

'

()

/\

1"'1

1TEpio8o~ ~v.

~'
\
/
OTL
TO' 1\EYOfLEVOV

TE/\0~,

yap f.LETa~v 8'-YIPYJfLEVYJ~ rE Kat

8Et

KarEa-rpafLfLEVYJ~ AE~Ew~ rT]v 8t-a'AoyLKTJV 1TEpio8ov

ypaEa-0at-,

Kat

fLEfLLf'f.LEVYJV

df.Lorpot~.

OfLOLav

1TEpt68wv fLEV EL8YJ roa-a8E.

(22) r LVOJJTaL

8. Kat E~ dvrtKEtf.LEVWV Kw'Awv 1TEpL-

aJJTLKEtfLEVWV 8_ lJTOL TOt~ 1TpayfLaO"LV, otov

cc1TAEWV fLEV 8t-a TYJ~ TJ1TELpov, 1TE,E'Vwv 3 8 8t-a TYJ~

o8oL,

Oa'Aaa-a-YJ~," ~ dfLcporf.pot-~, ri] rE AE~EL Kat rot~

'

KaTa
,

~'

OE

' ,

EO"TtV, .OtOV
\

1"'1

W~
~I

,/...

'

TYJV

KI\EL 'PYJO"LV, OTt

'
TOV

(23)

~"'~\

/~

Ta OVOfLaTa fLOVOV aVTLKELfLEVa KWI\a TOLaOE

~

avrT] 1TEpio8o~ 6>8E EXEL.

7]

1TpayfLaO"tV, W0"1TEp

CC

CE1\EVYJV
\ /

1"'14

{3 \ '

1"'1

1rapa ai\WJJ T4_)

CH pa~

TOV fLEP E1TL1TOVOV KaL 1TOI\VKLVOVVOV

{3/tOV E1TOLYJO"EV,
, /

1"'1

TYJ~

~'

OE

/
1TEpL/{3\I\E1TTOV KaL' 1TEptfLa-

XYJTOV rT]v cpva-Lv Karf.a-rYJa-Ev." dvriKELraL yap Kat

ap() pov
e
/
OfLOLOL~,

ap() p4_),

''\ \
KaL' Ta/\1\a

cc '

/
"
E1TOLYJO"EV

ec

TO'

/{3 \

1TEpL I\E1TTOV,

TOV,

"

'

KaL

<:/\

ce

"

01\W~

dvra1To8oa-L~.

a-vv8EO"fLO~ a-vv8EO"fL4_), Of.LOta

Kat
~'
OE

'
'
'
/
KaTa' TOV
aVTOV
rpo1TOV,
T([J fLEV
1"'1

/
''
KaTEO"TYJO"EV,
T([J
1"'1

1"'1

T4_)
(.\

EV

(24)

'

OE

ee

1TOI\VKLVOVVOV

'

1Tp0~

EO"TL

<:/

'

"

ee '

/
"
E1TL1TOVOV
'

TO

t:l

EV, OfLOLOV 1Tap

Kw'Aa,

ETEPCf! edd.: EKaTepw P.

vvoYJ8ELfLEV Spengel: vvoYJ8WfLEV P.

7TAE'vcrat ... 7TE,evcrat codd. Isoc.

362

OE

'

a fLTJ

ee
'

TO'

1TEpLf.LaXYJt:l

OfLOLOV, YJ

dvrLKELf.LEVa

ON STYLE 21-24

were now celebrating it for the first time."a The clauses

are flung one on top of the other, as in the disjointed style,
and when we reach the end we can hardly realise that the
words formed a period. For the dialogue period should
be a form of writing midway between the disconnected
and the compact style, compounded of both and resembling both. This concludes my account of the different
kinds of period.
(22) Periods are also formed from antithetical clauses.
The antithesis may lie in the content, for example ~~sailing
across the mainland and marching across the sea,"b or it
may be twofold, in content and language, as in this same
period. (23) There are also clauses which have only verbal antithesis, as in the comparison drawn between Heracles and Helen, ~~The man~s life he created for labours and
dangers, the woman~s beauty he formed for admiration
and strife."c Here article is in antithesis to article, connective to connective, like to lik~, everything in parallel,
"formed~~ to ~~created,~~ "admiration" to "labours," and
"strife" to "dangers.~~ There is correspondence throughout of each detail, like with like. (24) There are some
a

Pl. Rep. 327a (cf. 205-6):

KUTE{3Y]V xeE~ Et~ liHpaLa

f.LETa r'AaVKWVO~ TOV 'AptUTWVO~ 1TpocrevtoJLEVO~ TE Ti} ()e~

'

<I

'

Uf.La T?JV

Kat

<

'

eopTYJV

\ /

fJOVI\OfLEVo~

()

()

eacracr aL TLva

TP01TOV

1TOLf,crovcrLV aTE vvv 1TPWTOV ayovTE~.

The last three verbs all

take the same object, returning us to the festival (all underlined).
h Isoc. Panegyr. 89. Xerxes bridges the Hellespont and digs a
canal through Mount Athos.
c Isoc. Helen 17.
4

Tov

scripsi, cum codd. I soc.: T~ P.

363

DEMETRIUS
' .rl,. /
'
ILJ
~ '
E/l""f'aLVEL
TLVa' aVTLUEO"LV
OLa
TO' Tcp O"XYJfLaTL aVTLUE1"'1

TW~ yeypa0aL,
1"'1

~I

~~

7TOLYJTYJ 7TE1TaLYfLEVOV, OTL

1'

~'

'

/
TYJVOL~

1Tapa

OE

'

{]/

Ka0a1TEp To 1Tap' 'E7TLxapfLcp TcV

/

YJV, TOKa

, ~ '

'

'

TOKa fLEV EV
,

EYWV.
~

'

'

'

'

EYWV

TYJVOL~

'

'

TO aVTO fLEV yap

~ '

ELPYJTaL, KaL ovoEv EvavTLov o oE Tpo1To~ TYJ~ EPfLYJVELa~ fLEfLLfLYJfLEVO~ 1 avTt0Ea-iv TLva 1T AavwvTL EOLKEV.
'I

'

dA.A.' O~TO~

1"'1

fLEV 'ta-w~ yEAWT01TOLWV OVTW~ avTE8YJKEV,

~~

'

'
e 1
TOV~ PYJTOpa~.

KaL a/La a-KW1TTWV

(25) 'IE O"TL

'
'"'\
~~
'
KaL' 1TapOfLOLa
KWI\a,
aTLVa
1Tapo-

~'
OE

fLOLa ~TOL 2 TOt~ E7T' apxij~, oiov eeSwpYJTOL TE 7TEAOVTO,

1TapappYJTOL T' E1TEEO"O"Lv". ~ w~ E1TL TEAov~, w~

T]

TOV

IlaVYJYVPLKOV apx-rJ, ee7ToAAaKL~ 8avfLaO"a TWV TQS

/

'

a-vvayayovTwv KaL

1TaVYJYVPEL~

va~ KaTaO"TYJa-avTwv."
,

'

LO"OKWI\OV, E7Tav
r:l

W0"7TEp

'I

Lo-a~

~ 1~

~e

8 OVKVOLOYJ,

Ei8o~
'I

'

' ,

TOV~ YVfLVLKov~

'

Tov 7rapofLoiov To

1"'\ \

'

EXYJ Ta KWI\a

e
W~.

~LOVVTWV TO pyov, oi~

'I

Ta~

1'

{]

~ /

1\EVTa
,

'

EO"TL Ta

OE

/ 4

OVOfLaTa TaVTa,

r
KaL' ':;,WVTa
1"'1

.rl..

'f'EL~

EL~

TE

'

'"'"

KaKW~

.,,

t:l

'I

'"'

KaKW~,
t:l

YJ OTaV

EK

f3 /

a~,

( 26) OfLOLOTE-

'I

OfLOLa KaTal\ YJYOVTa, YJTOL

t:l

E7TLfLEAE~ ELYJ El8vaL ovK

'

'

1"'\

W0"7TEp EXEL E1TL TOV

/\EYE~

aVTrrJV, W0"7TEp Ta
1

O"V/\1\a

OVTE WV 1TVVuaVOVTaL a1Ta-

ovEL8L,ovTwv" la-oKwAov fLEV 87] TovTo.

\

1"'\

ayw-

EL~

~~

'

O"V

~'

EL~
,

'

aVTOV

'"'
'
n
'
5 ypa'
KaL' VVV
a7TOuaVOVTa

\\{3'

\/

'

O"V/\1\a YJV KaTal\ YJYYJ TYJV

TOV IlaVYJYVPLKOV 7TpOELPYJfLEVa.

Muretus: fLEfLLYfLEVO{) P.
TJTOL Lockwood: 8~ P.
3 TE M, Thuc.: To (sic) P.
4 TavTa P: corr. edd.
5 a1To8avovTa Orth (cf. 211): BavovTa P: omittitur apud Ar.
Rhet. 1410a34-35.
2

364

fLEfLLfLYJfLivo{)

'4

ON STYLE 24-26

clauses which are not really antithetical but suggest an

antithesis because of the antithetical form in which they
are written, like the playful joke in the poet Epicharmus,
"at one time I was among them, at another time with
them."a The same idea is repeated, and there is no contrast. But the stylistic manner, with its imitation of an
antithesis, suggests an intent to deceive. Epicharmus
probably used the antithesis to raise a laugh, and also to
mock the rhetoricians.
(25) There are also clauses with assonance. The assonance is either at the beginning, for example ''giving gifts
could win them, making pleas could move them,"b or at
the end, as in the opening passage of the Panegyric: "I
have often wondered at those who convened the assemblies and instituted the athletic contests."c Another form
of assonance is the isocolon, which is when the clauses
have an equal number of syllables, as in this sentence of
Thucydides: "since neither do ~hose who are questioned
disown the deed, nor do those who are concerned to
know censure it."d This then is isocolon. (26) Homoeoteleuton is when clauses end similarly, either with the same
word, as in the sentence, "you are the man who when he
was alive spoke to his discredit, and now that he is dead
write to his discredit,"e or with the same syllable, as in the
passage I have already quoted from !socrates' Panegyric.
Epicharmus 147 Kaibel, an unusual example, deriving from
Ar. Rhet. 1410b3-5. Aristotle strongly influences both theory
and examples in 22-26.
h Hom. Il. 9.526, with assonance of -retoi.
c Isoc. Panegyr. 1, with assonance of -ont8nl-ant8n.
d Th. 1.5.2.
e Author unknown (cf. 211, Ar. Rhet. 1410a34-35).
a

365

DEMETRIUS

(27)
:J/

XpY}a-ts
~

'

1"'1

rwv TOLO'VTWV KwAwv E7na-c/Ja'AT)r;.

/~

'

'

OVTE yap OELVWr; 1\EYOVTL E17LTYJOELa EKI\VEL yap TYJV

~

'

'

'

{)

I'

'.,./..,.

~~"'~\

oELVOTYJTa YJ 17Ept avTa TEP pEta Kat 'PPOVTLr;. OYJAOV

~p.-tv TovTo 170LEL 8Eo17op.-17or;. KaTYJyopwv yap Twv

8'

,~

:J/

'

'5'

T~V c/Jva-LV

DE

<PtAt17170V c/JtAwv cPYJO"LV, eeavOpoc/JovoL

,,

1"'1

OVTEr;, avop0170pVOL TOV Tp0170V YJO"av KaL EKai\OVVTO

p.-v ETatpot, ~a-av

~ yap op.-otOTYJr; ~

ETatpat."

~
~
17EpL Ta KWI\a KaL aVTL EO"Lr; EKI\VEL TYJV OELVOTYJTa
OLa
'

'

1"'1 \

'

'

TYJV KaKOTEXVLav.

"()

()

'

'

'

'

1"'1

'

vp.-or; yap TEXVYJr; ov oELTaL, al\1\a

E17t TWV TOLOVTWV

KaTYJYOPLWV Ka'i a17Aa Ta AEyop.-Eva. (28) OVTE DY}Ta EV
OELVOTYJTL XPTJO"Lp.-a TU TOLaVTa, wr; EOEL~a, 1 OVTE EV
e \ ~"'~ yap
' ELVaL
'5'
j3OVI\ETaL
~'\
17a EO"L KaL YJ EO"LV" a171\0VV
KaL'
U170LYJT01J TO 17a()or;, op.-otwr; 8 Kat TO i}()or;. EV yovv
DEL Tp0170V TLVU

"{)

'

avToc/Jva EivaL

:J/{)

"\
~
"
'
'A() YJTOLr; .'A pta-TOTEI\OVr;
17EpL' OLKaLOO"VVYJr;
0e TYJV
1"'1

~'\

VaLWV

1701\LV

OOVpO!J-EJ!Or;

'

EL

'

t:l

!J-EV

"'

OVTWr;

EL170L

t:/

OTL

ee170tav TOLaVTYJV 170ALV EtAov TWV x()pwv, OLav T~V

loiav 170ALV U17WAE'a-av," Ep.-17a()wr; av ELPYJKWr; ELYJ Kat
,

1"'1

'

OOVpTLKwr;

'

'

~"'~

I' \

yap 1701\LV TWV

EX
'

{)

1"'1

"/3 ai\OV,
\ " OV' p.-a' TOV
'

, \

'

'

:J/ \

pwv TOLaVTYJV El\a

'~I'
'
LOLaV
a17E
:J/\

'

ee170La1J
/

EL OE 17apO!J-OLOV aVTO 170LYJO"EL

j3 ov,

'

0170Lav TYJV

A I'
I'
'~'
uta
17a" ( ) or; KLVYJO"EL
OVOE
\

~'\

E/\EOV, al\1\a TOV Kai\OV!J-EVOV Kl\aVa-LyEI\WTa.

'

'

TO yap

,
1"'1
"7
'
/
EV
17EV ( ) OVO"L
17aLsELV,
KaTa' TYJV
17apotp.-LaV,
TO' Ta' TOL-

avTa

EV

TOLr; 17a()Ea-L KaKOTEXVELV EO"TL. ( 29) ytvETaL

p.-ivToL YE xpiJa-tp.-a 170TE, wr; 'Apta-ToTi'A YJr; cf>YJa-iv,

eeyw EK
1 Wlil

366

~J-EV

, A()YJVWV

ELr;

eoELta p2 in mg.: om. pl.

!.TayEtpa

i}A.()ov

Ota

T
I

ON STYLE 27-29

(27) The use of such clauses is full of risk. They do not

suit the forceful speaker, since their studied artifice dissipates the force. Theopompus proves our point in his
invective against the friends of Philip when he says,
"men-slayers by nature, they were men-harlots in
behaviour; they were called companions but were
concubines."a The assonance and antithesis of the clauses
dissipate the force by their artificiality. For anger needs
no artifice; in such invectives what is said should be, in a
way, spontaneous and simple. (28) Such clauses are of no
use for force, as I have shown, nor yet for the expression
of emotion or character. For emotion is properly simple
and unforced, and the same is true of character. In Aristotle's dialogue On Justice, for instance, a speaker weeps
for the city of Athens. If he were to say, "what city had
they taken from their enemies as great as their own city
which they had lost,"h he would have spoken with emotion and grief; but if he creates assonance, "what city from
their enemies had they takeri as great as their own city
which they had forsaken," he will certainly not evoke
emotion or pity, but rather the so-called "tears of
laughter."c For artificiality of this kind in emotional contexts is no better than the proverbial "fun at a funeral."
(29) Assonance is however sometimes useful, as in the
following passage of Aristotle: "I went from Athens to
FGrHist 185 Theopompus F 225(c) (cf. 247, 250).
b Ar.fr. 82 Rose.
c Xen. Hell. 7.2.9. Demetrius' glossing proverb is otherwise
unknown.
a

367

DEMETRIUS

TOV {3aa-LAEa 'TOV JLEyav, EK 8 ~rayeipwv el~ 'A{}rr}va~ 8u1 TOV XELJLWVa 'TOV JLEyav". el yovv ac/>EAOL~ 'TO
ETEpov ~~JLEyav," 1 a-vvac/>atprr}a-v Kat 'TTJV xaptv ri}
8 2 JLEyaAY}yopiq. a-vvEpyo'i av 3 ra 'TOLavra KWAa,
~
" " rwv
" " r opytov
/ ra' 7TOI\I\a
\ \ ' avrt
' Era Kat TWV 'Ia-o07TOLa
Kparov~. 7TEpt JLEV 8T] 'TWV 7TapOJLOLWV ravra.
( 30) fltac/>epEL 8 v(}vfLYJJLa 7TEpt68ov ri}8E, ort Y]
JLEV 7TEpio8o~ a-vv(}Ea-L~ TL~ EO"'TL 7TEPLYJYJLEVYJ, ac/>' ,ry~
Kat WVOJLaa-TaL, TO 8 v(}vfLYJJLa v TCfJ Dtavorr}JLarL
~/
EXEL TYJV ovvaJLLV
Kat a-va-raa-tv Kat EO"'TLV YJ~ JLEV
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"' \ \
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~
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7TpayJLa'TWV, 'TO' 0~ ' EV
'TL~ Y)'TOL
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(31) O"YJJLELOV 8 EL yap 8taAVO"ELa~ rT]v a-vveea-Lv 'TOV
' (} VJLYJJLU'TO~, TYJV
' JLEV
' 7TEpLOOOV
~
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TO' 0~'
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~'
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EV VfLYJJLa 'TO 'TOLOV'TOV, ~~ W0"7TEp
'
'
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e / \
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yap
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av
Eypa~a~
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ovTw~ av a-v vvv aAcp~, U/\1\0~ ov ypa~EL otai\V~ '
~~
~~
'
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O"ELEV OE
OVTW"
fLY}' E7TLTpE7TETE
TOL~ ra 7TapaVOJLa
ypac/Jova-tv el yap EKWAVOV'TO, OVK av vvv oilro~
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~ \
" EV'TaV
'
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\
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ai\OV'To~
7TEpLOOOV
JLEV
EKI\EAVTaL, TO 8' v(}VJLYJJLa EV ravrifJ JLEVEL. (32) Kat Kae/\
~'
'
' ' (}
\ \
'
01\0V
OE 'TO JLEV EV VJLYJJLU O"V/\1\0YLO"JLO~ 'TL~ EO"'TL

/e

"'

'

'

I'

'"'

(}

I'

'

(} /

'

' ""

'

"""

1
3

368

ro ETEpov pi.ya P: corr. edd.

8 Solmsen: yap P.
4 ~ add. Finckh.
a-vvEpyot av Goeller: a-vvEpyotEV P.

T
ON STYLE 29-32

Stagira because of the great king, and from Stagira to

Athens because of the great storm."a If you take away the
second ugreat," you will at the same time take away the
charm. Such clauses may also contribute towards an
imposing grandeur, like the many antitheses of Gorgias
and !socrates. This concludes my discussion of assonance.
(30) The enthymeme differs from the period. The latter is a rounded structure (hence its name in fact), the former has its meaning and constitution in the thought. The
period circumscribes the enthymeme in the same way as
any other subject matter, the enthymeme is a thought,
expressed either controversially or in the form of a logical
consequence.h (31) In proof of this, if you were to break
up the verbal structure of the enthymeme, you have got
rid of the period but the enthymeme remains intact. Suppose, for instance, the following enthymeme in Demosthenes were broken up: "Just a~ you would not have made
this proposal if any of them had been convicted, so if you
are convicted now, no one will make it in future.''c Let it
be broken up: "Show no leniency to those who make illegal proposals; for if they were regularly checked, the
defendant would not be making these proposals now, nor
will anyone make them in future if he is convicted now."
Here the rounded form of the period has been destroyed,
but the enthymeme remains where it was. (32) In general, the enthymeme is a rhetorical syllogism, while the
Ar.fr. 669 Rose= 14 Plezia (cf. 154).
b For the two types of syllogism, refutation of an opponent
and demonstration of a point off agreed premisses, see Ar. Rhet.
1396b23ff. The terminology is later, e.g. Quint. 5.10.2, RG 1.285
Sp-H.
c Dem. Aristocr. 99 (cf. 248).
a

369

DEMETRIUS

TJ

PYJTOptKoc;,

1TEpio8oc;

~'

/
crvyKEtTat

/
fLOVOV"

OE

crv'A'Aoyt,ETat fLEV ov8v,

/~
' EV
'
Kat' 1TEptOOOVc;
fLEV
TraVTt'

fLEpEt rov 'Aoyov riOEfLEV, otov f.v ro'ic; TrpootfLtOtc;,

'(}
/
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'
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OVTE o'Aov Tt OV'TE

~'

OE

crv'A'Aoyi,Erat. ( 33) CTVfL/3E-

arEAEc;

f3YJKE fLEV oiJv T~ f.v(}VfLTJfLaTt Kat 1TEpto8cp Etvat, 8u5Tt

~

......

1TEptoOtKWc; crvyKEt'Tat, 1TEptoooc;

~'

~~

'

t!/

OVK ECT'TtV, WCT1TEp

T~ olKo8ofLOVfLEVqJ crvfLf3f3'YJKE fLEV Kat AEVK~ Etvat,

.,, \
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av 1\EVKOV YJ, TO OtKOOOfLOVfLEVOV 0 OVK ECT'Tt 1\EVKOV.
/

87,

TrEpt fLEV

8tacpopac; f.vOvfLTJfLaroc; Kat TrEpto8ov

~~

Etp'Y}rat.

(34) To 8
~~

...... \

'

Kw'Aov 'AptcrTOTEA 'Y}c; OVTWc; opt,E'Tat,

'

t!l

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';"

KWJ\OV. ECT'Tt TO ETEpov fLEpoc; 1TEptOOOV EtTa

pEt"

ee

ytvErat

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Kat aTr,\'Y} TrEptoooc;.

"

t!l

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ovrwc; optcra-

fLEVoc;, ~~To ErEpov fLEpoc;," 8tKw'Aov {3ov'AEro Etvat

o 8' 'Apx8'YJfLOc;, crv'A'Aaf3wv

rY,v TrEpto8ov 8YJ'Aov6rt.

'
t!l
TOV
opov
'TOV......
t!l

'AptcrTOTEJ\OVc;
/\
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...
Kat' TO' E1Tto/EPOfLEVOV
TqJ

,./.,. /

'

t!l

opcp, crao/EcrrEpov Kat TEAEWTEpov ovrwc; wptcraTo,

e~

"" \

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'

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.,,

{) /

KWJ\OV ECT'TtV 'YJTOt aTrAYJ 1TEptoooc;, 'YJ CTVV E'TOV 1TEpt-

o8ov fLEpoc;."
~'

/
crvv (} Erov

oE

(35)

'TL fLEV oilv aTr'Aij 1TEpio8oc;, ELP'YJTat

A-. /
' ' TrEptooov
/~
/
~
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o/'YJcrac;
avro
fLEpoc;,
ov' overt

/\
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KWJ\Otc;
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\
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KaL' 1TJ\ELOCT"tV"
'YJfLELc;

fLE(}a, vvv
AEYWfLEV

370

~~
'\ \ '
EOtKEV
al\1\a
Kat' Tptcrt'
/
' 1TEptOOOV
/~
'
(} /
fLETpov
fLEV
EKTE Et-

~
/'(
opt~::,EtV

~'

OE

1TEpt 'TWV xapaKrf]pwv rijc; EPfL'YJVELac;

A.f.yop.ev P: corr. edd.

ON STYLE 32-35

period is not a form of reasoning but purely a combination of words. Moreover, we use periods in every part of a
speech, for example in introductions, but we do not use
enthymemes everywhere. The enthymeme is, as it were,
added to the verbal form, the period is exclusively verbal.
The former is a sort of imperfect syllogism, the latter is no
syllogism at all, perfect or imperfect. (33) Sometimes the
enthymeme has the accidental property of periodicity,
because its construction is periodic, but it is not a period,
just as a building, if it is white, has the accidental property
of whiteness, but a building is not by definition white.
This concludes my account of the difference between the
enthymeme and the period.
(34) This is Aristotle's definition of the clause, "a
clause is one of the two parts of a period." He then adds,
"a period may also be simple."a The reference in his
definition to ~'one of the two parts" makes it clear that he
preferred the period to have hyo clauses. Archedemus
combines Aristotle's definition and its supplement, and
produces his own clearer and fuller definition, "a clause is
either a simple period or part of a compound period."h
(35) The simple period has already been described. In
saying that a clause may be part of a compound period, he
seems to limit the period not to two clauses but to three
or more. We have now set out the limits of the period; let
us now describe the types of style.
Ar. Rhet. 1409bl6-17 (but his term for simple is acpEAf,~).
b Unknown, often identified with the second-century Stoic
Archedemus of Tarsus (see SVF iii. Archedemus 7) or the
rhetorician Archedemus of Quint. 3.6.31-33.
a

371

DEMETRIUS

(36)

TErrapE~

El<:rt

oi

xapaKrfjpE~,

a17AOt

la-xvo~, f.LeyaAo17pE17TJ~, yAa~vpo~, 8ELvo~, Kat AoL17ov oi EK TOVTWV f.LLYVVf.LEVOL.

"""

'

~
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f.LEyai\017pE1TEL, KaL 0
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,./.,.

af.L'+'OTEpOL~

r~ la-xv~ ov f.LtyvvraL,

'
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8Lo 1 8~

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o f.LEyaAo77pE77~~

ov 1708

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1
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f.LLYVVVTaL

f.LOVOV~ 8vo xapaKrfjpa~ TLVE~ a~L-

Kat
I

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~'
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TOV~

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I
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17pOa-VEf.LOVTE~

f.LUAAov, 7~ 8 f.LEyaAo77pE17EL

TOV 8ELVOV, w~ TOV yAa-

,.1.,.

'

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8ELVOV

,/ 1

~~

'+'vpov f.LEV f.LLKpOTYJTa TLVa KaL KOf-L'f'ELaV

oyKoV Kat f.LEYEOo~.

70~ Aoyo~.
I

'

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E17YJ
,,

'

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KaL . TOV~

8' 0 TOLOV-

TWV ELPYJf.LEVwv

KTYJpWV EVaVTLWV

eo f.LYJPOV

1TA~v

opWf.LEV yap

YEAOLO~

(37)

"""

TOV

EXOVTO~,

xapa"?

"""

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17aa-LV, OLOV ra

IT\1\aTWVO~
I

'

KaL

1\0yov~

SEvO~WVTO~ Kat eHpo8orov Kat aAAwv 170AAwv 170A-

A~v

xovra~,

f.LEV f.LEyaAo17pE17ELav KaTaf.LEf.LLYf.LEVYJV

~' ~

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1701\1\'Y}V 0 OELVOTYJTa 7 KaL xapLV, Wa-TE TO f.LEV 171\'Y}-

(}o~ TWV xapaKr7}pwv roa-ovrov av ELYJ oa-ov

\

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1\EKraL.

A-

EKaa-rep 17pE17ova-a yEvoLr

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TOLa8E TL~

(38)

~~ Ap~of.LaL

"""\1

a17o rov f.LEyaAo17pE170V~, OV17Ep

~r

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'

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372

77poa-~opw~.

a-vyKEta-OaL

KTLKOV, OV apXEL f.LEV f.LaKpa, AYJYOVa-L

""'

'~''

f.LEyaAo17pE1TTJ~, w~ ~YJ(TLV 'ApLa-TOTEA YJ~,

AE~EL,

EV rpLa-L OYJ TO f.LEyai\017pE-

ee.=!

(;"'

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~'
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rpEL~

C''

1"'1

{.)

ppa-

ro oE KaraAYJKTL-

ON STYLE 36-38
(36) There are four simple styles, the plain, the grand,

the elegant, and the forceful. In addition there are their

various combinations, though not every style can combine
with every other. The elegant combines with the plain
and the grand, and the forceful similarly with both. Only
the grand and the plain cannot combine, but the pair
stand, as it were, in polar opposition and conflict. For this
reason some writers maintain that only these two styles
exist, and the other two are subsumed within them; and
instead they assimilate the elegant to the plain, and the
forceful to the grand, as though the first contained something slight and refined, the second something massive
and imposing. (37) Such a theory is absurd. We can see
for ourselves that, with the exception I have mentioned of
the two polar opposites, any style may combine with any
other. In the poetry of Homer, for example, as well as in
the prose of Plato, Xenophon, Herodotus, and many
other authors, considerable grandeur is combined with
considerable forcefulness and cliarm. Consequently the
number of the styles is as I. have already indicated. The
form of expression appropriate to each will be as follows.
(38) I shall begin with grandeur, which men today
identify with true eloquence. Grandeur has three
aspects, thought, diction, and composition in the appropriate way. According to Aristotlea composition with
paeans is grand. There are two kinds of paean, the initial
paean, beginning with a long syllable and ending with
three shorts (e.g. erxato de, "it originated~~b), and the final
a

Cf. Ar. Rhet. 1408b32ff.

b Th.

2.48.1.

1 s~o
2

Victorius: 8E 0 P.
ElpYJfLEVWV Victorius: opWfLEVWV P.

373

T!
I

DEMETRIUS

Kov

Oarepcp

dvria-rpocpov,

fLEV

(3paxliat

rov fLeyaA.o-

rov

fLEV

A.-r}yEt

eo Apa(3'ia."

( 39)

A.oyov

rplis

8 fLLa fLaKpa,
DEL 8 v roLe; KwAotc;

apxova-tv,
...,
7rpE1Tovc;

olJ

W0"7TEp

1TpoKarapKrtKov

TO

1raiwva

~I
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TWV
KWI\WV,
TOV
KaTai\'Y}KTtKOV
0 1TEO" aL.

7TapaDEtyfLa

'

'

'

70 KUKOV

~~

OVTW
Kat

8'

t:t:~p~aTO

avrwv TO 8ovKVDLDEtOV 700,

"Et A""i0'io1Ttac; ." TL 7T07'

/

~~

'C

~""'

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o:Ov , Apta-TOTEA'Y}c;
Q

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aro; OTt OEt Kat T'Y}V EfLtJOI\ 'Y}V TOV KWI\OV

apxT]v fLEyaAo7Tp7TTJ EvOvc; Elvat Kat <ro> 1
OtETa~

7EAoc;, TOVTO

8'

EO"Tat, f.av a1TO fLaKpac; dpxwfLEOa

Kat Etc; fLaKpav A-r}ywfLEV.

TJ

cpva-Et yap fLEyaAELOV

/ Kat' 7rpOI\EYOfLEV'Y}
\
/ 7 7TI\'Y}O"O"Et
\ /
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fLaKpa,
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I"\

'

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,~,

I"\

'

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"' ( ,

,(,

, o (,

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(;'
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I
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8 r~vro

f.v roLe; 8ovKv8i8ov a-xE-

8ov yap oAwc; 70 J.LEyaAo7rp7TEc; EV 7Taa-tv avr~ 7TOtEL

i}

rov pvOJ.LoV J.LaKpOT'YJc;,

Ktv8vvevEt T~ dv8pt

Kat

rovrcp 7TavroDa7Tov ovroc; rov fLEyaAo7rpE1Tovc; aVT'Y}

,o
, ., '\
"' , ,
O"VV EO"tc; fLOV'Y} 'Y} fLal\tO"Ta 7TEpt7TOttV TO fLEYtO"TOV.
(41) ~EL

T]

fLEVTOL A.oyi,Ea-Oat, OTt KUV ILTJ aKpt{3wc;

, o TOLe;" ' KWI\Otc;

'\ 7TEpt7t O'Vat TOVc;' 7TaLWVac;
'
o , o , ,
,
,
EV EV Kat EV EV afL'f'OTEpovc;, 7TatwvtK'Y}V yE 7Tavrwc;

~
OVVWfLE
a
~~

~~

r~..

7TOt'Y}O"OfLE0a TTJV a-vvOEa-LV, otov EK fLaKpwv dpxofLEVOt Kat Etc; fLaKpac; KaraA.-r}yovrEc;.

rovro yap Kat

'Apta-TOT1\'Y}C)
'\
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~~
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1TapayyEI\I\tlJ
EOLKEV,
ai\1\WC)
'

""'

'

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0
70

{.:J/

~I

TOV TOV 1TaLWVOc; TETEXVOI\OY'YJKEVaL aKpLtJELac; EVEKa.

374

ON STYLE 38-41

paean, the converse of the other, beginning with three

shorts and ending with one long (e.g. Arabia). (39) In the
grand style the clauses should begin with an initial paean
and be followed by a final paean, as in this passage of
Thucydides, erxato de to kakon ex Aithiopias ecEthiopia
was where the evil originated"a). Why then did Aristotle
give this advice? It was because the opening and beginning of a clause should be instantly impressive, and so
should its close; and this will result if we begin with a long
syllable and end with a long syllable. For a long syllable
has in its very nature something grand, and its use at the
beginning is immediately striking, while as a conclusion it
leaves the listener with a sense of grandeur. Certainly we
all uniquely rem em her and are stirred by words which
come first and last, while those in the middle have less
impact, as though they were obscured or hidden among
the others. (40) This is clearly seen in the case of Thucydides, whose verbal dignity is in every instance almost
entirely due to the long syllables in his rhythms. While he
has the full range of grandeur, it is perhaps this power of
organisation which alone or chiefly secures his greatest
grandeur.
(41) We must, however, bear in mind that even if we
cannot position the two paeans with precision at either
end of each clause, we can at least make the composition
roughly paeonic, by beginning and ending with long syllables. This seems to be what Aristotle recommends,b and
it was only to be precise that he went into technical detail
Th. 2.48.1; "the evil" is the plague of 430 B.C.
b Cf. Ar. Rhet. 1408b31.
a

roM: om. P.

375

DEMETRIUS
8to1rep 8e6pao-Toc; 1rapa8ety~a EKTE()ELTaL ~eyaA.o1TpE1TEtac; To TotovTov KwAov, t:t:Twv ~v 1rept Ta ~TJ8E'

VOc;

:J/

,./.,. \

,./.,. /

La \f-'LJ\0(1"0\f.JOVVTWV.

,,

'

OV yap EK 1TaLWVWV aKpL""' a/\1\a

, \ \ ' 'TTatWVLKOV
/ Tt/ ECTTt.
,
\ "(3
1
/
(3 We;,
1Tapal\a WfLEV ~EVTOt
a~

'

'

TOV 1TatWVa ELc; TOVc;

\/
1\0yov~,

,./.,.\"
KaL' ,
acro/af\E(YTEpoc;,

TO'

~'

E7TELOTJ

'

\
~EYO..I\01TpE1TEr:;

~aKpac; A.a~{3avwv, To A.oyt-Kov

(42)

oi

'\\',

al\1\

8'

aAAot,
/~

TJXWOT}c;

~oc;, 4 wa-1rep

8 K

TIS ECTTL
' ,EK TT}c;
""'
~EV

~tKTOc;

Twv f3paxEt-wv.

0 ~EV T]p~oc; CTE~voc;

< ... >

Kat ov AoytKoc;,
3 ' \ \ ' :J/
()
OVOE EVpV ~0~, 0..1\J\ apv -

o Tot6a-8E

,~,

,,

EXEt, 5 t:t:ijKwv T]~wv Elc; T~v

/
,, t:
'
/
""'
xwpav
T} yap 'TTVKVOTT}c; TWV
Tov Aoyt-Kov ~ETpov. ( 43)

f)

""'

~aKpWV

t:
/
V1TEp1Tt1TTEt

o 8 La~(3oc; EVTEA~c; Kat TV

o~otoc;. 7ToAAo'i yovv ~f.Tpa la~a ' 1\a/\OV(T"LV

\ \ ""'
,
,~ "
t: OE
~'
"
, .rl.. ""'
fJLKa
OVK
ELOOTEc;.
0
1TatWV
a~o/OLV

Twv 1roAAwv
/

~Eo-Oc;

A.f.tet-

'/
't:""'
Kat- ~ETpt-oc;, KaL O'TTOLOc;

~EV s~ 7TaLWVLK~

(8'

av 7TWc;

(44)

EV

crvyKEKpa~EVOc;.

t:
T}

TOLe; ~EyaAo1TpE1TECTL a-vv8Ea-ts

Aa~{3avoLTO:

ITote"i

Kat Ta ~~KTJ Twv KwAwv ~f.ye()oc;,

otov r:r:8ovKvDt8T}c; 'A8T}va"ioc; tvvf.ypat{lE TOV 7TOAE~ov

1 7TapaA.af3wtJ-EV

Tot iam Victorius: 7TapaA.af3wv P (Aa supra

versum scrip to).

2 lacunam mihi iam statuenti prop. Kassel <El 8 8u1 7TavTwv
tJ-aKpav (vel tJ-aKpa.;;) exH,> (cf. 117).
3 evpvfJtJ-O<;; edd.: evpvfJtJ-O<;; P.
4 apv() fl-O<;; Victorius: avapvfJfl-O<;; P.
5 EXH Radermacher: EKE'i P.

376

ON STYLE 41-44

on the two sorts of paean. On the same principle Theophrastusa illustrated grandeur with the following clause,
ton men peri ta medenos axia philosophounton (ccthose
who are philosophers about what is worthless.''b It is not
formed from paeans with any precision, yet it is roughly
paeonic. Let us then adopt the paean in prose, since it is
a mix of long and short, and so safer, deriving grandeur
from the long syllable and suitability for prose from the
shorts. (42) As for the other rhythms, the heroic is solemn
and not suitable for prose. It is too sonorous, nor is it
even a good rhythm but it has no rhythm< ... >,cas in the
following words, hekon hem8n eis ten choran C'arriving
inside our land").d Here the accumulation of long syllables goes beyond the limits of prose. (43) The iamb by
contrast is ordinary and like normal speech. In fact, many
people speak in iambics without knowing it. e The paean is
a mean between the two extremes and a sort of composite. Paeonic composition may tpen be used in elevated
passages in this sort of way.
(44) Long clauses also produce grandeur, for example
"Thucydides the Athenian wrote the history of the war
Theophr. F 703 Fortenbaugh.
b Author unknown. Runs of short syllables give a paeonic
effect.
c Since herous describes the heroic hexameter ( 5 and 204),
it regularly includes the dactyl, as in e.g. Ar. Rhet. 1408b32ff,
which Demetrius closely follows. The transmitted text anomalously restricts it to the spondee, and I posit a lacuna, e.g. <"if it
is wholly spondaic">, a supplement suggested by R. Kassel.
d Author unknown (cf. 117).
e Cf. Ar. Rhet. 1408b33, Po. 1449a24, and often later, e.g.
Quint. 9.4.88.
a

377

T
I

DEMETRIUS

,. , II \

_,

, :)A(}

_,

33

ee

~:H

_,

TWV EI\01TOVVY](J"LWV Kat

YJVaLWV, Kat
pooOTOV
eA 1\LKapvaa-EW~
\
/
e
/
'
/
~ (;
el ~
"
'
L(J"TOpLYJ~
a1TOOEc.:, L~ YJOE.
TO' yap
Taxw~ a1TO(J"LW1Tav El~ KWAov (3paxv KaTaa-JLLKpVVEL
TYJV TOV 1\0yov a-EJLVOTYJTa, KaV YJ V1TOKELJLEVYJ OLaVOLa
JLeyaAo1TpE1T~~ Y/, Kav Ta ovoJLaTa. (45) JLEyaAo7TpE, ~'
' ' ,
""'
""'
(}"
\
7TE~ OE Kat TO EK 1TEptaywyYJ~ TYJ a-vv Ea-EL AEYELV,
oiov w~ 8ovKv8i8YJ~ eeo yap AxEA~o~ 1TOTafLO~ pwv
~
~I
~ '
A
\
/
'
'A yptaVWV
,. , 1 Kat'
EK II/LVOOV
opov~ OLa uOI\01TLa~ Kat
, AJLt'Aoxwv, avwfJEv <JLEV> 2 1Tapa !.TpaTOV 7TOALV s
fJaA.aa-a-av 8tE~tEis 3 1rap' Olv~.-a8a~, Kat. T~v 1roAtv
aVTOl8 1TEptALJLVU,WV a1Topov 1TOLEt V1TO TOV v8aTO~ EV
""'
/ (} at. " a-VJL1Taa-a
/
' YJe TotaVTYJ
/
XELJLWVL
a-TpaTEVEayap
JLEyaAo7TpE7rEta EK T~~ 1TEptaywy~~ yyovEv, KaL EK
TOV JLOYL~ ava1Tava-at aVTOV TE Kat TOV aKOVOVTa.
el
8Lai\Va-a~
\/
' ' EL1TOL
~~
'
(46) EL 8' OVTW
aVTO
TlS" ee 0e yap
'A XEA(f!O~
\ ""'
' e ,.... ' ' II_,LV 8ov opov~,
''
' CJ _, \
7T'OTafLO~ pEL .JLEV EK
EKpaAAEL 8 1rap' Olv~.-a8a~ ~ fJaA.aa-a-av 1rpo 8 T~~ K{3oA.~~ TO Olvta8wv JrE8iov ALJLVYJV 1TOtli, wa-T' aVTOt~
1rpo~ Tas XELJLEptva~ cf>68ov~ Twv 1ToAEJLtwv pvJLa
/ (.}\
/
(}
el~
"
el
Kat' 1Tp0pl\
YJJLa YLVEaat TO' vowp
. EL 8YJ/ TL~ OVTW
{.)\'
e
/
'/
\\'
' '
/
JLETapaAWV
EPJLYJVEVa-ELEV
avTo,
1TOAI\a~ JLEV ava1TavAa~ 1rap~EL T~ Aoycp, To fLEYEfJo~ 8' dcf>atp~a-ETat.
(47) KafJanEp yap TQS fLUKpa~ OOOV~ aL a-VVEXEt~
KaTaywyal. fLLKpa~ 1Totova-tv, ai 8' EPYJJLLat Kav Tat~
fLLKpa'i~ o8o'i~ EJLcf>aa-iv TLVa xova-L JLTJKOV~, TaVTO
' ' TWV
,. , KWI\WV
-'\
.,, YLYVOLTO.
/
8YJ' Ka1TL
av
'

""'\-'

.,,

t!~

~/

,..,

,..,

!1/

' ' ,

1 'Aypawv

378

Thuc.

ON STYLE 44-47

between the Peloponnesians and the Athenians"a and

"The History of Herodotus of Halicarnassus is here set
out."b A sudden drop into silence on a short clause lessens
the dignity of a passage, despite any grandeur in the
underlying thought or vocabulary. (45) The use of periodic form is also impressive, as in the following passage of
Thucydides: "For the river Achelous, flowing frorr1 Mount
Pindus through Dolopia and the land of the Agrianians
and Amphilochians, passing inland by the city of Stratus
on the way into the sea near Oeniadae, and surrounding
that town with a marsh, by its floods makes a winter expedition impossible.''c All this impressiveness has come
from the periodic form, and from the fact that Thucydides hardly allows any pause to himself and the reader.
(46) If you were to break the sentence up to say, "For the
river Achelous flows from Mount Pindus and makes its
way into the. sea near Oeniadae; but before reaching its
outlet it turns the plain of Oeniadae into a marsh, so that
the floods form a defence and protection against enemy
attack in winter," if you vary and rephrase it in this way,
you will give the passage many pauses but destroy its
grandeur. (4 7) Inns at frequent intervals make long journeys shorter, while desolate roads, even when the distances are short, give the impression of length. d The same
principle applies to clauses.
Th. 1.1.1.
b Hdt. 1.1 (cf. 17).
c Th. 2.102.2 (cf. 202, 206).
d See on 202.
a

fLEV addidi ex 202, Thuc.

Thuc.: OLe~[eurL P.

3 OLE~LEtS

379

DEMETRIUS

( 48) ITo tEL

Kat 8vO"cpwvia O"vv0EO"Ewc; E.v 7TOA-

Aotc; fLEYEOoc;, oiov TO eeAlac; 8' 0 fLEyac; alf.v '

~'EKTOPL xaAKOKOpVO"TfJ.~'
aAAwc; fLEV yap LO"Wc;

8vO"~Kooc; ~ rwv ypafLfLcLTWV O"VfL7TAYJtLc;, V7TEpj3oA.fl 1

8' EfLcpaivovO"a To fLEYEOoc; rov ijpwoc; AEUJTYJc; yap
Kat TO EV~KOOV ov 7TcLVV EV fLEyaAo7TpE7TELC?: xwpav
~~
~ '~
~'
EXOVO"LV,
EL fLY] 7TOV EV 01\tyotc;. Kat 0e 8 OVKVOLOYJc;
OE
7TavTaxov O"XE8ov cpEvyEt ro AEZov Kat ofLaAec; Tijc;
~'"~\\'
~~
O"VV EO"EWc;, Kat aEL f-Lai\1\0V
TL 7TpOO"KpOVOV'TL EOLKEV,
'

()

'

' \

'

' ' '

~~
W0"7TEp

'

'
1
e~ '
1
OLe Tac;
TpaXELac;
OOOVc;
7TOpEVOfLEVOL,

'
'
E7TaV

AEyYJ, eeO'TL 'TO fLEV 8~ ETOc;, we; WfLOAOYYJTO, aVOO"OV Ec;

rae; aAAac; a0"0EvEiac; ErvyxavEv ov."
~~ ~

'

1' ~,

:)/

~~

-;-

Kat YJOLOV WO av 'TLc; EL7TEV, O'TL

ee

pfi,ov fLEV yap

~~

'

8'

a0"0EVELac; ov ETvyxavEv," dnPYJTO

fLEyaAo7TpE7TEtav.

( 49)

'

~~

\ \

aVOO"OV Ec; Tac; al\1\ac;

w0"7TEp

yap

aVTOV T~V

ovofLa

Tpaxv

/
(}
'
'Y
e/
/
(}
'
I
~'
fLEYE
oc; Epya:,ETaL,
OVTW
O"VV
EO"Lc;. OVOfLaTa
OE
Tpa-

XEa 'TO

cLV'Tt 'TOV eef3owv," Kat TO

eePYJYVVfLEVov" avTt. 'TOV eecpEpOfLEVOv," OLOLc; 7TUO"tv 2 0
7E

eeKEKpaywc;"

8ovKv8i8YJc; XPiJTat, Of-LOLa AafLf3avwv Ta TE ovofLaTa

TYJ O"VV E(TEL, TOLe; 'TE OVOfLaO"L TYJV O"VV EO"LV.
1'"1

()'

(5o)

1'"1

TaO"O"Etv

'

'

'

()

Ta ov6fLaTa XP~ rov8E Tov 7po-

7Tov 7rpwra fLEV rtfJvat Ta fL~ fLcLAa E.vapyij, 8EvTEpa

~'
/
'
'
OE
KaL' eVO"TaTa
Ta' EvapyEO"TEpa.

Gale: 1rrrep{3o'A~ P.
ototc; 1Tcurtv Hammer: otov a-1Taa-tv P.

1 1nrep{3o'Afl
2

380

t:l
'
OV'TW
yap
Kat' 'TOV
1'"1

ON STYLE 48-50

(48) In 1nany passages grandeur is produced by a

series of ugly sounds, for example by the line, "'mighty
Ajax aimed always at bronze-helmeted Hector" (Aias d"'
ho megas aien eph"' Hektori chalkokorustei).a In other
respects the ugly clash of sounds is perhaps unpleasant to
the ear, but by its very excess it brings out the greatness of
the hero, since in the grand style smoothness and
euphony find only an occasional place. Thucydides
almost invariably avoids a smooth, even structure. He
seems rather to be for ever stumbling, like men going
along rough roads, as when he says: "this year from other
diseases, by common consent, was as it happened free"
( ... etunchanen on).b It would have been easier and
more euphonious to say, "from other diseases happened
to be free" ( . . . on etunchanen). But this would have
destroyed the grandeur. (49) Harsh composition creates
grandeur, just -as a harsh word does. Instances of harsh
words are "shrieking" instead of. "crying out" (kekragos
and boon), and "bursting ouf' instead of "charging"
(rhegnumenon and pheromenon). They are the sort of
words Thucydidesc uses everywhere, matching the words
to the composition and the composition to the words.
(50) Word order should be as follows: place first those
that are not specially vivid, next or last the more vivid. In
this way what comes first will sound vivid to us, and what
Hom. Il. 16.358. The whole line is harsh, but the focus is on
Ajax and 105 specifies a clash of two sounds, so note either Aias
and aien, with their internal hiatus, or the "irregular" lengthening ofho mmegas (see note on of!E_hin in 255).
b Th. 2.49.1. It ends on a monosyllable.
c He does not in fact use these particular examples.
a

381

DEMETRIUS
npwrov aKOVO"OfLEBa w~ Evapyov~, Kat 'TOV f.LE'T

w~ vapyea-rpov.

f.L~, 86gOfLEV EgYJO"fJEVYJKEVat

,
,
,, , (}

el

avro

ta-xvporepov E1Tt aa'TO,

""'
1rapa' rep

E-

II\Aa'TWVt
,

f:f:1Tav 2 fLEv rt~ fLOva-tKfJ 1rapxn

KaTaVAELV Ka'i Karaxe'iv 3 8ta 'TWV wrwv". 1TOAV yap

'AeyofLEvov,

'

ort

""'

'

'\

TO oevrepov evapyea-repov rov 1rporEpov Kat 1Tal\tV

1Tpo"iwv YJa-tv, f:f:orav 8 Karaxwv 4 fLTJ dvfJ, aAAa
KYJA.fJ, ro 8T] fLEra rovro 1J8YJ r~KEt Kat 'Aei{3et."

ro

yap f:f:Aei{3Et" rov f:f:T~KEt" EfLartKwrepov Kat yyv-

, ,

, (}

O"'TEpov av 'TO f:f:T~KEt" E1nepOfLEV01/ avYJ.

(52)

Kat

'TEpw

1TOtYJf.LaTO~.

t:/OfLYJPO~

8 E7Tt

~'

Et OE

(;,

1TpOEc.:, YJVEYKEV avro, aa- EVE-

'TOV KvKAW1TO~ aEt E1TaVgEt 'T~V V1TEp-

{3oA.~v, Kat E1TaVtOV'Tt E7T' avri]~ <EotKEv>, 5 oiov

' ECf!KEt
' ,
OV' yap
~

'

ye

avopt
,
Kat' 1TpOO"E'Tt

,, \

'

1: ' t

""'

V~Y}J\OV

, '

""'

ai\1\WV opwv.

,,

opov~

(53) Xp~ 8
(}

1TOOtOOO" at

'\ \ '

1:/

'

1:
.,../....
,
""'
Kat' V1TEp'f'atVOfLEVOV
'TWV

,\

,,

'

avro'i~ 'TWV

fLEt,OVWV

f.LE'Ta

Kat rov~ a-vv8a-fLOV~ fL~ f.LaAa dvraQ""'

aKptfJW~,

""'

OtOV rep

1:1:

'

fLEV

~:~:8" f.LtKpo1TpE1TE~ yap TJ aKpt{3Eta

'

O"VVOEO"fLep 'TOV

aAAa

KTorf.pw~ 1TW~ xpi]a-Bat, KafJa1TEp 1TOV

1

1:\

aEt yap KatTOt fLEYaAa OVTa Ta 1TpO'TE-

pov ijrrova atVETat,

""'
' .,../....
,
Tavra
E1Tt'f'EPOfLEVWV.
~ /~

.,../.... /

a-tro'f'ayep, aAJ\a ptep VAYJEVTt,

Kat ara-

0 ,Avrtwv

2 oTav Plat. codd.

del. Radermacher.
3 KaTaxliv Tfjc; tf;vxf}c; Plat.
4 KaTaxE.wv P: E.1rexwv Plat.
5 EotKEV edd.: om. P.

382

T
ON STYLE 50-53

follows more vivid still. Otherwise we will seem to have

lost vigour.a (51) An example is this passage fron1 Plato,
"when a man lets music play over him and flood through
his ears.b Here the second verb is far more vivid than the
first. And further on he says, "but when the flood fails to
stop and enchants him, at that point he melts and liquefies." The word "liquefies" is more striking than the word
"melts, and is closer to poetry. c If he had reversed the
order, the verb ''melts," coming later, would have
appeared weaker. (52) Homer similarly, in describing the
Cyclops, keeps augmenting his hyperbole and seems to
climb higher and higher with it: "for he was not like men
who eat bread but like a wooded summit, and what is
more, the summit of a high mountain~. one towering
above all the others. d For however big they are, things
which come first always seem less big "'hen bigger things
follow.
(53) Connectivese should not ~orrespond too precisely
(e.g. men and de, "on the one hand and "on the other
hand''), since there is something trivial about exact precision. Use them with rather more freedom, as in Antiphon
Here the transmitted text adds "and as it were collapsed
from strength into weakness."
b Pl. Rep. 411a.
c Pl. Rep. 411b (cf. 183-85, from the same passage). The
verb A.e{3et is poetic and rare in prose.
d Hom. Od. 9.190-92, with paraphrase of the last line, vt/JYJ'Awv opewv, 0 'TE 4>aiverat oiov a1r' aAAWV.
e Since it covers both, I translate (ruv8eap.o<; as connective or
particle as fits each case.
a

383

DEMETRIUS
yap vija-o~ ~v EXOf1-EV 2 DrrJAYJ fivEV
Kat rroppw()EZJ <ort> 3 Ea-TtV Vt/JYJATJ Kat rpaxE'ia. Kat

AEyEt"

ee-ry <f1-EV> 1
,

''

,,

'

''"",

Ta fivEV XPYJa-tfiva Kat Epyaa-tfiva fivtKpa aVTYJ~ Ea-Tt, ra

~'
,
'
\\'
""
, ""
,,
" Tpta-t' yap
'
OE
apya 1TOI\I\a (Tf.JvtKpa~ aVTYJ~ OV(TYJ~

"" ee fl-EV
' " a-VVOE(TfJ-Ot~
~ '
(.54) 1ro'A'AaKt~ fl-Evrot

TOt~

~
OE(TfJ-Ot

Kat'

Ta'

f.JvtKpa'

1'
Et~

e ee OE
~ '"
'
~ '~
4
avTa1TOOtOOTat.

rEeivrE~ 1rw~ 4>Eti}~ a-vv-

'\
fl-Eyal\a

""
1TOtOVa-tV,

W~

1Tap '

e0fiv~P4! TWV BotWTtaKWV 1TOAEWV ra OVOfivaTa EVTEAij

~~
'
' )/
' ,,
' , ()
~ '
'
OVTa Kat f.JvtKpa oyKOV TtVa EXEL KaL fJ-EYE 0~ OLa TOV~

a-vv8a-f1-0V~ E~Etij~ roa-ovrov~ rE()El1 Ta~, otov E.v T~

ee"'..::..XOtVOV
"" ' TE ..:..KWI\OV
"'' "" \ ' TE, 1TOI\VKVYJf.JvOV
\'
' T ' 'ETEWVOV.
' "
(55) To'i~ 8 1Tapa7rAYJpWfivaTtKot~ a-vv8a-f1-0t~
XPYJ(TTEOV,

ovx

rrpoa-~vfivaa-tv ~

TEpovt ," 5 dA.A.'

(56)

1Tpoa-(}TjKat~

KEVaL~

Kat

1Tapa~va-fivaa-Lv,

wa-1TEp

TtVE~ r~

1rp0~ OVOEV Kat T~ eevv" Kat T~

eeOTJ". XPWVTat
'Aoyov,

w~

av a-vf1<f3aA.A.wvra[ Tt

Ka()a1TEp

1 p.,f.v

1Tapa

otov

eetrrpo-

T~ f.JvEYE(}Et

TOV

eeo

8Tj

II'AaT(dVt,

fJ-EV

add. Capperonerius: quidern Lat.

E:xop.,EVYJ edd.: xop.,Ev P.
3 art add. Sauppe.
4 longum exemplum Platonis (Grg. 465e2-466a3) praebet M
(crucibus inclusum), suspicor ex margine in textum deductum.
5 1rporEpov P, vix recte: 1TEp Roshdestwenski.
2

384

Antiph.fr: 50 Blass.

ON STYLE .53-56

somewhere: "For on the one hand the island which we

inhabit is clearly on the one hand even from a distance
high and rugged; and the part of it which is on the one
hand cultivated and useful is small, on the other hand the
uncultivated part is large, though the island itself is
small. "a There is only one "on the other hand" to answer
the three examples of "on the one hand."b (54) Yet an
unbroken chain of connectives can often make even small
things great, like the names of the Boeotian towns in
Homer: they are ordinary and small, but they acquire a
certain dignity and greatness from the long chain of connectives, for example "and Schoenus and Scolus and
mountainous Eteonus."c
(55) Expletive particlesd should not be used as superfluous extras and, as it were, excrescences or fillings, as
"indeed" and "now" and "tearliert" are sometimes aimlessly used .. Use them only if they contribute to the
grandeur of what is being sai~, (56) as in Plato, "and
b

M adds a passage, enclosed within cruces and probably an

intrusion from a marginal annotation: "Another example is Plato

in the Gorgias [465e-466a]: 'Perhaps on the one hand I have
done something extraordinary in not allowing you to make long
speeches, while I myself have spoken at length. It is on the one
hand right to excuse me; for when I was speaking briefly, you did
not understand me, nor were you able to follow the reply I gave
you, but you needed an explanation. So on the one hand, if I too
am unable to follow your reply, deliver a long speech yourself in
turn. But otherwise let me use one, for that is only fair."'
c Hom. Il. 2.497 (cf. 257).
d These were a recognised grammatical category of particles
added for reasons of rhythm or style (e.g. Dion. Thrax, Ars
Gramm. p. 96 Uhlig). The third example is corrupt, concealing
e.g. the intensifier 7TEp, "truly."

385

DEMETRIUS
!1-Eya~ 1

EV ovpavfiJ

ZEv~''. Kat 1Tap' eOILTJPq>,

eedAA'

OTE

8~ 1TOpov Itov E:vppELO~ 1TOTa/LOLO." apKTLKO~ yap

/ ~
CJVVOE0"/1-0~

'
/
2 '"'
/
KaL' a1TOCJ1Tacra~
TWV 1TpOTEpWV
Ta EX0/1-EVa !1-EyaAELOV TL ElpyacraTO" ai yap 1TOAAa'i
apxat CTE/1-VOTYJTa E:pya,ovTaL. El 8' cb8E El7TEV, eeaAA'
OTE E1TL TOV 1TOpov a\{JLKOVTO TOV 1TOTa/LOV, /1-LKpOJ\0'"'
' /
''
e
e '
/
yoVVTL
Eq>KEL
KaL' ETL
W~
1TEpL' EVO~
1Tpay/LaTO~
A..yovTL.
(57) Aa!Lf3avETaL 8 Kat 1rafJYJTLKw~ 3 1roAAaKL~
crvv8Ecr!LO~ oilTo~, WCJ1TEp E1Tt Tfj~ KaAvt/Jov~ 1Tpo~ TOV
'08vcrcra,
'

TE (} EL~ 0

<:/

'

'

'

',./.,. /

1"'1

1"'1

''

dtoyEvE~ AaEpTta8YJ, 1ToAv~L7Jxav' '08vcra-Ev,

ovTw 8~ olKov8E cptAYJV ~ 1TaTpt8a yaZav;

El yoi}v TOV crvv8Ecr!LOV E:tAoL~, crvvEtatp1}crEL~ Kat

To 1ra8o~. Ka06A..ov yap, wcr1rEp

ITpattcpavYJ~
cpYJcriv, avTt !1-VY/1-WV 1TapEAa!Lf3avovTo oi TotovToL
crvv8Ecr/LOL Kat CJTEvay/1-WV, WCJ1TEp TO eeai at," Kat TO
ee ,./.,.. '"' ' '
'"' / TL/ ECJTLV
' t ,"4 W~
e
'
/
,./.,.
'
\{JEV, KaL' ee t 1TOLOV
aVTO~ \fJYJCTL, TO
eeKaL vv K' o8vpo!LEVOLCJLV" E7TpEt/JEv, E/1-cpacriv TLVa
E.xov olKTpov OV0/1-aTO~. (58) oi 8 1Tpo~ ov8v dva1TAYJpOVVTE~, cpYJCTL, TOV crvv8ECT/LOV EOtKaCJLV TOL~
1

fLE'Ya'; TJ'YEfLWV Plat. codd.

a1roo-1Tao-a'; Finckh: a1Too-1Tao-Oels P.
3 1Ta0YJTLKW'; Greg.: 1Ta0YJTtKots P.
4 locus corruptissimus, e.g. W'; yap pro Wo-1TEp et wo-aVTW';

pro

w'; avTo'; Radermacher

386

ON STYLE 56-58

indeed mighty Zeus in his heaven,"a and in Homer, "but

when indeed they came to the ford of the fair-flowing
river."h Placed near the beginning and severing what follows from what precedes, the particle makes a dignified
impression. For the use of many opening words has an
imposing effect. If Homer had said, "but when they arrived at the ford of the river," he would have seemed to be
using trivial language and speaking of only one particular
event.
(57) The particle "indeed,, is also frequently used to
add emotion, as in Calypso,s words to Odysseus,
<<Born of Zeus, son of Laertes, Odvsseus of the
manvwiles,
do you indeed wish so much to go home to your
own dear land ?,,c
.I

.I

Remove the particle, and you will simultaneously remove

the emotion. In general, as Praxtphanes says, d such particles were used as substitutes for moans and laments, like
"ah ah,, and "alas,, and tin the sort of wayt, as he himself
says, <'and so now grieving,,e was appropriate, since to
some degree it suggests a word of mourning. (58) But
those who use expletive particles aimlessly are, as PraxiPl. Phdr. 246e.
b Hom. Il. 14.433, 21.1.
c Hom. Od. 5.203-4; and cf. Od. 16.220, 21.226.
d Praxiphanes 13 Wehrli.
e The text is corrupt, but particles and interjections are presumably compared, as in 58, and the particle vv (or the cluster
Kat vv KE) is said to have the same piteous effect as "ah ah', and
"alas." For the last phrase, illustrating how Kat vv KE emphasises
a verb of mourning, cf. e.g. Hom. Il. 23.154 "and as indeed they
mourned the sun set on them."
a

387

DEMETRIUS
e
""
""
' '
\'
l\
'
V7TOKpLTaLc;
'TOLe;
TO' KaL' 'TO
E7TLI\E'Y0V(TLV
1\E'YOV(TLV,

oiov Et rLc; 6J8E Aeyo~,;,

'

'

/ f)

,, ,,

'

'~

,,

,,

EV avTL7TOp fLOlS 7TEOL EXOVa- EvoaLfLOVa, at, ac

we; yap 7TapeAKEL TO at at KaL TO

Ka'i

Ev

E.v0a8E, OVTW
7TavTaxov fLUTYJV EfLf3a'AAofLEvoc; a-vv8Ea-fLoc;. 3

(59)

Oi fLEV 8-Y] a-vv8Ea-fLOt ri}v a-vvOEa-tv fLEya'Ao-

7TpE7TTJ 7TOtOV(TtV, we; ELPYJTat, Ta

a-xrr}fLaTa ri]c;
\ / cEWe;
/ E(T'Tt
'
' Kat' avra
' ' (TVV f)/E(TEWc;
/ 'Tt Etooc;
';'~
/\Ec;
fLEV
'TO'4

yap 8-Y] Ta avra AeyEtV 8'ic; dva8t7TAovvra 5 ~ E7Tava-

~ dvOv1raAAaa-a-ovra 8tararTOfLEVCf? Ka'i

/
,,
~
/
~ '
'
/ A.
fLETaa-VV'Tt f) EVTt EOLKEV. OtaTaK'TEOV OE Ta 1rp0a-o/opa
povra

aVTWV xapaKri}pt EKaa-TqJ, oiov r0 fLEyaAo7TpE7TEt fLEV

.oil 7TpoKEtTat,

7TEp'i

ravTa ( 60) 1rpwrov fLEV ri}v dv0v-

7TaA'Aayrr}v, we; "'OfLYJpqc;, eeoi

8vo a-K07TEAot

o fLEV

'
'
'
'
e
/
"
\ '
'
t:l
\
/
ovpavov
Evpvv
tKaVEt
" 7TOI\V
yap
OV'TW
fLEyai\EtOTEpov E.va'A'AayEt(TY}~ <ri]c;> 6 7T'TW(TEWc;, ~ EL7TEp ovrwc;

''A.

Eo/YJ,

ee

""
~ ' ~ /
/ \
e
'
'
'
'
/ "
'TWV
OE OVO (TK07TEI\WV 0 fLEV ovpavov EVpVV "

' E/\EYETO.
'\ /
"" OE
~'
/ f) Ec; fLtKp07TpE(TVVYJ'() We; yap
7TaV
TO' (TVVYJ

, oto
~ '
/
7TEc;,
Kat' a'() av11-aa-rov.

(61)

""f'ov oE
~'

NLpEa,
'
A.

' ' TE ovTa

''
' Kat' ra'
avrov
fLtKpov

7TpayfLaTa avrov fLtKporEpa, rpEtc; vavc; Ka'i oAtyovc;

1 E1TtAf.yovcn,v
2

N auck: E7To~ A.f.yovo-tv P

IleAo1ria~ (cf. Ar. Rhet. 1409bl0): IleAo7TEta~ P

o-vv8eo-fLo~ Greg.: om. P

ro Dresd.: rwv P

5 ava8L1T Aovvra

388

Solmsen: 8t1T Aovvra P

T
l

ON STYLE 58-61

phanes says, like actors who add this or that exclan1ation

without purpose, as though you were to say,
''This land of Calydon, of the land ofPelops (alas!)
the facing shore, with its fertile plains (ah! ah!).na
For just as in this passage the "ahl ah!" and the ''alas!" are
superfluous, so is any particle which is inserted indiscriminately and without reason.
(59) Connectives then, as has been said, give grandeur
to the composition. Next, figures of speech: these are
themselves a form of composition, since it is practically a
matter of rearrangement and redistribution when you say
the same thing twice, through repetition or anaphora or
anthypallage.h Each style must be assigned its appropriate figures, in the case of the grand style, our present concern, the following: (60) First, anthypallage, as in
Homer's line, "the two rocks, one of them reaches up to
the wide heaven."c With this ~hange from the normal
genitive, the line is far more imposing than if he had said,
"of the two rocks one reaches up to the wide heaven."
That would have been the usual construction, but anything usual is trivial and so fails to impress.
(61) Again, take Nireus, who is personally insignificant
and his contingent still more so, three ships and a few
TGF Eur. Meleager Jr. 515. The interjections make it seem
that Calydon is in the Peloponnese.
h Anthypallage is a change of grammatical case, subdividing a
plural into its parts (a type of Ot-Aoy[a, cf. 103).
c Horn. Od. 12.73.
a

6 rfj~

add. Kroll.

389

DEMETRIUS
,, ~
/
1 KaL' J.Leyal\a
/\
'
/
\ \ ' avT
'
'
avopac;,
fLeyav
E1TOLYJa-Ev
KaL' 1TOJ\J\a

oA.iywv, TcfJ a-xiJJ.LaTL 8L1TAcfJ KaL fLLKT(jJ XPYJ(J"cLfLEVOc;

'(; '
rl..
,. . .
~
\ /
CCN
' yap,
/ "
Es
E1TaVa'f'opac;
TE KaL' OLaJ\V(}"EWc;.
. LpEVc;

cpYJa-L,

CCTplic;

N LpEvc;,
,. . .

oc;

NLpEvc; 'AyA.atYJc; vioc;,

KaAALa-Toc; avi}p". 2 ij 'TE yap E1Tavac/Jopa

\ /c

v-i]ac;

, '

ayEv,

'

, ' ,,

N LpEa
/ KaL' 'YcJ OLa~
/

'

TYJc; 1\Es EWe; E1TL 'TO aVTO OVOJ.La 'TOV

\

\ ""'() /

'

rl..

.,,

J\V(J"L<; 1TJ\Y} oc; 'TL EfL"{JaLVEL 1TpayJ.LaTWV, KaLTOL OVO 'YJ

TPLWV OVTWV. ( 62) Kat a-xE8ov a1Tat 'TOV
J.Laa-OevToc;

EV

N Lpewc; 0110-

T(jJ 8pafLaTL fLEfLVTJfLEOa ov8v ,ry'T'TOV

T]

\\ /
~
/
/
''
TOV""' 'A XLJ\1\EWc;
KaL' TOV""' '0 ova-a-Ewe;,
KaLTOL
KaT ' E1Toc;
~~
3 \ \
/
~ /
' /
~'
c
,.....
/
EKaa-TOV 1\ai\OVJ.LEVWV a-xEoOV. aLTLa 0 'YJ 'TOV a-xYJfLaTOc;

8v~'afLLc;

El

8'

CCN LpEvc;

Ei1TEv,

ovTwc;

'AyA.atac; vioc; EK !VJ.LYJc; Tplic; v-i]ac; ~YEl'," 1Tapaa-E-

(J"LW1TYJKOTL

,/

'

N LpEa
/ W(J"1TEp yap
'
~~

EqJKEL 'TOV

EV

,. . .

TaLc;

E(J"TLcL(TE(J"L Ta oA.iya 8LaTaxOevTa 1TWc; 1TOAAa cpaivETaL, ovTw Kav To'Lc; A.oy<nc;. ( 63) 1roA.A.axov fLEVToL To
,

,.....

EVaVTLOV TYJ
/

1\Va-E.L,

,..... \ \

1'

YJ
~~

/e

..~...

YLVETaL f.Lai\1\0V, OtOV OTL

cc ,

,,

fLEYE ovc; aLTLOV

(J"VVatpELa,
/

Ea-TpaTEVOV'TO

~'E

\\

1\1\'Y}VEc; 'TE

Kat KapEc; Kat AvKLoL Kal, ITaJ.Lc/Jv'AoL Kal, <I>pvyEc;."

Yj

yap Tov avTov a-vv8E.a-J.Lov Oea-Lc; EJ.LcpaivEL TL a1TELpov

1TAfj8oc;.
Tfj

(64)

To

ToLovTo CCKvpTa, c/JaA.YJpLowvTa,"

E.taLpEa-EL Tov ccKa'i" a-vv8a-J.LOV J.LEyaAELOTEpov

1

f.LEyav edd.: f.LEya P.

1nro ''I}uov ,ryA.Oev add. Greg. M.

edd. EKaa-Twv P.

3 EKaa-Tov

390

~
l
!

ON STYLE 61-64

men. But Homer has made him and it impressive, and

has multiplied the small contingent by using the two combined figures of anaphora and absence of connectives.
"Nireus," he says, ''brought three ships, Nireus, son of
Aglaia, Nire us the most handsome rnan .... ~'a The verbal
anaphora of the same word, Nire us, and the absence of
connectives give an impression of a huge contingent, even
though it is only two or three ships. (62) Nireus is mentioned barely once in the course of the action, b but we
remember him no less than Achilles and Odysseus, the
subjects of alrnost every line. The impact of the figure is
the cause. If Homer had said, "Nireus, the son of Aglaia,
brought three ships from Syrne,~~ he might just as well
have passed over Nireus in silence. Speech is like a banquet: a few dishes may be arranged to seem many. (63) In
1nany passages, however, linking with connectives, the
opposite of asyndeton, tends to increase the grandeur, for
example "to the war marched. Greeks and Carians and
Lycians and Pamphylians and Phrygians.~'c The use of the
same connective suggests 'infinite numbers. (64) But in a
phrase such as "high-arched, foam-crested"d the omission
of the connective "and" makes the language more impresHom. Il. 2.67lff, a traditional exmnple, e.g. Ar. Rhet.
1414a2-7 and Ps.Plu. Vit. Hom. 33. The name Nireus begins
three successive lines:
N t.pevc; a-D !Vfl/Y]{}Ev ayE rpEtc; vijac; E1:(J'ac;,
N t.pevc; Ay'AatYJc; viae; Xap07TOUJ r' avaKroc;,
N tpEvc; oc; KaAAL(J'TOc; dv~p V7TO ''I'ALOV :qA.eEv.
b For 8pafLa of nondramatic genres, compare the mimes of
Sophron in 156, and Plato's Menexenus in 266 (in both
because of the use of direct speech).
c Author unknown.
d Hom. Il. 13.799 (cf. 81).
a

391

DEMETRIUS

ptowvTao

(65) [To] 2 fLEyaAELOV fLEVTOt EV TOL~ crx~fLaCFtV TO

fLYJDE E1TL Tfj~ avTfj~ fLEVEtV 1TTWCFEW~, w~ 8ovKVDLDYJ~,
ee Kat' 1TpWTO~
""'
, {3 atVWV
/
' ' TYJV
' a1TO
, {3 a/{).pav EJ\Et1TO-'\
a1TO
E1Tt
l/JvxYJCFE TE, Kat 1TEcrovTo~ avTov ~ T~v 1TapE~EtpEcriav
1roAv yap ovTw~ fLEyaAEtOTEpov, ~ li1rEp E1Tt Tfj~
avTfj~ 1TTWCFEW~ OVTW~ 4>YJ, OTt eeE'lTECFEV E~ TTJV
1TapE~EtpEcriav Kat a1TE/3aAE TTJV acr1TiDao, (66) Kat
'
~/ \
~' ''
3 EtpyacraTO
'
/
/ () 0~, W~
e cH poavaot'lTJ\WCFt~ 0
E1TOV~
fLEYE
DOT0~4 eeSpaKOVTE~ SE. 1TOv," 4>YJCFLV, ee~crav EV T~
KavKacrcp <
> 5 fLEYEfJo~, Kat fLEYEfJo~ Ka'i 1TAfjfJo~ 0" S'i~ pYJfJEv TO eefLEYEfJo~" oyKov TtVa Ti} EPfLYJVELq_
1TapE.crxEvo (67) xpf]crfJat fLEVTOt TOL~ crx~fLaCFt fL~
1TVKVO'L~ a1TEtpoKaAov yap Kat 1TapEfL4>a'iv6v Ttva TOV
Aoyov aVWJ.LaAiavo OL yovv apxa'iot 1TOAAa crx~fLaTa
EV TOL~ Aoyot~ TLfJE-pTE~ CFVVYJfJECFTEpot TWV acrxYJfLaTi~ '
CFTWV EtCFtV, ota
TO' EVTEXVW~ Tt ()/EVato
( 68) IlEpt SE. crvyKpovcrEw~ 4>wvYJEVTWV V1TEAa{3ov
aAAot aAAW~o 'lcroKpaTYJ~ fLEV yap f.4>vAaTTETO CJV}L\ /
.)
/
'
'
.)
""'
,, \ \
~ /
c
1TJ\YJCFCFEtV
avTa,
Kat' Otc a1T
aVTOV,
aJ\1\0t
OE TtVE~ W~
,,
~""'
~'
,,
ETVXE
CFVVEKpovcrav Kat' 1TaVTa1TaCFt. OEt
OE OVTE
TJXWDYJ 1TOtELV TTJV crvvfJEcrtv, aTEXVW~ avTa CFVfL1TA ~CFCFOVTa Kat w~ ETVXE" Dtacr1TaCFfL~ yap TOV
A.oyov To TotovTov Kat DtappiljJEt eotKEv ovTE fL~V
0

0,

.)

.)

ei:rrep Radermacher: el Greg.: om. Po

del. Radermacher et Roberts.
3 dvaDL1TAwa-ts S' e1rov~ p2: dvaDt1TAwa-a~ S' e1ro~ pl.
2

392

ro

I
I

~
I
j

ON STYLE 64-68

l
j

j
j

s1ve than if Homer had said "high-arched and foamcrested."

(65) Grandeur in figures is also produced from variety
in the use of cases, as in Thucydides, ~'the first to step on
the gangway, he fainted, and in his falling on the oars, his
shield ... "a This is far more striking than if he had kept to
the same case and said, "he fell on the oars and dropped
his shield.~~ (66) Repetition of a word is also imposing, as
in this passage of Herodotus, "there were serpents in the
Caucasus, <vast> in size, yes in size and number."b The
repetition of the word "size" adds weight to the style. (67)
Do not, however, crowd figures together. That is tasteless
and suggests an uneven style. The early writers, it is true,
use many figures in their works, but they position them so
skilfully that they seem less unusual than those who avoid
figures altogether.
(68) Next; hiatus, on which opinions have differed.
!socrates and his school avoided any clash of vowels,
while others admitted it wholesale wherever it happened
to occur. You should, however, neither make your composition too sonorous by a random and unskilful use of hiatus (for that produces a jerky and disjointed style), nor yet
Th. 4.12.1. The sentence continues, "" aCT'7Tt~ 1TEpteppvYJ fS
r~v BaA.a(J(Jav, "his shield slipped off into the sea."
b Text uncertain and perhaps a memory of Hdt. 1.203.1, eov
opewv Kat 1TATJBEL fLEYL(JTOV Kat p..eye8EL V~YJAOTaTOV. But the
parallel is not close, there are no snakes, and Orth, Philologische
Wochenschrift 45 (1925) 778-83, attractively suggests Herodorus ofHeraclea (FGrHist 31 F 63 addenda, p.*12 Jacoby).
a

4 rHpo8oro~

P: rHpo8wpo~ Orth.
5 lacuna subest, e.g. <Oavp..a(JTOt ro> Kroll.

393

DEMETRIUS
1ravrEAw~ cpvAacrcrEcr()aL rT]v crvvexELav rwv ypafLfLU\

'

~~

'

TWV" 1\ELOTEpa fLEV yap

,

~'

afLOVCTOTEpa

CTL~,

evcpwviav

OE

OVTW~

'

KaL

dcpat-pE()licra

:J/

ECTTaL
rl..'

TTJV

""

\\'

1T'OI\I\YjV

aTEXVW~,

YLVOfLEVYJV

r1}~

EK

""
/ OTL
t!/
1rpWTOV
fLEV,
KaL'
'
'
\ /
/
' 1
YJe CTVVYJ/{) ELa aVTYJ
CTVfL1T'I\YjTTEL
Ta' ypafLfLaTa
Ta' EV
crvyKpOVCTEW~.

""

(69) CTKE1TTEOV
/

/{)

YJ CTVV E-

LCTW~

KW'-PYJ

:J/

, /

~'
OE

/\

'rl..

OVOfLaCTLV, KaLTOL CTTOXasOfLEVYJ fLai\LCTTa EV'-PW-

TOL~
/
VLa~,

'?
'
""A'LaKO~
' KaL' XUJJV.
/ 1T'OI\I\a
\ \ ' OE
~' KaL'~'
OLOV
EV
Tcp
OLa

fLOVWV rwv cpwvYJEVTWV crvvr[()YJa-Lv OVOfLaTa,

otov

, / KaL' E VLO~,
,,
,~ /
~
r~..
/
"" ''\ \
A LaLYJ
OVOEV TE OVCT'-PWVOTEpa TWV a/\1\WV
ECTTt ravra, dAA' LCTW~ Kat fLOVCTLKWTEpa. (70) Ta YE
fLTJV

1T'OLYJTLKa,
/

crvyKpOVOfLEVOV

otov
,

ro
~

E1T'LTYJOE~,

~eALo~,
'rl..

8LYJPYJfLEvov
/

EV'-PWVOTEpov

'

KaL' YJe

crvyKpOVCTL~

""

ECTTL

ijALO~ Kat TO opewv TOV opwv. EXEL yap TLVa

'?
'~'
'
/
OLOV
cpoYJV
E1T'LYLVOfLEVYJV.

T]

Kat
TOV

AVCTL~
\\'
1T'OI\I\a

Kat aAAa EV crvvaALcpfl fLEV AEYOfLEVa 8vcrcpwva 2

~v, 8t-aLpE()f.vra

8.

Kat crvyKpovcr()E.vra evcpwvorEpa,

/
'
/
\ /
'
"
~,
1T'aVTa
fLEV
Ta' VEa
KaL' Kal\a
ECTTLV.
EL, OE
crvvaAEtt/Ja~ EL1T'OL~ eeKaA' ECTTLv," 3 8vcrcpwvorEpov
e
W~

TO'

ee

AEYOfLEVov Kat evrEAecrrEpov. (71) E:v

~' KaL' TOV~
' {) EOV~
' VfLVOVCTL
e
""
~ ' TWV
""
e
'
' /
A LYV1T'Tcp
OE
OLa
E1T'Ta
crraL

ro

cpWVYJEVTWV OL tEplis, cpE~1j~ ~XOVVTE~ avra, Kat dvrt

avAov Kat aVTt KL()apa~ TWV ypafLfLUTWV TOVTWV

~xo~ aKOVETaL V1T'' Evcpwv[a~, WCTTE

1

Ta EV Roshdestwenski: ravra P.

8vu-cpwva edd., 8vcrcpopa P.

KaA' E.crr[v (sic) Ahrens: KaA.a 'crrt-v P.

394

0 E~aLpwv

TTJV

ON STYLE 68-71

avoid hiatus altogether, since your composition will then

perhaps be smoother but it will be less musical and quite
flat when robbed of much of the euphony produced by
hiatus. (69) Note :first that ordinary usage itself aims
above all at euphony, yet it has a clash of vowels within
such words as Aiakos and chion ("snow"), and it even
forms many words exclusively from vowels, e.g. Aiaie and
Euios,a and these words are no less pleasant than any others and possibly even more musical. (70) Poetic formsb
where the resolution and hiatus are deliberate have more
euphony, for example eelios for helios ("sun") and oreon
for oron ("mountains"), since the separate sounds produced by the hiatus add a sort of singing effect. Many
other words would be harsh if the sounds were run
together, but are more melodious when they are separated in hiatus, for example kala estin (at the end of the
sentence "all that is young is beautiful"c). Running the
vowels together, kar estin, will make the phrase harsher
and more ordinary. (71) In Egypt when the priests sing
hymns to the gods, they sing the seven vowels in
succession, d and the sound of these vowels has such
euphony that men listen to it instead of the flute and the
lyre. The removal here of hiatus simply removes the
I.e. god of the bacchant cry, euoi (Dionysus).
b Both examples (the first recurs in 207) show epic forms, as
do those in 73.
c Author unknown (cf. 207).
d The seven vowels are a e e i o u o. Such vowel songs appear
in Egyptian/Greek magical texts. See H. D. Betz, The Greek
Magical Papyri in Translation, Chicago 1986, e.g. pp. 172-95.
a

395

T
I

DEMETRIUS

aAAo ~ fLEAoc;

crvyKpovcrtv ov8v
\I
""
1\0'}'0V
Kat' f.LOVCTaV.

\
!

aTexvwc; E.~atpe'i Tov

'\ \ '
I
'
'
al\1\a
1TEpt' TOVTWv
f.LEV
OV' Katpoc;

I
''
f.LYJKVVEtV
tCTWc;.

8 T~ f.LE'}'aAo1TpE1TEL xapaKTijpt crvyKpov\ {3'avotT '~\av 1TpE1Tovcra YJTOt ota

~'
1TapaAafL
fLaKpwv,

(72)

'Ev

crts

''

we; TO ~~A.aav avw w8EcrKE,. Kat yap

""

CTTLXOc; JLiJKoc;

''
'
""
I
I
Tt ecrxev
EK
TYJc;
crvyKpovcrewc;,
Kat' fLEfLtfLY}Tat
TOV""

\ '() ov TYJV
'
,
A.
'
1\t
ava'Popav
Kat'

{3'tav

~
/
wcravTwc;
Kat' TO'

~1TEtpoc; eivat" To 8ovKv88etov.

8cp()oyyot

""
K EpKvpatOt"

fLY}'

crvyKpovovTat Kat

~~TaVTYJV

Cncp8oyyotc;,

~~

KaT<{>KYJCTaV

'
' OE
~' E'}'EVETO.
' I
OtKtCTTYJc;
. . .n

(73)

fLEV

'
1TOtEt"" fLEV

oVv Kat Ta avTa JLaKpa CTV'}'KpOVOJLEVa f.LE'}'E{)oc; Kat

at avTat 8cp8oyyot.

at

EK 8tacpepovTWV crvyKpov-

~
""
/
{)
I
\/
'
""
CT18 Of.LOV
Kat' f.LE'}'E
oc; 1TOtOVG"tV
Kat' 1TOtKtl\tav
EK
TYJc;
1TOAVYJ)(_[ac;, 1 oiov ~~i}wc;," E.v 8 T~ ~~OLYJv" ov f.LOvov
~

A.,.l

'

I'

'\\'

'

";'

ota'PEpovTa Ta ypafLfLaT'a EG"TtV, al\1\a Kat Ot YJXOt

~

'

~ '

It \

t:l

'

";'

f.LEV oacrvc;, 0 OE ..,_,t.J\Oc;, WCTTE 1TOI\J\a aVOf.LOta EtVat.

(74) Kat E.v cf>8a'ic; 8 ra JLEAtcrf.LaTa E1Tt [Tov] 2 f.voc;
'}'LVETat <Kat> 3 TOV aVTOV f.LaKpov ypafLfLaToc;, oiov
cf>8wv E1TEJLf3aA.A.oJLf.vwv cf>8a'ic;, wa-Te
crvyKpovcrtc;

fLtKpov

ECTTat

Tt

T]

~8ijc;

Twv o!Lo[wv
fLEpoc;

Kat

'
~ '
1
e
1
,
1TEpt' f.LEV
OYJ
CTV'}'KpOVCTEWc;,
Kat' We;
'}'tVOtT
~'
\
' crvv
'() Ecrtc;, AEAEX
\ \ ' ( ) w TocravTa.
""
av
JLE'}'aAo1TpE1TYJc;

'\
f.L1\tCTfLa.

(75)
1

rij~

''EcrTt

Kat E.v 1Tpayf.Lacrt To fLEyaAo1TpE1TEc;,

ov P: ov del. Victorius.

2 ern
' ' [ rov,... ]

Kara P.
3 KaL add.

' ' ve1 a1ro

' '
e dd .: a1ro

fort.

396

Gartner.

TOV

codd. rec.: a1TO

TOV

vel

ON STYLE 71-75

music and harmony of the song. But perhaps this is not

the time to enlarge on this subject.
(72) In the grand style the appropriate hiatus to use
would be between long vowels, for example "o" + (( o" in
laan ana otheske ('(he kept pushing the stone up"). a The
line has been lengthened by the hiatus and has reproduced the stone~s upward movement and the effort
needed. Thucydides has a similar example, "e" + ((e~~ in
me epeiros einai ("not to be mainland").b Diphthongs too
may clash with diphthongs, for example "or~ + ((oi'~ in
Kerkuraioi oikistes ("its colonists were Corcyrean, its
founder was ... ").c (73) Hiatus then between the same
long syllables and the same diphthongs creates grandeur.
Yet so does hiatus between different vowels, producing
variety as well as grandeur from the change of sound, for
example eos ("dawn"); and in the case of hoien ("such")
not only are the vowels different but also the breathings,
rough followed by smooth, so there is considerable variety. (74) In songs, too, a note can be prolonged on one
and the same long vowel, d a sort of song within a song, so
that hiatus from similar vowels will produce a tiny part of
a song, a prolonged note. But let this be enough on hiatus
and the kind of composition appropriate to the grand
style.
(75) Grandeur also comes from the subject, for examHom. Od. 11.596. It is given detailed and sensitive analysis
in DH. CV20.
b Th. 6.1.2.
c Th. 1.24.2.
d On the text and meaning (a prolonged note, not a trill), see
H. Gartner, Hermes 118 (1990) 214-19.
a

397

I
l

DEMETRIUS
llv f.LeyaAYJ Ka'i 8tanperrTjc; 'TTE,Of.Laxia
'TTEp'i ovpavov

1}

'TTEp'i y-ryc; Aoyoc;

1}

vavf.Laxia,

1}

0 yap TOV f.LEya'Aov

aKOVWV npayf.LaTO<; EvOvc; Ka'i <Tov> 1 'AyovTa OLETaL

f.LEya'Awc; A.yEtv, n'Aavwf.LEvoc; 8E'L yap ov Ta 'AEyo,..,
' \ \ ' 'TTW<;
,..,
\ /
,,
'
f.LEVa o-KO'TTELV,
al\1\a
1\EYETat
Eo-TL
yap
Kat'
f.LEyaAa f.LLKpwc; AEyovTa anpE'TTE<; <rt> 2 'TTOLEtV T(iJ
,
npayf.La'TL.

~'
/
/
.r/. ,
~'
OLO
Kat'~
OELVOV<;
TLVa<;
'Pao-LV,
Wo-'TTEp
Kat'

8eonof.Lnov, DELva ov DELvwc; 'AyovTac;. 3 (76) N tKtac;

8' 0 'wypacpoc; Ka'i TOVTO EvOvc; EAEyEv ElVaL r-qc;
ypacptK7}c; TEXVYJ<; ov f.LLKpov f.LEpoc; To 'Aa{3ovTa vAYJl'
'
'(} YJ ypa'PELV,
, .,./..,.
, '(
'
EVf.LEYE
Kat' f.LYJ' KaTaKEpf.LaTL:,ELV
TYJV
TEXVYJV ElS f.LLKpa, otov opviOta 1} avOYJ, d'A'A' L'TT'TTOf.La/
'
,, (}
\\'
'
,
~,
xtac; Kat vavf.Laxtac;, Ev a 'TTOI\1\a f.LEV o-xYJf.LaTa oEL/

cELEV av
,, TL<; ~'L'TT'TTWV TWV
,. , f.LEV
' (} EOVTWV,
/
,. , OE
~ '
' (} to-TaTWV
av

f.LEVWV opBwv.. a'A'Awv

aKOVTL,OVTa<;,

'TTOAAov'c;

OKAa,OVTWV, 1TOAAovc;

KaTa'TTt'TTTOVTa<;

8'

TWV

L'TT'TTEWV" q)ETO yap Ka'i TTJV vnoBEo-LV avT~V fLEpoc;

Elvat T7jc; 'wypacptK7}c; TEXVYJ<;, wo-nEp TOV<; f.LVBovc;
TWV 'TTOLYJTWV. ov8v oiJv Bavf.Lao-TOV, EL Ka'i EV TOt<;
'Aoyotc; [Ka'i] 4 EK npayf.Larwv f.LEya'Awv 5 f.LEya'Aonp/

'TTELa YEVYJTaL.

(77) TTjv 8 AE~LV EV T~ xapaKT-qpt TOVTq> 'TTEpLTTTJV ElVaL DEL Ka'i E~YJAAayf.LEV"fJV Ka'i ao-vvfJBYJ f.LfiA\
~~
'
1\0lJ"
OVTW
yap

~~ (;
E~

'
''
~'
/
'
EL TOV
oyKOV,
YJe OE
KVpta
Kat' (]"'VVYJ{)YJ<; a-acpTjc; f.LEV aE'i, rf} 6 8 Ka'i EVKaTacppOVYJTO<;. (78)

npwTa f.LEV oiJv f.LETacpopa'Lc; XPYJa-TEov a~Tat yap

1 rov

2 rL add. Goeller.
add. edd.
3 A.:yovrac; Hammer: AEyovra P.

398

ON STYLE 75-78

ple when the subject is a great and famous battle on land

or sea, or when earth or heaven is the theme. For the
man who listens to an impressive subject imn1ediately
supposes that the speaker too is impressive-Inistakenly,
for we must consider not what but how he says it, since an
unin1pressive treatment of an impressive topic produces
inappropriateness. Hence some writers like Theopompus are said to be forceful, but it is their subject, not their
style that is forceful. (76) The painter Niciasa used to
maintain that no small part of the painter's skill was the
choice at the outset to paint an imposing subject, and
instead of frittering away his skill on 1ninor subjects, such
as little birds or flowers, he should paint naval battles and
cavalry charges \vhere he could represent horses in many
different poses, charging, or rearing up, or crouching low,
and many riders hurling javelins or being thrown. He
held that the theme itself was a part of the painter's skill,
just as plot was part of the poe(s. So it is no surprise that
in prose similarly grandeur comes from grandeur in the
subject.
(77) The diction in the grand style should be dis tinguished, distinctive and the less usual. It will then have
weight, while the normal, usual words may always be
clear but are in certain cases uniinpressive. (78) In the
first place, we should use metaphors, for they more than
Nicias 1825 Overbeck, an Athenian painter of the later
fourth century. No cavalry battle is attested for him, but he was
famed for his paintings of animals, e.g. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 35.133.
a

Kat del. Spengel.

5 f.Leya'Awv M: tnagnis
6

Lat.: f.LEya'AYJ P.
aEt rij P: semper et Lat.: AEtTTJ Spengel.

399

DEMETRIUS

fLaAurTa Ka'i i}8ov~v a-vfLf3a'AA.ovTat To'i~ Aoyot~ Ka'i

fLEYEOo~, fL~ fLEVTot TrvKva'i~, E7rEt Tot 8tOvpaJ.Lf3ov
avTL Aoyov ypacPOfLEV" fL'YjTE fL~V 7roppw0Ev J.LETEVYJ/
' \ \ '
'
'(}
'
~
/
1'
VEYfLEVat~,
al\1\
aVTO
EV Kat' EK
TOV"" OfLOtOV,
OtOV
EOtKEV aAA'YjAot~ a-TpaTrryo~, KV{3Epv'Y}TYJ~, i}vioxo~
7rcLVTE~ yap oilTot apxovTE~ ELCTtV. aa-cPaAw~ o-Dv EpE'i
Ka'i TOV a-TpaTYJYOV Kv{3Epv'YjTYJV A.ywv TYJ~ 1TOAEw~,
Ka'i ava1TaAtV 0 TOV KV{3Epv'Y]TYJV i}voxov 1 rij~ VYJO~.
(79) ov 1Taa-at fLEVTOt avTa1To88ovTat, WCT1TEp ai
7rpoEtpYJJ.LEVat, E1TEL r~v V1TWpEtav fLEV rij~ ''I8YJ~ TroDa
'C"'
'
,..,
'
,
'
~'
"" ' (} ,
,~
Es YJV Et7rEtV TOV 1TOtYJTYJV, TOV OE 'TOV av pW1TOV 7rOOa
'
/
c
OVKE'Tt
V1TWpEtaV
Et1TEtV.
(80) 'E1Tav fLEvrot Ktv8vvw8YJ~ i} fLETacPopa 8oKi},
fLETaAaJ.Lf3ava-Ow EL~ ELKaa-iav OVTW yap aa-cParf....
'
1\ECTTEpa ytyvotT av. EtKaa-ta 0~ 2 ECT'Tt fLETao/opa
\
I'(
1'
/
,.., II '()
17"1\EOVa':,OVCTa,
OtOV
Et,, TtS < 74_)"">3 cc TOTE
74_)
V WVt T4_)""
p'Y}ropt pE.ovTt KaO' VfLwv" 1Tpocr0Et8 EL7rot, ccWCT1TEp
povTt Ka()' VfLwv.'' ovTw J.LEV yap ElKacr[a yyovEv
rf....
~
~'
rf....
'
'
Kat aa-o/ai\ECTTEpO~
0 1\0yo~, EKEtVW~ OE fLETao/opa Kat
Ktv8vvw8a-TEpo~.
8to Ka'i ITAaTwv E1Tta-cPaA~ Tt
DoKE'i 1TOtE'iv fLETacPopa'i~ J.LaAAov XPWfLEVo~ :ry ElKaa-[c
r/...."'
'
at~, 0 fLEVTOt t::::.EVO'PWV EtKaCTtat~ fLai\1\0V.
(81) 'ApicrTYJ 8 8oKE'i fLETacPopa T~ 'Apta-ToTEAEt
'
~'
It
'
YJc KaTa' EVEpyEtaV
Kai\OVJ.LEVYJ, OTaV
Ta a'Yvxa
EVEpyoVVTa ELCTcLYYJTat Ka0a1TEp EfLlfivxa, w~ TO E1TL TOV

'

'

'

\I

,..,

!>/

'

\I

'

1--

'

'

"'\\

'

!>/'

{3A.ov~
1

~voxov Finckh: apxovra P.

rfiJ

400

add. Gale.

8' Victorius: dA.A.' P.

ON STYLE 78-81

anything make prose attractive and impressive, but they

should not be crowded together (or we write a dithyramb
instead of prose), nor yet far-fetched but from the same
general area and based on a true analogy. For instance,
general, pilot, and charioteer are similar in ruling over
something. So it will be safe to say that a general is ccthe
city's pilot" and conversely a pilot ccthe ship's charioteer."a
(79) But not all metaphors are reciprocal, like the above.
Homer could call the lower slope of Ida its footh but
never a 1nan's foot his slope.
(80) When a metaphor seems bold, convert it into a
simile for greater safety. A simile is an expanded metaphor. For example instead of saying ccthe orator Python
was then a rushing torrent against you,''c expand it and say
"was like a rushing torrent against you." The result is a
simile and a less risky form of expression, while the former was a metaphor and more dangerous. This is why
Plato's use of metaphor in pref~rence to simile is thought
risky. Xenophon by contrast prefers the simile.
(81) Aristotled thought that what is called the personifying metaphor is the best, in which the inanimate is
introduced personified as animate, for example in the
For "charioteer of the ship" cf. EGF '1-Iomerus' F19 and 20
( = Ps.Plu. Vit. Ho1n. 2.20, RG 3.228). The change of text from
"ruler" to "charioteer" provides a traditional example of
metaphor, and preserves the focus on analogical metaphor (on
which cf. Ar. Po. 1457b6ff).
b Cf. Hom. Il. 2.824; 20.59 and 218. Like other later critics,
e.g. RG 3.228, he rejects Aristotle's advice that metaphors should
always be reciprocal (Rhet. 1407a14-15).
c Dem. De Cor. 136 (cf. 272).
d Nowhere explicitly, but cf. Ar. Rhet. 1410b35, 1411b32ff,
which includes both the examples here.
a

401

DEMETRIUS
., (;

\ '

OS VfJ1\Y}~

t:l
\
.,
I
()
I
Ka ()' Of.LLI\OV
1TL1TTCT
aL fLEVEaLVWV,

,./.,.
\
I
.,.,
I
'
KaL' TO' (( KVpTa' 'f'aAYJpLOWVTa.
1TaVTa
yap
TaVTa, TO
((cpaAYJpt6wvTa"" KaL TO ((fLEVEaivwv,"" {wTLKa'i~ evept"''

'

yeiat~ EOLKEV. ( 82) E.vta fLEVTOL a-acpEa-TEpov ev TaL~

fLETacpopa'i~ A.f.yeTaL KaL KvptwTepov ~1Tep 1 ev avTo'i~

TOL~ KVptoL~, w~ TO ((E.cppt~EV

!LaXYJ"'

ov yap av
"\
a/\
YJ ()IECTTEpov

., '
Q \'
~ '
I
:1/'
aVTO
fLETafJai\WV
OLa
KVpLWV
OVT

TL~
:1/

:1/

,./.,. I

'

'

.,

t"''

EL1TOL OVTE a-a'f'ECTTEpov. TOV yap EK TWV oopaTWV

KAovov <Ka'i Tov> 2 ytvofLEvov TO'VTOL~ 1JpfLa ~xov

a-vvexw~ cppia-a-ova-av fLaXYJV 1rpoa-YJy6peva-ev, Ka'i

afLa E1TEtAYJ1TTat 1TW~ Tij~ KaT' evf.pyetav fLETacpopO.s

TfJ~ 1TpoELPYJfLEVYJ~, TTJV fLaxYJv pia-a-eLv el1rwv wa-1rep

{wov.

(83) ~e'i fLEVToL fLTJ A.av()avetv, oTt E.vtaL fLETacpopa'i

fLLKpoirpE1TEtav 1Totova-t f.LaAAov ~ f.LEye()o~, KatToL

Tfj~ fJ.,ETacpopa~ 1Tpo~ oyKov AafLf3aVOfLEVYJ~, w~ TO

((dJ.Lcp'i

o'

a-aA1Tty~ev J.LEya~ ovpav6~"" ovpavov yap

oAov TJXOVVTa OVK xp1Jv 1TpOCTELKaa-aL YJXOVCTYJ a-a'A.1Ttyyt, 1T AT]v EL /LrrJ TL~ apa 3 a1TOAoyoLTO V1TEp TOV
(OfLT]pov A.f.ywv, w~ OVTw~ 4 iJXYJCTEV fLEya~ ovpav6~,
(

.,,

.,

av YJXYJCTELEV CTai\1TL:,WV

W~

oilv

E1TtvoT]a-wfLEV

t:/\

.,

01\0~ ovpavo~.

fLLKpOTYJTO~

fLETacpopav

ytvofLEVYJV fLa'A.A.ov ~ fLEyf.()ov~

(84) ETEpav
(

oe'i

alTtav

yap eK Twv f.LEt{6-

vwv fJ.,ETacpEpELV EL~ Ta fLLKpa, ov TO evavTtOV, oiov w~

<:

,.....

,./.,.

t"''

,./.,.

t::!.tEVO'f'WV 'f'YJCTLV,
1 1]1rep
3 apa
''

402

edd.: EL1TEp P.
.,
p.
e dd .: Uf.La

( ( .,

'

'

E1TEL OE

1TOpEVOfJ.,EVWV

2 Kat Tov

.,

W~ OVTW~

) (;

add. Spengel.

G reg.: WCTUVTW~

p.
I

Es EKVJ.LYJVE

ON STYLE 81-84

passage describing the arrow, ~~sharp-pointed, eager to

shoot into the crowd,, and in the words ~~high-arched,
foam-crested."a All such expressions as ~'foam-crested"
and "eager,, activate a personification. (82) Some things
are, however, expressed more clearly and properly by
metaphor than by the actual proper terms, for example
"the battle shuddered."h No change of phrasing to introduce the proper terms could convey the meaning with
greater truth or clarity. Homer has renamed as "shuddering battle,, the clash of spears and the low, continuous
sound they make. In so doing he has simultaneously
exploited the personifying metaphor of our earlier discussion when he represents the battle shuddering as if alive.
(83) We must, however, keep in mind that some
metaphors produce triviality rather than grandeur, even
though the metaphor is intended to impress, for example
"all around the mighty heaven trumpeted.,'c The whole
heaven resounding ought not to have been compared
to a resounding trumpet-unless perhaps a defence of
Homer could be made that the mighty heaven resounded
in the way in which the whole heaven would resound if it
were trumpeting. (84) So let us consider a second example of metaphor which has a trivial rather than grand
effect. Metaphors should compare the smaller to the
greater, not the reverse. Xenophon, for example, says,
Hom. Il. 4.126 and 13.799 (cf. 64, illustrating asyndeton).
b Hotn. Il. 13.339.
c Hom. Il. 21.388, a controversial metaphor, cf. Longinus 9.6,
Pliny, Epist. 9.26.6. Since it may be defended, Demetrius adds a
second example, which incontrovertibly trivialises.
a

403

DEMETRIUS

TL TYJ~l cpaAayyo~." TTJl' yap TYJ~ Ta~EW~ 1TapEKTpo' ,EKKVJ.LaLVOV()YJ (af\a()()YJ

)\'
,,
1TYJV
ELKa(J"EV
KaL' 1Tp0(J"WVOJ.La(J"EV. El 8 TL~ J.LETa{3aAwv EL1TOL EKcpaAayyi(J"a(J"av
' ()'\
/
' OV'8'E OLKELW~
' /
/
TYJV
af\a(J"(J"aV, raxa
J.LEV
J.LETOL(J"EL,
1TUVTYJ 8 1TUVTW~ J.LLKpo1TpE1TW~.
(85) ''EvLOL 8 KaL a(J"aAL,OVTaL Ta~ J.LETaopa~
E1TL()ETOL~ E1TLcpEpOJ.LEVOL~, orav aVTOL~ KLv8vvw8EL~
,....
e
e
/
'{)
,-. / (; ee ,.l.. /
OOKW(J"LV, W~ 0 8 EOYVL~ 1TapaTL ETaL T~ TOs ~ 'PopJ.LLyya 2 axop8ov" E1Tt TOV T~ TO~~ {3aAAovro~ TJ J.LEV
yap 6pfL"Y~ KLv8vvw8E~ E1TL rov r6~ov, r~ 8 3
axop8~ i}(J"cpaAL(J"TaL.
( 86) IIavrwv 8 Kat TWV aAAwv TJ (J"VV~()ELa Kat
J.LaAL(J"Ta J.LEracpopwv 8~,8a(J"KaAo~ J.LLKpov yap [(J"XE8ov] 4 1ravra J.LEracppov(J"a Aav()avEL 8~,a ro a(J"cpa'Aw~
J.LETa~EpELV, AEVK~V 7 cpwvi}v Ayov(J"a Kat o~vv
av{)pW1TOV Kat rpaxv ~{)o~ Kat J.LaKpov p~ropa Kat
raAAa, O(J"a OVTW J.LETacppETaL J.LOV(J"LKW~, W(J"T OJ.LOLa
8oKEtv roZ~ KvpioL~. (87) rovrov <ovv> 5 f.yw Kav6va
ri()EJ.LaL ri}~ f.v A6yoL~ fLETacpopa~, ri}v rij~ (J"VVYJ()Eia~
/
''
,.t.. /
~~
,. .
''
/
TEXVYJV
ELTE 'PV(J"LV.
OVTW
yovv
EVLa
fLETYJVEYKEV
YJe
\ ,....
, '
,, EOEYJ
,
()
(J"VVYJ () ELa Kai\W~,
W(J"'T OVOE
KVpLWV ETL
YJJ.LEV,
dAAd J.LEJ.LEVYJKEv -ry J.LEracpopa Karxov(J"a rov rov
/

~'

1 TL

Greg., Xen. codd.: om. P.

2
ref> r6~cp 6PIL'-'Y'Ya N auck: rov ro~OcPDPIL'-Y'Ya P.
3 TW
""M :TO'p
..
4 crxE8ov del. Roberts.
5 oiJv addidi: autem Lat.
0

404

ON STYLE 84-87

"on the march a part of the phalanx surged out.,a He

compared a swerve from the line of march to a surging of
the sea, and gave it that name. But if conversely you were
to say that the sea swerved from its line of march, the
metaphor would possibly not even fit; in any case it would
be utterly and completely trivial.
(85) When they consider their metaphors risky, some
writers try to make them safe by adding epithets; for
example Theognis refers to the bow as a "lyre with tuneless strings,"h when describing an archer in the act of
shooting. The image of the bow as lyre is bold, but it is
made safe by the qualification "with tuneless strings."
(86) Usagec is our teacher everywhere, but particularly
in the case of metaphors. Usage, in fact, expresses almost
everything in metaphors, but they are so safe that we
hardly notice them. It calls a voice pure, a man sharp, a
character harsh, a speaker long, and so on. All are applied
so harmoniously that they pass .for the proper terms. (87)
So my own rule for the use of metaphor is the art-or natural instinct-of usage. Metaphors have in some cases
been so well established by usage that we no longer need
the proper tenns, and the metaphor has usurped the
a Xen.

Anab. 1.8.18.
b TrGF i. Theognis F 1; cf. Ar. Rhet. 1413al.
c For appeal to usage, cf. 69, 91, and 96; for its role as
otoaaxaA.o~ or Kavwv, cf. Quint. 1.6.3 loquendi magistra, Hor.
Ars Po. 72 norma loquendi.
86-87 discuss metaphors of ordinary speech, examples of
usage so apt that we no longer try to find a proper term. Compare the necessary metaphor in Cic. De Or. 3.155 and Quint.
8.6.6, both with similar examples, e.g. durum hominem and gemmare vites.

405

DEMETRIUS

KVptov

w~ ~~0 7f}~ d/L7TEAov ocp(}aA./Lo~n Kat EL

707TOV,

Tt E7Epov rotovTov. ( 88) a-cpov8vA.o~ ~LEVTot Kat KAEt~

' ' 70V'"' CTW/LaTO~ Kat' K7E7JE~ OV' Ka7a' /LETa'Popav
,./..
'
Ta' E7Tt
'
/
' \ \ '
e
1
~ ' 70
'
'
1
'
WlJO/LaCTTat,
ai\Aa
Ka (}' O/LOt07YJ7a
Ota
EOtKEVat
70
'
'
'~'
\
~/
'~'
,./..
~/\
/LEV KTEVt /LEPO~, 70 OE KI\EtOt, 70 OE CT'POVOVJ\Cf>.
' /LEV70t
/
'
/
'"'
' /LETa'PO,.~..
(89) 'E7Ta1J
EtKaCTtalJ
7TOtW/LEV
7YJV
~
\ /\
pav, W~
7TpOJ\EI\EKTat,
CTTOXaCTTEOV 70V'"' CTVVTO/LOV, Kat'
TOV ~LYJOEV 7TAEOV 7ov 1 ~~WCT7TEpn 7Tport(}vat, E7TEL TOt
dvr' ElKaa-[a~ 1rapaf3oA.~ Ea-Tat 7TOtY]7tKrr}, otolJ 70 TOV
,./.. '"'
~'
~'
'"'
'
t=.Evo'PwvTo~,
WCT7TEp
oE Kvwv yEvvato~ a7TpOVOYJTW~
A..
n
~~
~
E7Tt Ka7Tpov 'PEpE7at,
Kat' ~~ WCT7TEp
t7T7TO~ 1\V Et~ ota
7TEOLOV yavptwv Kat a1ToAaK7L,WVn. TaVTa yap OVK
'
/
:1/
:1/
' \ \
'
(.:}
\
'"'
'"'
EtKaa-talS
E7t EOtKEV, a/\1\a 7TapafJOAat~ 7TOtYj7tKat~.
(90) Ta~ 8 7Tapaf3oA.a~ ravTa~ OV7E pq.8[w~ EV 70L~
7TE,OL~. Aoyot~ 7t(}vat OEt, OV7E avEV 1TAELCT7YJ~ cpvAa/

((

f!/

(}

'

'

Kij~. Kat 7TEpt ~LE7acpopa~ ~LEV <Toa-avTa> 2 w~ 7V1T(f>

' '"'
Et7TEtV.

Kat a-vveETa ovo~LaTa, ov Ta

Ot(}vpct/L/3tKW~ a-vyKEL~LEVa, otov ~r:(}Eo7Epa70V~ 7TAan
' ~ ' ~e :11
~
1
1
n
' \ \ ,
'
va~,
ovoE
aa-7pwv oopv1rvpov
a-7pa7ov,
aAA
Eot'
'"' ~ '
'"'
(} / 3 CTVYKEt/LEVOt~
/
/\
K07a
70L~ V7TO 7YJ~ CTVVYJ Eta~
Ka (} 01\0V
'
'"'
'
yap
TaVTYJV KalJOVa 7TOtOV/Lat
7TaCTYJ~
OVO/LaCTta~,

(91)

AYJ7T7Eov

Tov ILYJDE To P 1: ILYJDEv 7rAEov Tov P 2 in mg.

2 Toa-avTa add. Schneider.
3 a-vvYJfJE[a~ Finckh: dA. YJfJE[a~ P.
1

The eye is normal Greek for the bud of a plant or tree, e.g.
Xen. Oeconomicus 19.10.
a

406

1
j

ON STYLE 87-91

place of the proper term, for example the eye of the vine, a
and so forth. (88) The parts of the body,b however, which
are called the ~~disk~~ (vertebra), the ~~key" (collarbone),
and the "combs" (back of the hand) derive their names
not from metaphor but from the physical resemblance.
(89) When we turn a metaphor into a simile in the way
I described,c we must aim at conciseness, and do no more
than prefix ~~like,~~ or else we shall have a poetic comparison instead of a simile. Take, for example, "like a gallant
hound which recklessly charges a boar" (from Xenophon)d and "like a horse let loose, kicking and proudly
prancing over the plain. "e Such descriptions no longer
seem similes but poetic comparisons, (90) and poetic
comparisons should not be used freely in prose nor without the greatest caution. This concludes my outline on
the subject of metaphor.
(91) Next, we should use compound words, but not
those in dithyrambic formations, for example ~~god
prodigied wanderings" or "the fiery-speared army of the
stars. "f They should be like those formed by usage. In
general, in all word formation I regard usage as the

l
I'

The connection of thought is unclear, but the term

metaphor is now restricted to analogical metaphor (cf. 78).
c See 80.
d Xen. Cyrop. 1.4.21 (cf. 274).
e Author unknown, an imitation of a famous simile in Hom.
Il. 6.506ff.
b

~'

o/

'

o/

'

'

'

,/.,. /

OTE TIS O"'TUTOr; L1T1TOr;, UKOO"TYJO"Ur; E1TL 'o/aTVYJ~

Wr; 0

'

'

/(;

OEO"fLOV U1ToppYJs ar;

()

~/

ELYJ 1TEOLOLO KpoaLVWV

Kv8u5wv.
f

PMG Adesp. 962(a) and (b).

407

DEMETRIUS
VOfL00ETa~ A.yovo-av Kat apxtTEKTOVa~, Ka'i TOULDE
1ro'AA.a ETEpa do-c/Ja'Aw~ o-vvTtOlio-av.

~Et fLEVTot

(92)

To o-vvOETov ovofLa OfLOV Ka'i 1TotKt'Aiav Ttva EK T'l]~

/
O""VV (} EO""EW~

Kat'

fLEYE

(}

0~,

~I
afLa

Kat'

Kat'

/
O""VVTOfLtav

OVOfLa yap TEO~o-ETat aVTL o'Aov TOV A.6yov,

TtvcL

oiov av T~V TOV O""LTOV KOJ.LtD~v o-tT07TOfL1TLav A.yn~

\ '
'
~I
""' f
1TOJ\V
yap
OVTW
fLEtsOV.

~'

/
Taxa

.,,
\ (} /
av
Kat' 1\V
EVTO~

ovofLaTo~ El~ A.6yov ETEpov Tpo1rov fLEt,ov yvotTo,

oiov O""LTOV 1TOfL1T~ aVTL o-tT07TOfL1TLa~. ( 93) OVOfLa
'

'

'(}

1'

aVTt 1\0yov Tt ETat, OtOV

c
W~

A. ,...

~---<

A.

8'
~~

::;:.EVO'fJWV lfJYJO""tV OTt

OVK ~v A.aj3ELV ovov ayptov, EL fLiJ oi L1T1TEL~ Dtao-TavTE~ OYJp/iJEv DtaDEXOfLEVOt, OVOJ.LaTt DYJAwv 1 OTt oi fLEV
' ~/
EOtWKOV,

"'
(}
01Tt0""
EV

~'

Otc

'
/
a1TYJVTWV

c
\
/
V1TEJ\aVVOVTE~

/
~I
'
"I
'
/
'
\
{3'a~'EO"" (} at.
1TpOo-W,
WO""TE
TOV
OVOV
EV
fLEO""qJ
a1TOJ\afL

<{Jv'AaT'TEo-Oat fLEVTOt DEL

7TOAAa 2

Tt0vat Ta Dt1T Aa
c
3 \ ,
'/
';"~
OVOfLaTa. TOVTO yap E E'o-t 1\0yov 1TEsOV TO EtOO~.
'

1"1

'

(94) Ta 8
'

1"1

'

1TE1TO.tY)J.LEVa OVOJ.LaTa opi,ovTat J.LEV Ta

KaTa

,,

fLtfLY)O""tV

' A.

'(}

EK'fJEPOfLEVa

1Ta

OV~

.,,

YJ

1TpayfLaTO'l,

''/"
/
"
( S)
~'
TO' cc O""tsE
Kat' TO' cc\J\a1TTOVTE'l,
9 1TOtEt,. . OE
[fLaAto-Ta] 4 J.LEya'Ao1TpE1TEtav Dta To oiov lfio<{Jot'l E.ot-

1'
OtOV

W~

'

/\

,. . c /

'

'

:JI

'

KEVat Kat fLal\tO""Ta TqJ S EVqJ" OV yap OVTa OVOfLaTa

\ /
'\ \ '
/
/
'
C/
A./
,./.. /
1\EyEt al\1\a TOTE ytVOfLEVa, Kat af.La 0""0'-fJOV Tt lfJatVE-

'
/
OVOJ.LaTO~

Tat
1

""

1'

KatVOV YEVEO""t'l, OtOV O""VVYJ

8r(A.wv Roberts: otov P.

3 EtEurL Victorius: EtEL P.

(}

/
Eta~

:JI

EOtKEV

DE'i 1roA.A.a Spengel: Dt1T A. a P.

1uA.urTa del. Richards.

A rare meaning of 1TOJ1-1T~, e.g. Th. 4.108.1.

b Xen. Anab. 1.5.2. The text is uncertain but concerns the
terse effect of the compound verb, DtaDEXOJl-EVoL, ..in relays."
a

408

ON STYLE 91-95

arbiter, usage which speaks of "lawgivers" and "master

builders," and forms many other such safe compounds.
(92) A compound word will usually, from the very fact
that it is composite, have variety, grandeur, and simultaneously conciseness. One word will stand for an entire
phrase. For instance, you might speak of "grain convoy"
instead of "the transport of grain," using a much more
striking expression. Still, the greater impact may sometimes result from the converse process of resolving a
word into a phrase, "convoya of grain," for instance,
instead of ''grain convoy." (93) An example of a word
replacing a phrase is Xenophon's sentence: "It was not
possible to capture a wild ass unless the mounted men
separated and hunted in relays."b By the single word
"relays" he says that some horsemen gave chase from
behind, while others rode forward to n1eet them, so that
the wild ass was caught in the middle. The use, however,
of many compoundsc should be. avoided, since it oversteps the limits of prose.
(94) Onomatopoeic words are defined as those which
are uttered in imitation of an emotion or action, for example "hissed" and "lapping" (size and laptontes ).d (95) They
create grandeur by their resemblance to inarticulate
sounds, and above all by their novelty. The speaker is not
using existing words but words which are only then coming into existence, and at the same time the creation of a
new word is thought clever, as though it were the creation
Cf. e.g. Ar. Rhet. 1404b23. Less probably, keeping the text
of the mss, translate "The doubling of double compounds ... ," a
warning against triple compounds, cf. Ar. Po. 1457a34.
d Hom. Od. 9.394; Il. 16.161 (cf. 220).
c

409

DEMETRIUS

<o> 1 ovop.,arovpywv TOL~ 1TpWTOl8

, /
2
ovop.,ara. < ... >
(96) !roxacrreov <o-Dv> 3 1rpwrov p.,v

yovv

EV

""'

'

/()

TC[) 1TOtOVfLEVC[) OVOfLaTt Kat (TVVYJ

/

op.,otOTYJTO~

'

'/

rov cracf>ov~

OV~,

ra KEtfLEVa ovop.,ara,

1rpo~

fJep.,EVOl8 Ta

w~

!)/

E1TEtTa

""'

TYJ~

'.rl..

p.,YJ 'f'pvyt-

'Etv ~ crKvBi,ELV TL~ 8o(Et p.,era(v EAAYJVL,WV TOL~

ovop.,acrt. 4 ( 97) 1TOtYJTEOV fLEVTOL -Y}roL ra ILTJ wvop.,acrfLElJa, otov
!)'
opyava

~/

'?

aVTOV, OtOV

,/....

Ta TVfL1TaJ--'a Ka'i raAAa TWV p.,a'AfJaKWV

KLVaLOta~

c/>avTtcrT-r}v
,

~
~

W~

5 Et1TWV
, '
/\
' EAE'\
Kat' 'A pLcrTOTEAYJ~
TOV

1Tapa
'

ra

KELfLEVa

..,./.,. /

7Tapovop.,a,ovra

!)/ ..,./.,.

'

'

TOll crKa'f'LTYJV TlS E'f'YJ TOV TYJV crKa-

, /

, 'A

'f'YJV EpEcrcrovra, KaL

/\

'

, /

'?

pLcrTOTEA YJ~ TOV aVTLTYJV OtOV

TOV p.,ovov avrov ovra. ( 98) Sevocf>wv

~~YJAEAt(" 6

cf>YJcrtv ~~o crrparo~," 7 rT]v rov EAEAEv dvaf36YJcrLv ~v

,
Q/
~
'
8
""'
/
, /
aVEfJOa 0 crrparo~ (TVVEXW~ 1Tapa1TOLYJcra~ OVOfLaTL.
1

aadd. Rutherford.

lacunam statui, ut transeamus ad conficta et declinata, cf.

etiam 98 ws- Ef/>YJv.
3 oilv addidi.
4 eAAYJVt,wv To"is- ovoJLaa-t Lockwood: eAAYJVLKo"is- ovoJLao-t
P: eAAYJVLKwv ovoJLaTwv Dresd.
5 an Ktva8ta?
6
~AEAt~E Victorius: ~AAa~Ev P.
7 o-TpaTos- Victorius: o-TpaTYJyos- P.
8
o-TpaTos- Victorius: o-TpaTYJ'YDS' P.
a

410

94-95 recognise only onomatopoeic neologism, 97-98

ON STYLE 95-98

of a new usage. So the creator of new words is like those

who originally created language. < ... >a
(96) The first aim in the formation of neologisms is to
be clear and Rt usage; the next, to follow the analogy of
established words, in order to avoid the appearance of
introducing Phrygian or Scythian speech in our Greek.
(97) Neologisms should be either newly invented forms,
as was done by the person who described the drums and
other musical instruments of the effeminate priests as
"lecheries,''h or by Aristotle when he invented "elephanteer" ;c or the writer may create secondary meanings
from existing words, for example when someone gave the
name ''boatman"d to someone rowing a boat, and Aristotle called a man who lived alone by himself''selnsh.''e (98)
Xenophon similarly says, ''the army hurrah'd,"f denoting
by the derivative the shout ''hurrah" which the army
abruptly introduce neologism from .compounds and derivatives,
and in 98 "as I said" lacks reference. I posit a lacuna, with the
general sense, ''There are also derivative neologisms; they are
full of risk, even in poetry." For the three types, cf. fingere, confingere, declinare in Varro, Ling. Lat. 5. 7, a classification of the
Alexandrians.
b Author unknown.
cAr. Hist. Anim. 497b28.
d Author unknown, cf. Strabo 17.1.49. The form could alternatively (though it is not attested) have the meaning "digger" (cf.
a-KacpEv~).

Ar.fr. 668 Rose (cf. 144, 164). The translation attempts a

similar pun on self(ish)/being by one's self. Elsewhere avTLTYJ~
refers to homemade wine, i.e. wine made by one's self.
fXen. Anab. 5.2.14. Here (also Anab. 1.8.18) it refers to the
cry eleleu, but normally it means "to whirl around, cause to
vibrate."
e

411

DEMETRIUS

E1Turc/JaAES ~EVTOL ToiJpyov, w~ 1 EcPYJV, Kat aVTOLc; TOL~

1TOLYJTaL~. Kat TO 0L1TAovv ~EVTOL ovo~a ELOo~ av liYJ
/
'
/
""'
'
'
(}/
!>I
1TE1TOLYJ~EVOV OVOfLaTo~ 1TaV yap TO CT"VVTL E~EVOV EK
Ttvwv yE.yovEv DYJAOVOTL.
( 99) l\lEyaAEtov SE. Tt EcrTL Kat ~ dA.A.Y}yopia, Kat
/ \
'
""'
'
\
""'
'e'
~
~
A
/
~aJ\LCTTa EV TaL~ a1TELJ\aL~, OLOV W~ 0
uLOVVCTLOc;,
OTL
2 xa~O/(} EV. " 3 (100) EL' 0~'
~~ OL~ TETTtyEc;
/
'
""'
!>I
aVTOL~ q_..crOVTaL
A
/
OVTW~ a1TJ\W~ EL1TEV, OTL TE~EL TYJV
OKptoa xwpav,
Kat opytAWTEpo~ av f.c/JaVYJ Kat EVTEAEcrTEpo~. vvv 8
WCT"1TEp crvyKaAVfL~aTL TOV Aoyov Tfj aAAYJyop[q..
KEXPYJTat 1rav yap To v1rovoovfLEvov c/Jof3EpwTEpov,
Kat aAAo~ ELKU,EL aAAo TL" 0 S crac/J~ Kat c/JavEpov, 4
KaTac/JpovELcreaL ELKO~, WCT1TEp TOV~ a1TODEOVfLEVOV~.
(101) OLO Kat Ta ~VCTT~pta EV aAAYJyopiat~ AEYETaL
'!>/
\
t
',../.,./
1rp0~. EK1TAYJS LV Kat 'f'PLKYJV,
WCT1TEp EV CTKOTcp 5 Kat'
:JI
~'
'\ \
/
/
6 Kat' TYJ""'
VVKTL./ EOLKE
OE
Kat' YJ~ UJ\1\
YJYOpta
Tcp""' CTKOTcp
VVKTL. ( 102) cf>vA.cf-TTEcrOat fLEVTOL Ka1Tt TaVTYJ~ TO
CTVVEXE~, we; ~T] alvty~a 0 Aoyo~ ~~LV YEVYJTat, oiov
To E1Tt Tij~ crtKva~ Tij~ laTptKij~ f:~avSp' EtDov 1rvpt
\ '
' ' avEpt
' /
\\ YJCTaVTa.
/
" Kat' OL~ A/
xai\KOV
E1T
KOJ\1\
aKWVE~
7TOAAa EV aAAYJyoptaL~ EAEyov EKc/Jof3ovVTE~, oiov TO
~~LlLOVVCTLO~ EV Kop[v(}cp" 1Tp0~ <t>iA.t1T1TOV, Kat aA.A.a
""'
' 01\tya.
'\
TOLaVTa
OVK
ttl

ttl

,...

.-;-

ttl

,...

ttl

1
2

3
4

412

w~ Victorius: Kat w~ P.
~U'OV'Tat edd.: apwvTat

/~

P.

xaJLo8Ev M (cf. 243): xaJLa0Ev P.

~avEpov Goeller: ~o{3Epov P.

'

ON STYLE 98-102

kept continuously shouting. The practice is, however, as I

said, a full of risk even for the poets themselves. Note too
that any compound is a form of neologism, for anything
which is composite must, of course, derive from preexisting parts.
(99) Allegory is also impressive, particularly in threats,
for example that of Dionysius, "their cicadas will sing
from the ground."b (100) If he had said openly that he
would ravage the land of Locris, he would have shown
more anger but less dignity. As it is, he has shrouded his
words, as it were, in allegory. What is implied always
strikes more terror, since its meaning is open to different
interpretations, whereas what is clear and plain is apt to
be despised, like men who are stripped of their clothes.
(101) This is why the mysteries are revealed in allegories,
to inspire the shuddering and awe associated with darkness and night. In fact allegory is not unlike darkness and
night. (102) Here again in the c~se of allegory we should
avoid a succession of them, or our words become a riddle,
as in the description of the surgeon's cupping glass: "I saw
a man who had with fire welded bronze to a man."c The
Spartans too often spoke in allegory to evoke fear, as in
the message to Philip, <<Dionysius in Corinth,''d and many
other similar threats.
See note on 95.
b Stesichorus according to Ar. Rhet.
1412a22-23 ( = PMG 28l(b)); cf. 243.
c Cleobulina 1.1 West; cf. Ar. Rhet. 1405bl.
d Cf. 8, 241.
a

5
6

(TKOTW

a-Kor:U
~

1395al-2

and

Victorius: avrw P.
Victorius: avrw (sic) P.

413

DEMETRIUS

( 103) (H
i' \

'

f.Lai\LCT'Ta YJ

i'

Kat

'

'

aV'TWV 'TWV

'

'

'

V7TOVOY]fJEvTa

oiov w~ Sevocpwv, (('Ta

~
'Ta f.LEV OL

'

1"\

1"\

f)

i'

i'

EVLa yap fLY] PYJ EV'Ta f.LEL~

'
'
KaL' yap
EV

f.LLKp07TpE7TYJ~

((

3/

i'

a7TOCTLW7TYJCTL~

~aiveTaL

'ova

7Tij f.LEV f.LEyaAo7TpE7TryJ~, Kat

CTVV'Top.J.a

f.LaAAov

i'

OLI\OyLaL~

i'
i'
f)
YLVE'TaL
f.LEYE 0~,

apf.La'Ta cpepE'TO,'' ~YJCTL,

8
,./.,.

1rij

~'
~ '
'
'Ta' OE
KaL' OL
aV'TWV

i'

1"\

~LI\LWV,

'TWV 7TOAEfLLWV., 1ro'Av yap ov'Tw fLEL,ov, ,ry EL7TEP 6>8'

';"

((

EL7TEV,

'

'

1"\

avTwv."

(104)

1"\

i'

~LI\LWV

7TOA'Aaxov

'TOV evfJo~, oiov ((~

'TWV

,./.,.

KaL OLa 'TWV

'

i'

YVWf.LYJ ~v, w~ EL~ 'Ta~ 'Ta~EL~

(E\1\1\\ YJVWV
,
'\ ,
1
, ~
',
, ,
,
1\WV'TWV KaL OLaKO'f'OV'TWV aV'TL 'TOV
1"\

~'

'

TaL OE KaL YJ
(

1"\

Kat 'TO 7TAayLov f.LEL,OV

((8LevoovvTo 'AaCTaL Kat OLaKol/JaL."

YJ

'

KaL OLa 'TWV 7TOI\Ef.LLWV

,./.,.

i'

Of.LOLO'TYJ~

i'

'

1"\

i'

'

A..

'~/

'

" _WCT7TEp
~~
((A''La~
pov,

'

CTvf.Lf3f3'AYJ(

'TWV OVOf.La'TWV KaL YJ

KaL yap 'TO

~aLVOf.LEVYJ"

(105)

0~'

0(

OVCT~WVOV

"

,./.,.

i'

\\

1"\'

7TOI\I\axov OYKYJ-

''
aLEV

f.LEya~

OVCT~WVLa

',.~...'

E~

~'E K'TOpL. "

1ro'Av yap f.LUAAov Tov -A-"avTa f.LEyav v~YJVEv ~ Twv

~ i'
i'
\
t
f3 i'
'
/~
OVO CTVf.L7TI\Y}C:, L~ 'TYJ~ E7T'Ta OELOV aCT7TLOO~.
1"\

( 106) To 8 E7Ti~WVYJf.La
3/
av

'TL~

"t

'

KaAOVf.LEVOV opt,OL'TO f.LEV

~'

3/

1"\

'

CT'Ta'TOV v ToZ~ 'AoyoL~. Tij~ yap 'Atew~

'TEL,

iJ

S
~I

E7TLKOCTfLEL. V7TYJPE'TEL f.LEV

'

i'

f)

'

3/

7]

f.LEV V7TYJpE-

iJ 'TOLa8e,

OLaV 'TaV VaKLV OV EV OVpECTL

i'

7TOLf.LEVE~

7TOCTCTt Ka'TaCT'TEt{3ovCTLV,

f.A.wvTwv Xen. codd.: f.A.BovTwv P.

Xen. Anab. 1.8.20. Compare anthypallage in 60.

414

i'

1\Ef:, LV E7TLKOCTf.LOVCTaV, ECT'TL OE 'TO f.LEyai\07TpE7TE-

3/

avopE~

ON STYLE 103-106

(103) In certain cases conciseness, and especially apo-

siopesis, produce grandeur, since some things seem more

significant when they are not openly expressed but only
implied. In other cases, however, triviality is the result.
In fact, grandeur may result from repeating words, as in
Xenophon, ''The chariots rushed on, some of them right
through the ranks of their friends, some right through the
ranks of their enemies.~~a This wording is far more striking
than if he had said, "right through the ranks of both
friends and enemies alike.~~ (104) Often too an indirect
construction is more impressive than the direct, for example "the intention was that of charging the ranks of the
Greeks and cutting their way through,~~ rather than "they
intended to charge and cut their way through.n (105) The
assonance of the words and a conspicuous lack of
euphony have also contributed to its impact. For
cacophony is often impressive, as in the words, "mighty
Ajax aimed always at Hector,~~c where the clash of the two
sounds brings out the greatness of Ajax more vividly than
his famous shield with its seven layers of oxhide.
( 106) What is called the epiphoneme may be defined
as additional decorative detail. It is the most imposing
kind of verbal grandeur. Language can be functional; it
can also be decorative. It is functional in a passage like
this, "as the hyacinth in the mountains is by shepherds
trampled underfoot,n but what comes next adds decoraAnab. 1.8.10. Indirect construction is at least primarily the use of subordinate participial constructions, cf. 198.
The example (so 105) also illustrates assonance (from the endings, -on/-on/-onton/-onton, cf. 25) and clashing sounds (including hiatus of long syllables, cf. 72).
c Hom. Il. 16.358 (cf. 48).
h Xen.

415

DEMETRIUS
cpvpov aveo~" E1TEV~VEKTaL yap TOVTO TOL~ 1TpOE~

EVYJVEYfJ.i.voL~1

DE

fLEa-Try

Koa-1-Lo~ a-acpw~ Kat Ka'A'Ao~.

TOVTWV Kat ~ f:()fL~pov 1TOtYJa-L~, oiov

( 107)

,
......
/() ' , ' ,
""'
,
EK Ka1TVOV KaTE YJK , E1TEL OVKETL TOL(JLV Eq>KEL,
/

1'
OL~

TO'

/
1Tapo~

T pOLYJVOE
/ ~ KLWV
' KaTE1\EL1TEV
/\

'08va-a-Ev~.
1Tpo~

8'

ETL Ka'L

TODE fLEL,ov E1TL cppEa-'Lv EfL{3aAE

DaLfLWV,
fL~1Tw~ olvw()ivTE~, ptv a-T~a-avTE~ E.v VfLLV,

aAA ~Aov~ Tpwa-YJTE.

EiTa E1TLcpwvEL, (t:aVTO~ yap EcpEAKETaL av8pa a-tDY]po~." ( 108) Kat Ka()6A.ov TO E1TtcpwVYJfLa TOL~ TWV
\

,,

1TJ\0V(JLWV EOLKEV E1TLOELYfLaa-tV,

YEL(JOL~

'

1\EYW Kat

rptyA.vcpot~ Kat 1Topcpvpat~ 1TAaTEtat~ oiov yap TL

Kat avTo Tov E.v 'Aoyot~ .1r'Aovrov a-YJfLEtov E.a-rtv.

( 109) Llo~ELEV 8' av Kat TO f.v()Vfi./Y}fLa E1TtcpwV~fLa

TO~ Ei86~ TL Eivcu, ovK ov fLEv ( ov yap Koa-fLov
EVEKEV,

aAAa U1TODEL~EW~ 1TapaAafLf3avETat), 1TATJV

E1TLAEYOfLEVOV YE E1TtcpWVYJfLaTLKW~. ( 110) wa-aVTW~

1 1TpoetevTJVE'}'fLEVOL'l
a

416

Sappho 105(c) L-P.

Lockwood:

1TpOEVYJVE'}'fLEVOL'l

P.

DE

--r
l
I

ON STYLE 106-111

tive detail, <<and on the ground the purple flower. . . .>>a

For this addition to the preceding lines clearly adds decoration and beauty. (107) Homer's poetry is full of examples, for example
I have put the weapons away, out of the smoke,
since they no longer look
like those which Odysseus left behind earlier when
he went to Troy.
Moreover a god has put this yet greater fear in my
heart,
that you may become drunk, start up a quarrel
and wound each other.
Then he adds the detail, for iron of itself draws men to
fight.b (108) In general, the epiphoneme resembles the
things which only the rich display-cornices, triglyphs,
and broad bands of purple.c For it is in itself a sort of richness in speech.
(109) The enthymeme might be thought to be a kind
of epiphoneme. But it is not, since it is used for proof, not
decoration-though admittedly it may come last in the
manner of an epiphoneme. (110) Similarly a maxim
resembles in some ways a detail added to a previous statement, but it in its turn is not an epiphoneme, since it
often comes first and only sometimes takes the final position of an epiphonerne. (Ill) Again, take the line the
fool! he was not going to escape hard fate:d that would
Hom. Od. 16.288-94 = 19.7-13 (with omissions).
c In juxtaposition to cornices and triglyphs, the broad bands
of purple will be an architectural feature, such as bands of paint
on metopes or walls. Less probably, it is purple cloth, as in the
"purple patch>' ofHor. Ars Po. 15-16.
d Hom. Il. 12.113.
b

417

DEMETRIUS

\
!

ELYJ" ov yap E1TtAEYETat

ov8

E1TtKOCYfLEL, ov8' OAW~

E1Ttwv~fLaTt EOtKEV aA.A.a 1Tpoa-wv~fLaTt ~ E1TtKEp/

TOfL'Y}fLaTt.

(112) To

~'

OE

' EV
, 1\0yot~
\ /
t:l
' fLEyai\0\
1TOt'Y}TtKOV
OTt
fLEV

1TpE1TE~, Kat TvA.ip 8ijA.6v aa-t, 1TATJV OL fLEV J'VfLVii

1ravv xpwvTat Tfj fLtfL~a-et Twv 1TOt'Y}Twv, fLaA.A.ov 8

/
' \ \ ' fLETa (} ECJ"Et,
/
OV' fLtfL'Y}CYEt
al\1\a

/
eH poOOTO~.
/~
Ka (} a1TEp

( 113) 8ovKv8i8TJ~ fLEVTot Kav A.af3n 1rapa 1TOtYJTov Tt,

i8[w~ avTip XPWfLEVO~ t8tov TO ATJ4>0v 1TOtEL, oiov 0
fLEV 1TOt'Y}TTJ~ E1TL Tij~ Kp~T'Y}~

TJ,

Kp~T'Y} Tt~ yaZ' Ea-Tt 1 fLECY([) E.v'L OtV01Tt 1TOVT(f),

\
'
/
Kai\'Y}
Kat' 1TtEtpa,

1TEptppVTO~.

fLEV 8Tj E1Tt TOV fLEyeOov~ E.xp~a-aTO Tip ee1TEptppv-

TO~,

"

~'

OE

S OVKVOtO'Y}~
~ /~
e
,....
OfLOVOEtV

,
TOV~

\
/
...ttKEI\tWTa~

Ka'Aov otETat eivat, yij-~ ovTa~ fLta~ Kat 1TEptppvTov,

' '2 1ravTq.,
/
' /
""
' ' V'Y}CYOV
I
Kat' TavTa
Et1Twv,
Y'YJV
TE avTt
Kat'
/
e
/
t:l
t::l
\1
1TEptppvTOV WCYaVTW~, OfLW~ ETEpa 1\EyEtJJ OOKEt, OtOTt
~

1"'1~/

ovx w~ 1Tp0~ fLEyeOo~ aAAa 1Tpo~ OfLOVOtav aVTOL~

exp~a-aTO. 1TEpt fLEV 8Tj fLEyaAo1TpE1TEta~ Toa-avTa.

(114) t::'f!a-1TEp 8e 1TapaKEtTat avAa TtVa aa-TELOt~
Tta-tv, oiov Oappet fLEV TO Opaa-o~,

T] 8'

ala-xvv'Y} Tfj

al8oZ, Tov avTov Tpo1rov Kat Tij~ E.pfLYJVEta~ To'i~

1"'1

xapaKT'Y}pCYtJJ 1TapaKEtVTat Ot'Y}fLapT'Y}fLEVOt

1 yat,..,, EO"'Tt
''
2

418

ravra P.

' ' P
co dd . H om.: y ' EO"'Tt

TtVE~.

""

1rpw-

'

i
1

ON STYLE 111-114

not be an epiphoneme either. For it is not a later addition, nor is it decorative, nor is it in any way like an epiphoneme, but rather an exclamatory address or a rebuke.
( 112) Poetic vocabulary in prose adds grandeur, as, in
the words of the proverb, even a blind man can see. a Still,
some writers imitate the poets quite crudely, or rather,
they do not imitate but plagiarise them, as Herodotus has
done. (113) Contrast Thucydides. Even if he borrows
vocabulary from a poet, he uses it in his own way and
makes it his own property. Homer, for instance, says of
Crete: "There is a land of Crete, in the midst of the winedark sea, beautiful, fertile, wave-surrounded.~~b Now
Homer used the word "wave-surroundedn to be impressive. Thucydides, for his part, thinks it right that
the Sicilians should act in unity, as they belong to one
single "wave-surrounded land.nc He uses the same
words as Homer, "land~~ instead of "islandn and "wavesurrounded,n yet he seems to be saying something different. The reason is that he uses the words not to impress
but to recommend unity. This concludes my account of
the grand style.
(114) But just as in the sphere of ethics certain bad
qualities lie close to certain good ones (rashness, for
example, next to bravery, and shame to modest respect),
so too the types of style have neighbouring faulty styles.
Cf. 239, Paroem. Gr. ii.156.
b Hom. Od. 19.172-73.
c Th. 4.64.3 (the speaker is Hermocrates of Syracuse) To 8
t /
/
,,
' t
/
,. .,
,
'
s VfL1TaV YELTOVa~
OVTa~ Kat s VVOtKOV~ fLta~ xwpa~ Kat 1TEptp/
~'
\'
~
\'
The USe 0 f
pvTOV
Kat' "
OVOfLa EV
KEKI\'Y}fLEVOV~
.::.;tKEJ\tWTa~.
1TEptppvro~ in Hdt. 4.42.2 and 4.45.1 may make the general reference to Herodotus in 112 more pointed.
a

419

I
l

DEMETRIUS

ra 8 1TEpt rov yEtTvtwvro~ T~ fLEyaA.o7TpE1TEt A.E.~o

fLEV. OVOfLa fLEV oilv avT~ lfivxpov, opL,ETat 8 70
tfivxpov 8Eocppaa-To~ ovTw~, lfivxpov a-Tt To v7TEp(3aA.A.ov TTJV OtKELaV a1TayyEA.iav, otov eea1Tvv8aKWTO~
OV rpa1TE,OVTat KVA.tt," avTt TOV a1TVBfLEVO~ E1Tt Tpa7TE'YJ~ KvA.t~ ov TiBErat. To yap 1TpayfLa a-fLtKpov ov
ov 8E.XETat oyKov Toa-ovrov A.E.~Ew~.
(115) rivETat f-LEVTOt Kat TO lfivxpov EV Tpta-iv,
~'
\
'
, ~
W(J"7TEp
Kat' TO' fLEyaJ\07TpE7TE~
YJ.,, yap
EV OtaVOUf,
KaBa7TEp E1Tt TOV KvKA.W7TO~ A.tBo{3oA.ovVTO~ TTJV vavv
TOV '08va-a-E.w~ EcPYJ Tt~, eecPEPOfLEVOV TOV A.iBov aiyE~
EVEfLOVTO EV avT~., EK yap TOV V1TEp{3E{3A. YJfLEVOV T1j~
8tavoia~ Kat d8vvaTov ~ lfivxpoTYJ~. (116) v 8 A.E.~Et
0 ,Apta-TOTEA.YJ~ cpY]a-t yivEa-Bat TETpaxw~, < ... > 1 w~
'A\1\KtOUfLa~
~ /
ee e
'
e~
""'
''
'
/
~~
vypov
topwTa
YJ.,, EV
(J"VV (} ET(f),
OTaV
8tBvpafLf3w8YJ~ a-vvTEBfJ TJ 8i7TA.wa-t~ rov OVOfLaTo~,
e
'
ee '
\ /
"
'' ,1..
'
'' 2
'' \ \
~~
W~ TO
EpYJfL01TJ\aVo~.
6-pYJ
Tt~, Kat Et
Tt ai\J\0
OVTW~
e
/
/
~'
'
'
,/...
""'
'
~1.
/
V1TEpoyKOV.
ytVETat
OE Kat EV fLETa'f'opq_ TO ~vxpov,
eeTpEfLOVTa Kat wxpa Ta 1Tpayf-LaTa. 3" TETpaxw~ f-LEV
ovv KaTa TTJV A.E.~tV OVTW~ av yiyvotTO. (117) a-vvBE(J"t~ 8 lfivxpa i] fLTJ EvpvBfLO~, 4 dA.A.a apvBfLO~ oila-a
~ '
/
' 5 Exova-a,
,,
~'
/~
Kat' ota
1Tavrwv
fLaKpav
wa-7TEp
YJ( TotaoE,
/

1 Iacunam

stat. Victorius.
el add. edd.
3 1rpayfLara Victorius (cf. Ar. Rhet. 1406b9): ypafLfLUTa P.
4 evpvfJ/LO~ Finckh: eppvfJfLO~ (sic) P.
5 fLaKpav Schneider: fLaKpov P.
2

420

ON STYLE 114-117

We will discuss first the faulty style which is adjacent to

the grand style. Its name is the frigid style, and frigidity is
defined by Theophrastusa as "that which exceeds its
appropriate form of expression," for example "an unbased
cup is not tabled," instead of "a cup without a base is not
put on a table."h The trivial subject does not allow such
magniloquence.
(115) Frigidity, like grandeur, has three aspects. It
may be in the thought, as in one writer~s description of the
Cyclops throwing a rock at Odysseus' ship, ccas the rock
was rushing along, goats were browsing on it.~~c This is
frigid because the thought is exaggerated and impossible.
(116) In diction, Aristotled lists four types, < ... >, for
example Alcidamas~ c'moist sweat" ;e from compounds,
when the words are compounded in a dithyrambic manner, for example ccdesert-wandering~'f in one writer, and
any other .similarly pompous expressions; and from
metaphors, for example ccthe situation was trembling and
pale."g These then are the four types of frigidity in diction. (11 7) Composition is frigid when it lacks good
rhythm, or has no rhythm when it has exclusively long sylTheophr. F 686 Fortenbaugh.
h TrGF iv.Soph. Triptolemus F 611.
c Author unknown, a grotesque elaboration on Hom. Od.
9.481 ,ryKE 8' U7Toppf,~ar;; Kopvcp~v opEor;; fLeyaAOLO.
d Cf. Ar. Rhet. 1405b34ff for the four types of frigid diction:
compounds, glosses, epithets, and metaphors. Aristotle helps us
to fill the lacuna in our text, which will have covered glosses and
e Alcidamas, Jr. 15 Sauppe, the first
introduced epithets.
example of frigid epithet in Ar. Rhet. 1406a21.
f Author unknown, not one of Aristotle's examples.
g Gorgias B16 D-K; cf. Ar. Rhet. 1406b8-10 xA.wpa Kat
'
,
avat-11-a ra 7rpayfLaTa.
a

421

DEMETRIUS

~~i}Kwv Y]J.LWV EL~ TTJV xwpav' 7TUCTYJ~ TJJ.LWV opfJT]~

OVCTYJ~,

ov8v yap EXEt A.oytKOJJ ov8 acrcpaAE~ 8u1

TTJV CTVVEXEtav TWJJ J.LaKpwv crv'AA.a{jwv. (118) l/Jvxpov
~\
\
\
I
()I
""'
()I
I
\
OE Kat TO J.LETpa Tt EJJat CTVVEXYJ, Ka a7TEp TtVE~, Kat
\
\
I
\""'
I
I
\
fLY] KI\E7TTOfLEVa V7TO TYJ~ crvvEXEta~ 7TOtYJfLa yap
aKatpov l/Jvxpov, WCT7TEp Ka'i TO V7TEpJ.LETpov. ( 119)
r
Kat Ka 01\0V 07TOt01J Tt ECTTtJJ YJ al\a':,OVEta,
TOtOVTOV
KaL TJ l/JvxpOTYJ~ 0 TE yap aAa,WV Ta J.LTJ 7TpOCTOVTa
aVTlp aVXEt OJ.LW~ W~ 7TpOCTOJJTa, 0 TE J.LtKpOt~
7TpayJ.LaCTt1J 7TEpt{jaA.A.wv oyKoJJ Ka'i aVTO~ EV J.LtKpois
r
al\a':,OVEVOJ.LEVlp EOtKEJJ. Kat 07TOt01J Tt TO EJJ TYJ 7TapotJ.Ltft KOCTJ.LOVJ.LEVOJJ V7TEpov, TOtOVTOV Tt ECTTt Kat TO EV
TD E.pJ.LYJVELft E.~YJPJ.LEvov E.v J.LtKpois 7rpayJ.Lacrtv.
( 120) KaLTOt TtJJE~ cpacrt OELV Ta J.LtKpa J.LEyaA.w~
AEyEtJJ,. Ka'i CTYJJ.LELOJJ TOVTO i}yovvrat V7TEp{jaA.A.ovCTYJ~
~
I
'
'
~' IJ \
1
'
e 1
ovvaJ.LEW~.
Eyw oE
OI\VKparEt
J.LEV
Tip""' PYJTOpt
crvyxwpw EYKWJ.LUL,OJJTt < ... > 1 w~ 'AyaJ.LEJ.LVOVa EV
avrtfJETOt~ Ka'i J.LETaopa'L~ KaL 7TaCTt TOL~ EYKWJ.Lta'"'
'
~'
r
~~
r
,
CTTtKOt~ Tp07TOt~ E7Tat':,1J yap, OVK ECT7TOVOa':,E1J, Kat
aVTO~ TTJ~ ypacpi]~ 0 oyKo~ 7Taiyvt6v ECTTt. 7TaL,Et1J
'
~'
'C ECTTW, W~
e
...f...
~'
J.LEV
OYJ
Ec;
o/YJJ.Lt,
TO OE
7Tp7TOV EV 7TaJJTt
I
...f... \
I
""'
'
~~
...f... I
e
7rpayJ.LaTt
'PVI\aKTEov,
TOVT
ECTTt
7rpocr'Popw~ EPJ.LYJ1
\
\
\
""'
\
/\
I
JJEVTEOV, Ta J.LEV J.LtKpa J.LtKpW~, Ta J.LEyal\a OE J.LEya~

'

()

'""'

""\

....

!)\

....

!)

""'<:1

!)

.....

~,

'~

<:1

'!)

""'/

'

'

'""

<:/

.........

!) \

""'

.....

/!)

\!)

!)

'

'

~\

1 lacunam

stat. Victorius, e.g. 8EpcrtTYJV Maass.

Author unknown (cf. 42); the second phrase lacks a subject, e.g. "city."
a

422

ON STYLE 117-120

lables, for example "arriving inside our land, since it now

is all stirred up" (hekon hernan eis ten chorlin, plises
hem8n orthes ouses). a Owing to the unbroken succession
of long syllables, this sentence is quite unlike good prose
and finds no safe footing. (118) It is also frigid to introduce, as some do, continuous metrical phrases, since
their continuity makes them obtrude. A line of verse in
prose is out of place, and as frigid as too many syllables to
the line in verse.b (119) In general, there is a sort of analogy between boastfulness and frigidity. The boaster pretends that qualities belong to him even if they do not,
while the writer who adds pomp to trifles is himself like
the man who boasts about trifles. The use of a heightened
style on a trivial subject recalls the proverbial ''ornamented pestle."c
(120) There are, however, people who hold that we
should use grand language on slight themes, and regard it
as a sign of exceptional skill. For my own part, I excuse
the rhetorician Polycratesd who eulogised < ... > like an
Agamemnon with antithesis, metaphor, and every artifice
of eulogy. He was being playful and not in earnest; the
very inflation of his writing is part of the play. So play, as I
say, is legitimate, but otherwise preserve propriety, whatever the subject; or in other words, use the relevant style,
Or alternatively "as metre which is too regular."
c Paroem. Gr. i.459.
d Polycrates, Art. Scr. B.xxi.11; he specialised in paradoxical
encomia of villains and trifles such as pots, pebbles, and mice. In
the lacuna add a name such as Busiris, the wicked king who was
the subject of his most famous encomium, or the ugly Thersites
(cf. 163). For an extant 1Tatyvtov see Gorgias' Helen (cf. Hel.
,
' , ,
' ' ~'
,
)
21 tE\J\EVYJ~
fLEV E')IKWfLtOV, EfLOV OE 1TatyVtOV .
b

423

DEMETRIUS

i
l

'Awe;, (121) Ka8a7TEp 5Evowv E7Tt Tov TYJAE{3oa 7TOTaJLOV JLLKpov OVTOc; Kat KaAov cPYJO"LV, ~~oiJToc; 8 7TOTaJLOc; ~v JLEyac; JLEV ov, KaAoc; 8'' TV yap f3paxVTYJTL
ri}c; a-vvBEa-Ewc; Kat TV a7To'Arr}fEt riJ ELc; TO ~~8'' JLOVOV
ovK E7TEOEtfEv TJJLtV JLLKpov 7TOTaJL6v. ETEpoc; 8 Ttc;
EPJLYJVEVWV OJLOLOV T0 TYJAE/30(/: 1TOTaJLOV 1 f.YJ, we;
~~a7TO TWV AavptKWV opf.wv OPJLWJLEVOc; EK8t8ot Ec;
,\
, Ka () a7TEp
,
' N ELI\OV EPJLYJVEvwv
,
(} al\aa-a-av,
rov
KaTar"
.,,
'
~'I
, f3 a/\1\0VTa.
"\ \
"
KPYJJLVL~.::,OJLEVov YJ rov
a-rpov EJL
7TavTa
olJv Ta rotavTa lfivxporYJc; KaAEtTat. ( 122) yivETat
~I
~
JLEVTOL Ta JLLKpa JLEyal\a ETEpov
Tp07TOV, OV ota
TOV
a7TpE7TOVc; d'A'A' EVLOTE V7T' avayKY}c;" oiov OTaV JLLKpa
KaTopBwa-avTa '"itva a-TpaTYJyov E.faipEtv f3ovAWJLEBa
we; JLEya'Aa KaTwpBwKOTa, <~> 2 oiov OTL opoc; EV
~/
'
/
'
,
,
/
A aKEO(LLJLOVL TOV 7TEptEpywc; Kat OVK E7TLXWPLWc;
,./...
/
,
/
/
3
'
, "()
O"'Patpta-avTa
EJLaO"Tty~a-EV"
TOVTq>
yap
aVTO
EV
JLLKP0 aKova-Bijvat OVTL E7TLTpaycp8ovJLEV, we; oi TU
JLLKpa 7TOVYJPU f.()YJ. EWVTEc; o8ov TOte; JLEL,OO"L 7TOVYJpotc; avotyvvova-tv, Kat OTt E7TL Tote; JLLKpotc; 7TapavoJLrrJJLaa-tv XPTJ Ko'Aa,Etv JLa'A'Aov, ovK e1rt Tote; JLEya\
'
/
,
/
4 ~~ ,
~ /
/\OLe;.
Kat' TYJV
7TapOLJLLaV
E7TOLO"OJLEV,
apxYJ' OE
TOL
iJJLLO"V 7TaVTOc;," we; EOLKVtav TOVTq> 5 T0 O"JLLKP0 KaK0,
~/
, ~ ' KaKOV
' JLLKpov
/ EO"TLV.
,
( 123) OVTWc;
~/
'
YJ.,, Kat'6 OTL
OVOEV
JLEV
't,
, ,
,
,
'C ,
,
OYJ Es EO"TW Kat TO JLLKpov KaTop 8WJLa Es atpEtV JLEya,
~""~\

'

'

1""1,

/\

'~'

,,

1""1

~,

1 rroTap.,ov

Schneider: flu men Lat.: rroTap.,i{J P.

3 TDlJTlp edd.: TO'VTo P.
~ add. Roberts.
4 Erroia-op.,Ev Hemsterhuys: Errot/r}a-ap.,Ev P.
5 TovTw Tw p2: TOVTo pl.
6 YJ'' p2, om. pl.

424

!I

1""1

'

1""1

r
ON STYLE 121-123

l1
'

II

I"
i'
~

t
'

slight for slight themes, grand for grand themes, (121)

just as Xenophon does when he describes the small and
beautiful river Teleboas, "this was not a large river; it was
beautiful, however.na Through the conciseness of the construction and the final position of "however" he makes us
all but see a small river. Contrast another writer who
describes a river similar to the Teleboas, saying that it
"rushed from the hills of Laurium and disgorged itself
into the sea,"b as though he were writing about the
cataracts of the Nile or the mouth of the Danube. All
such language is called frigid. (122) Minor themes, however, may be magnified in another way, a way which is not
inappropriate and sometimes necessary, for instance
when we wish to praise a general for some small victory as
though he had actually won a major victory; or the ephor
in Sparta who scourged a man who played ball with
extravagant gestures and not in the local manner. The
offence in itself sounds trivial, sp we wax eloquent on its
gravity, pointing out that men who permit minor bad
habits open the way to more serious ones, and that we
ought to punish minor offences against the law rather
than major ones; and we will introduce the proverb,
"work begun is half-done,"c arguing that it fits this minor
offence, or even that no offence is minor. (123) In this
way, then, we may legitimately magnify a small success,
Anab. 4.4.3, cf. 6.
b Author unknown.
c Hesiod, Op. 40, cf. Paroem. Gr. i.213.
a Xen.

425

DEMETRIUS
ov ~~v W<TTE a1TpE1TES Tt 1TOtliv,
/

~eya

KaTa<T~tKpvvETat

.,,

'

'

'

av Kat TO

atpotTO.

MaAta-Ta

S iJ

,./... /

'

~'

((() /

TO

W~

~ /

v1TEp{3oA~
.,, '
()'

TptTTTJ 0 E<TTtV" YJ yap Ka

'PEPETat,

t:/

'lTOI\1\aKt~,

ovTw~

'C ,

'

1TaVTWV.

W<T1TEp Kat TO
\\/

XPYJ<Tt~w~

~tKpov E~

(124)

aAA'

EEtV

'

((

avE~Ot<TtV

1"'1

O~OtOt,

EK-

'

.,,

.,,

YJ Ka

'

a8vvaTOV,

w~ TO

1rao-a

oilv V1TEp{3oA ~ aSvvaTO~ E<TTtV" OVTE yap

'

,,

av

((ovpavfi!

xtovo~,

YJ

()'

w~

~Ev

1\EVKOTEpot

O~OtOTTJTa

V1TEPOXYJV,

1"'1

TO

1./JvxpoTaTov

KaTa TO

E<TT~pttE KUPYJ,

3/

'

.,,

( 125)

(} /

1\EVKOTEpov '}'EVOtTO, OVT av avE~~

EEtV
1
aVTYJ ~EVTOt [ i]Tot]
V1TEp{3oA~
ELPYJ~EVYJ

XtOVO~

o~otov.
'C

iJ

'

'

iJ

'~'

'7

E~ atpETW~ ovo~asETat aovvaTo~.

,,,

'

1"'1

1"'1

r:J \ ,

~ ' OYJ
~' Kat'
oto

'\

~ai\L<TTa

3/

'rvxpa OOKEt 1Ta<Ta V1TEpfJOI\"f}, OtOTt aovvaTqJ EOtKEV.

( 126)

~aAta-Ta Kat ol Kw~~8o1rotot

8ta TovTo

XPWVTat avTfJ, OTt EK TOV a8vvaTOV f.cpeAKOVTat TO

'}'EAOLOV,

E1Tt TWV IIEpo-wv T1]~ a1TATJ<TTta~

3/ r1..
t:l
((
~,
, c ,
t:l \
,
7
Tt~ E'PYJ, oTt
1TEota E~ EXEsov
Ol\a,

W<T1TEp

a \\ ,

e
V1TEpfJai\I\O~Evo~

Kat oTt (({3ov~ f.v Tat~ yvaOot~ f.cpEpov."

,

1"'1

aVTOV

3/~

EtOOV~

'

'

'

(( ,./...

E<TTt Kat TO

TO

,~

'

Kat
,

'

\'

1TI\"f}V

t.\

OV 'rVXPOTYJTa.

a \

1"'1

'

Kat

((xpvo-w xpvo-o,

'

'

EV V1TEpfJOI\YJ 1\E'}'ETat Kat aVTO

~a1T'PtKOV

aovvaTw~,
,,,

A..

TO

Tov

, ~,

'Pal\aKpOTEpo~ EVota~

TO ((KOAOKVVTYJ~ V'}'tE<TTEpo~."
TEpa

(127)

1"'1

avT~

~'

'

OYJ Kat

1"'1

'}'E

,~

T~ aovvaT~

, \

~al\t<TTa

()

,,

xaptv EXEt,

av~a<TEtEV

3/

av

Tt~

~a1Tcpov~ T1]~ 0Eta~, OTt cpvo-Et Ktv8vvw8Et 1Tpay~aTt

' ~
() /
, ,
,
,
'
'
Kat ovo-KaTop

WT~

EXPTJ<TaTo

E1TtxaptTw~.

~ev 1./JvxpoTYJTO~ Kat v1TEp{3oA 11~ Too-avTa.

1 1}rot-

426

del. edd.

Kat 1TEpt

ON STYLE 123-127

but without doing anything unsuitable. Just as major

themes can often be usefully depreciated, so can minor
themes be magnified.
(124) The most frigid of all devices is hyperbole,
which is of three kinds. It is expressed either in the form
of a likeness, for example ~~like the winds in speed"; or of
superiority, for example ''whiter than snow" ;a or of impossibility, for example "with her head she reached the sky.''b
(125) Admittedly every hyperbole is an impossibility.
There could be nothing "whiter than snow," nothing "like
the winds in speed.'' But this last kind is especially called
impossible. And so the reason why every hyperbole
seems particularly frigid is that it suggests something
impossible. (126) This is also the chief reason why the
comic poets use it, since out of the impossible they create
laughter, for example when someone said hyperbolically
of the voracity of the Persians that "they excreted entire
plains"c and that "they carried oxen in their jaws."d (127)
Of the same type are the expressions "balder than a
cloudless sky" and ~~healthier than a pumpkin."e Sappho's
phrase, "more golden than gold"f is also in form a hyperbole and impossible, but by its very impossibility it is
charming, not frigid. Indeed, it is a most marvellous
achievement of the divine Sappho that she handled an
intrinsically risky and intractable device to create charm.
This concludes my account of frigidity and hyperbole.
Hom. Il. 10.437 (of horses).
hHom. Il. 4.443 (of Strife).
c Author unknown; cf. Arist. Achamians 82 KaXE,ov oKrw
JL~Va~ l-rrl. xpvuwv opwv.
dAuthor unknown, a proverb
(Paroem. Gr. ii. 749). In 161 it describes a Thracian.
e Sophron 108 and 34 Kaibel (cf. 162).
f Sappho 156 L-P (cf. 162 for a longer citation).
a

427

1
!
!

DEMETRIUS

Nvv 8 '1TEpt 'TOV y'Aacpvpov xapaKT'ijpo~ AE~OJLEV,

(128) <o~> xapLEVTL(J"fLO~ E(J"TL Kat 1 'Aoyo~ i'Aapo~.
""
~'
/
/
,
'7
'
/
TWV
OE
xapL'TWV
aL( JLEV
EL(J"L
JLEL~:,OVE~ KaL (J"EfLVOTEpaL,
ai Twv 7TOLYJTWV, at 8 E'VTEAli~ JLUAAov Ka'i KWJLLKWTEpat, (J"KWJLJLa(J"LV EOLKv'iat, oiov ai 'Apt(J"TOTEAov~
xapLTE~ Kat !wcppovo~ Kat AV(J"LOV" TO yap ((17~ pfl:ov
~'
, ()
' ,~
.,,
' ~
'\
,
av
'TL~ apt fLYJ(J"ELEV TOV~ OOOVTa~ YJ 'TOV~ OaK'TVI\.OV~,
'TO E1Tt Tij~ 1TpE(J"{3VTL8o~, Kat TO eeO(J"a~ a~LO~ ijv
'Aaf3liv 1TAYJya~, TO(J"avTa~ lt'AYJcpEv 8paxJLa~," oi ToLovToL a(J"TEL(J"JLOL ov8v 8tacpf.poV(J"LV (J"KWJLJLUTWV,
ov8 1Toppw )'EAWT07Toda~ EL(J"i. ( 129) 'TO 8
/

Tfj 8. ()' aJLa N VfLcpaL

1Tat,OV(J"L yf.yYJ{}E 8 2 TE cppf.va AYJTW"
KaL'

[Kat] 3 ailTat EL(J"LV at AE)'OJLEVaL (J"EfLVat xapLTE~ Ka'i

JLEya'AaL. (130) XPiJTaL 8 avTats ~'OJLYJPO~ Ka'i 1Tpo~
8EtVW(J"LV EVLOTE Ka'i EfLcpa(J"LV, Ka'i 1Tat,wv cpo{3EpW'TEpo~ f(J"TL, 1TpWTO~ TE EVPYJKEVaL 8oKEL cpo{3Epa~ xapL~'
' , '
"" ,
'
Ta~, W(J"1TEp TO E1TL 'TOV axapLTWTaTOV 1Tp0(J"W1TOV, TO
' ' 'TOV"" K VKI\W1TO~,
' \
'3' ] 4 eeO VTLV
'3'
'
'
'
E1TL
'TO' [OVV
E)'W
1TVfLa'TOV
~~~
' ~-' \
'
,
, TO' 'TOV"" K VKI\.W1TO~
, \
EOOJLaL,
'TOV~ OE I\OL7TOV~ 1TpWTOV~,
/

t\

<o~> xaptEVTUTfLO~

'

ECTTt Kat

1\0)10~

e\

tl\apo~

KasseI :

'

Kat

om. P: 0 yA.acpvpo~ A.oyo~ xaptEVTUTfLO~ Ka~ I.A.apo~ A.oyo~ in

2 OE om. P.
mg. P.
3 Kat del. Schneider.

428

ON STYLE 127-130

We will next discuss the elegant style, (128) which is

speech with charm and a graceful lightness. Some kinds
of charm, those of the poets, are more imposing and dignified, others are more ordinary, closer to comedy and
resembling gibes, like those of Aristotle, a Sophron, and
Lysias. Such witticisms as "whose teeth could be counted
sooner than her fingers" (of an old woman) and "he has
taken as many coins as he has deserved beatings"h are
exactly like gibes, and come close to buffoonery. ( 129)
Contrast the lines, ~~At her side the nymphs play, and Leto
rejoices in her hearf' and ~~she easily outshone them all,
yet all were beautifui."c This is the charm that can be
called imposing and dignified. (130) Charm is also used
by Homer sometimes to make a scene more forceful and
intense. His very jesting adds to the terror, and he seems
to have been the first to invent the grim joke, as in the
passage describing that least charming of figures, the
Cycl1s: "No-man I will eat, last, the rest before
him" -the Cyclops' gift of hospitality. No other detail
A surprising choice for comic wit ( 164 is also suspect), and
Aristophanes has been proposed.
b Lys.fr. 1 (cf. 262) and 93 Thalheim.
c Hom. Od. 6.105ff (of Artemis).
d Hom. Od. 9.369-70 (cf. 152, 262),
015TtV
1TV!LUTOV 8o!LaL /LETa or~ ETapourt,
TOV~ 8' aA.A.ov~ 1Tpo0"0Ev, TO 8 TOt ttv~'iov EO"Tat.
a

eyw

ro

ovv P, om. edd.: fort. delenda sunt verba omnia To E1TL ...
o15v Roberts.

429

DEMETRIUS
,
'
~EVLOV" OV yap

~'
OVTW~

,
'
,
/ ,./.,.
c;::'
,
""'
aVTOV
EV6pYJVEV
OEtVOV
EK TWV
~~
c;::- /
c;::""'
e
/
'c;::-,
'
'
a'AA.wv, OTaV
OVO
OEl/lTVYJ
ETatpov~,
OVO
a7TO
TOV""'
'
e
/ \
e
'
/
(}vpEov YJ.,, EK
TOV""' po7Tai\OV,
W~
EK TOVTOV
TOV""'
aa-TELCTf.LOV. ( 131) XPiJTat 8 Tit> TOtOVT(f) ELOEL KaL
,./.,.""'
,
'
c;::/
,
/
,
/
t=.EVO'PWV,
Kat' aVTO~
OEtVOTYJTa~ EUTayEt EK xaptTWV,
oiov E7TL Tij~ EV07TAOV opxYJcrTpi8o~, eeEPWTYJ(}EL~ V7TO
Tov Tla~A.ayovo~ El KaL al yvvatKE~ avTo'L~ crvvE7To\ /
~' ,./.,.
'C'
'
~'
, I,
'
{3 aCTti\Ea.
\ / ''
1\Ef.LOVV,
E'PYJ"
avTaL
yap
Kat' ETp6yaV
TOV
OtTTTJ yap Ef.L~aLVETat 7] OELVOTYJ~ EK Tij~ xaptTO~, 7]
f.LEV oTt ov yvva'LKE~ avTo'L~ Et7TOVTo d'A'A' 'Af.La,ovE~,
c;::- '
\/
' ~~
'";' ' (} / e e '
YJe OE
KaTa' {3 aCTti\EW~,
Et OVTW~ YJV aCT EVYJ~ W~ V7TO
yvvatKWV ~VYELV. ( 132) Ta f.LEV o?Jv ELOYJ TWV xapi/ c;::/ c;::TWV TOCTaOE
Kat' TOtaOE.
Ela-LV 8 al f.LEV EV TOL~ 7Tpayf.LaCTL xaptTE~, oiov
VVf.L~_a'Lot Kij7Tot, Vf.L-t'atot, f.pwTE~, OAYJ 7} ~a7T~ov~
7TOLYJO"L~. Ta yap TO~avTa, Kav V7TO el7T7TWVaKTO~
\ /
1 xaptEVTa
/
/ ECTTL,
'
' ' Ll\apov
e\
'
""'
1\EYYJTat,
Kat' aVTO
TO' 7Tpayf.La
EaVTOV" OVOEL~ . yap av Vf.LEVaLOV /foot 2 opyt,Of.LE, c;::- '
'
~'E
' 7TOLYJCTELEV
/
3 TYJ""' EPf.LYJVEL(/:
e
/
vo~, ovoE TOV
pwTa 'E ptvvv
~ yiyavTa, ov8 TO YEAiiv KAaLEtV. ( 133) WCTTE 7] f.LEV
Tt~ EV 7Tpayf.Lacrt 4 xapt~ ECTTL, Ta 8 KaL 7] AE~t~ 7TOLEL
,
/
'C'
E7TtxapLTWTEpa, OtOV

w~ 8' OTE Tlav8apov 5 KOVpYJ, XAWpYJL~ dYJOWV,

\ '
' /~
~~
/
e
/
Kai\OV
aELOYJCTLV,
Eapo~ VEOV LCTTaf.LEVOtO"
1

AeyeTat P: AE')'YJTat edd.

aOoL Schneider: aOEL P.

L

430

ON STYLE 130-133

reveals so clearly the grimness of the monster-not his

eating two of Odysseus' companions for supper, nor his
door made from a rock, nor his club-as this piece of wit.
(131) Xenophon is also familiar with this type, and he too
uses charm to grim effect, as in the passage describing the
dancing girl in armour: "A Greek was asked by the
Paphlagonian whether their women accompanied them
to war. 'Yes,' he replied, 'in fact they were the ones who
routed the king.' "a This witticism is tellingly forceful in
two ways, the implication that it was not mere women but
Amazons who accompanied them, and the implied insult
to the king that he was so feeble that he was put to flight
by women. (132) This, then, is the number and variety of
the forms of charm.
The charm may lie in the subject matter, such as gardens of the nymphs, marriage songs, loves, or the poetry
of Sappho generally. Such themes, even in the mouth of a
Hipponax, b have charm, and the subject has its own
graceful lightness. No one could sing a marriage song in
frenzied anger, nor could style change Love into a Fury or
a Giant, or laughter into tears. (133) There is, then, charm
in the theme itself, but sometimes diction can give an
added charm, as in the lines:
"Just as Pandareus' daughter, the pale nightingale,
sings beautifully at the beginning of spring."c
Xen. Anab. 6.1.12-15.
b Cf. 301.
cHom. Od. 19.518-19.
a

3 7TOL~CTELEv

Hammer: 7TOL~CTEL E.v P.

1rpayp.,acrt Victorius: 1rpayp.,aTt P.
5 Ilav8apeov codd. Hom: ITav8ap1J P.
4

431

T
i

DEMETRIUS

E.vravea yap Kat T] d'Y}8wv xaptEV opvi()tov, Kat TO

E.ap c/Jva-EL xaptEV, 1TOAV 8 E1TLKEKOCT~'Y}Tat rfl E:p~'Y]
VEtq,, Kat a-rt xaptECTTEpa 'T~ 'TE ~~X Awp'Y]L'~" Kat rip 1
~~1Iav8apov 2 KOVp'Y]'' EL1TELV E1Tt opvtOo~, a1TEp rov
,.... 'I~

'

1TOL'YJ'TOV LOLa ECT'TLo

(134) IloAAaKL~ 8 Kat Ta ~EV 1Tpay~ara arEp1Tfj
'
,J.,.I
I
~
'~'
,.... \ I
/
Ea-Tt
'Pva-Et
Kat' a-rvyva,
V1TO
oE rov 1\Eyovro~ ytvErat
~\
~'
.rk ,. .
~
'"'
/
c
,....
LJ\apao
TOV'TO OE
1rapa =EVO'PWV'TL
OOKEL
1TpWT<f}
EVp'Y]a- at 1\af--lwv yap ayEJ\ao-rov 1rpoa-w1Tov Kat a-rvyvov, rov 'Ay'A.al:ra8av, rov ITpa-'Y}v, yA.wra Ei5pEv
E~ avrov xaptEVTa, O'TL c~p~6v 3 ECTTL 1TVP EK'Tptl/Jat a1TO
a-ov ~ yA.wrao" ( 135) avr'Y} 8 E. a-rt Kat T] 8vvarwrar'Y}
xapt~, Kat ~aAta-Ta EV rep A.yovrto TO ~EV yap
1rpay~a Kat cpva-Et a-rvyvov ~V Kat 1TOAE~LOV xaptrt
[wa-1rEp Kat 'Ay'A.al:ra8a~J, 4
8' wa-1rEp E.v8EiKvvrat
~I
'
'
,....
I
I r
'I
c
'
O'TL
Kat' a1TO
TWV
'TOLOVq""WV
1TaL4:,ELV
ECT'TLV,
WCT1TEpEt
Kat'
1nro ()Ep~ov lfivx_Ea-()at, 0Ep~aivEa-0at 8 v1ro rwv
lfivxpwv.
( 136) 'E7TEt 8 ra Et8'Y} 'TWV xapirwv 88EtKrat, riva
~
ECTTL Kat EV TLCTLV, VVV Kat TOV~ 'T01TOV~ 1TapaoEL~
0f.LEV, 5 dc/J' 6Jv ai xaptTE~o ~a-av 8 iJf.LLV ai f.LEV EV rfl
AE~Et, ai 8 E.v rot~ 1rpay~aa-tvo 1rapaOEt~o~Ev ovv
c
~
Kat rov~ T01TOV~ Ka EKarEpa
1rpwrov~ OE
rov~ T'Y}~
I

,....

()

'

{.)'

'

'

/\

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

'"'

()'

'

'

1(;

'

'

'"'

AE~EW~.

( 137) Evev~ ovv 1TpWT'Y} ECT'Tt xapt~ T] EK a-vvroI

~I
' ' '
I
'I
I
C'
fLLa~, orav TO avro fL'Y}KVVO~EVOV axapt YEV'Y}Tat, V1TO
1 TW
"' TE
"'
KUL' TW
2 ITav8apE7J Po
~

432

FolllCkh : TO
I

TE

'
KUL' TO

ON STYLE 133-137

This passage refers to the nightingale, which is a delightful little bird, and to spring, which is of its nature a
delightful season of the year, but the style has made it
much more beautiful, and the whole has added charm
from "pale" and the personification of the bird as Pandareus' daughter. Both these touches are the poet's own.
(134) Often subjects which are naturally unattractive
and sombre acquire a lighter tone from the writer's skill.
This secret seems to have been discovered first by
Xenophon, who took the gloomy and sombre figure of the
Persian Aglaitadas and exploited him for a charming joke,
"it would be easier to strike fire from you than laughter."a
(135) This is, indeed, the most effective kind of charm,
and one which most depends on the writer. The subject
was in itself sombre and hostile to charm,h but the writer
virtually gives a demonstration that even with such
unpromising material jokes are possible, just as cold can
heat and heat can cool.
(136) Now that we have set out the varieties of charm
and where it is found, we will next list its sources. As we
have already said, it lies partly in the style and partly in
the subject. So we will list the sources under both categories, beginning with those from style.
(137) The very first source of charm is brevity, when a
thought which would lose its charm if it were expanded is
Xen. Cyrop. 2.2.15.
b The Greek text adds "as Aglaitadas certainly was."
a

pftov codd. Xen.: patnov P.

del. Schenkeveld.
Gale: 1rapa8eifo11-a~ P.

5 1rapa8eifoJLEV

433

DEMETRIUS
~ '

~~

OE TaXOV~

~--<

'

ee ,. .

,./.. ,...

xapLEV, W(J"7rEp 1rapa t:::J.EVO'f..IWVTL,

TOVTcp 1 ov8v p.i.TE(J"TL

Tf]~ eEAAa8o~'

E7rt

!)/

T(f) OVTL

yw aVTOV

W(J"7rEpEt Av86v afLcpOTEpa Ta 6JTa TETPV1rYJfLE2

'
,.
~'
,,
'
'
, \
/
'
VOV"
KaL EL XEV OVTW~.
TO yap E7rLI\EYOfLEVOV TO

Et8ov

ee ')'

~~

EL XEV OVTW~

~'

OE

/e

" e '

V7r0

,. .

/
'
/
,. . ,
TYJV xaptv 1TOLEL, EL
~'
ee
e,...
OTL E/\EYEV TaVTa ai\Yj YJ,

TYJ~ (J"VVTOfLLa~

' \ /

!)/\

EfLYJKVV YJ OLa 11"1\ELOVWV,

,...

, \

a-ac/Jw~ yap ETETPV7rYJTo," 8tiJYYJfLa llv t/JtAov yevETo

aVTt xapLTO~. ( 138) 1roAAaKL~ 8 Kat 8vo cppa,ETaL 8t'
EVO~ 7rpo~ TO xapLEV, otov E7rt Tf]~ , AfLa,ovo~ Ka8Ev~

!)/ ,./..

E'f..IYJ

OOV(J"Yj~

iJ

Kat

Tov~

ee '

~~

OTL

TL~,

/ (;

'

!)/

TO TOs OV EVTETafLEVOV EKELTO,

cpapeTpa 7rAi}pYJ~, To yeppov 1rt TD KEcpa'Ai]

'wa-Tf]pa~ ov AvovTat."

o 7rEpt

VOfLO~ ELPYJTaL

'Avo-E

Tov

'wa-Tf]pa,

yap TovTcp Kat

'wo-Tf]po~, Kat OTL ovK

TOV
Ta

8vo 1rpayfLaTa

fL"ii~

8ta

EPfLYJVELa~. Kat a7ro Tf]~ (J"VVTOfLLa~ TaVTYJ~ y Aacpvpov

/

TL f(J"TL.

(139) ilEvTEPo.~

To1ro~ a-Ttv a1ro Tf]~ TatEw~.

TO yap aVTO 7rpWTOV fLEV TE8v ~ fLE(J"OV axapL yivE,

~'

'

,...

TaL. 1TL OE TOV

,./..

' '
KaL'

/\

TEI\OV~

,. . K vpov,
/

'f..IYJ(J"LV E1TL TOV

xapLEV, OLOV

-?

e
W~

ee ~ / ~

~ '

~--<

,./.. ,...

t:::J.EVO'f..IWV

,...

~ ,...

'

OLOW(J"L OE aVT(f) KaL owpa,

\'
/
' xwpav
/
(J"TOI\YjV
KaL' o-TpE7rTOV,
KaL' TYJV
/
e
/y
fLYJKETL ap7ra~::,Eo- aL.
EV yap TOVTOL~ TO fLEV TE/\EV-

~'

L7r1TOV
,... /

TaLOV

'

e " ,

f(J"TL

'

TO
/y

'

TYJV

'

xapLV

' '

,...

'

ee

1TOLOVV TO

'

TYJV

xwpav

eat" OLa' TO' S(;/EVOV TOV,. owpov

/ KaL' TYJV'
LOLOT'Y)Ta"
EL yovv
,
.
,
/
e
,
/
,.
7rpWTOV ETaX YJ, axapLTWTEpOV YJV, OLOV OTL OLOW(J"LV
/

fLYJKETL
'~

e
ap7ra~::,Eo-

:J/

aLTLO~

~'

OE

T07r0~

,...

T'YJ~

xapLTO~.
-?

TovTw M: istius Lat.: TOVTo P.

L

434

~'

'

ee ~ /

,...

ON STYLE 137-39

given charm by a quick mention, as in Xenophon: ~CThis

man has really nothing Greek about him, for he has (and I
saw it myself) both his ears pierced like a Lydian; and so
he had."a The ending, "and so he had," has charm from its
brevity, but if it had been expanded at greater length,
"what he said was true, since he had evidently had them
pierced," it would have become a bald piece of narrative
instead of a flash of charm. (138) Often too the conflation
of two ideas in one sentence gives a delightful effect. A
writer once said of a sleeping Amazon: ~CHer bow lay
strung, her quiver full, her shield by her head; but they
never loosen their belts.,,b In one and the same phrase the
general custom about their belts is indicated, and so is the
fact that she had not loosened her belt-two things at
once. There is a touch of elegance in this brevity.
( 139) The second source is word order. The very
thought which would have no charm if it is put at the
beginning or middle of a sentenoe, is often full of charm if
it comes at the end, for example Xenophon on Cyrus, "He
gives him gifts too-a horse, a robe, a torque, and the
assurance that his country would no longer be plundered."a It is the last item in the sentence Ccthe assurance
that his country would no longer be plundered,,) that creates the charm, from the novel and unique nature of the
gift. And the charm is due to its position. If it had been
put first, it would be less attractive, for example, c~He
Anab. 3.1.31.
hAuthor unknown. The Amazon
custom was to remain virgins.
c Xen. Anab. 1.2.27.
a Xen.

TErpV1TYJJli.vov

codd. Xen.: peiforatas Lat.: TETPLfLfLEVov P.

435

DEMETRIUS

avT{iJ 8wpa, Tl}v T xwpav fLYJKETt ap7ra,Ea-0at, Kat

~I
\
'
/
n
'"'
c;;:- '
'
t1T1TOV Kat' O"TOJ\Y}V
Kat' O"Tp7rTOV.
VVV
0 7Tp0t'1T"WV
/
c;;:- '"'
\
'"'
'
/
/
Ta' t'(} tO"fLEVa
owpa,
T1\EVTatOV
E7TYJVEYKEV
TO' ~cEVOV
Kat aYJ(}E~, Eg ftv a7raVTWV O"VV1jKTat TJ xapt~.
(140) Ai 8 a1TO TWV O"XYJfLUTWV xaptT~ 8~'Aa[
Eia-Lv Kat 7TA{ia-Tat 1rapa 2.a1Tc/Jo"i, oiov EK T~~ dva8t\'
1
,
,
1TJ\WO"EW~, 07TOV
VVfL'f'YJ 1rp0~ TYJV 7rap EVtaV 'f'YJO"t,
o ,
e ,
'"'
\ ,. .
,, , c;;:- ,
Trap EVta, 7rap EVta, 7TOt fLE J\L'1TOVO"a Ot XYJ; YJ OE
'
'
' '
'"'
' '"'
~~
'
a1TOKptVETat
7rp0~ aVTYJV TqJ aVTqJ O"XYJfLaTt,
OVKETt
i}gw 7rpo~ a-, OVKETL i}gw" 7TAELWV yap xapt~ EfLc/Ja[VETat, ~ L7rEp !Lrrag f.'Ax0YJ Kat avEV TOV a-x-rJfLaTO~.
KatToL T] dva8i7r'Awa-L~ 7rpo~ 8EtVOTYJTa~ fLUAAov 8oKEL
Evp~a-OaL, T] 8 Kat To"i~ 8EtVOTaTots KaTaxp~Tat E1Ttxap[Tw~. 2 (141) xaptEVTL,ETat 8 7TOT Kat Eg avac/Jo'"' ~ ' '
'"' ~E 0"1TEpov,
'
~~~~E
'
,.~,. '
"
pa~, (()~ E7TL TOV
(J"7TEpE, 1TaVTa
'+'pEt-~,
cPYJa-i, ~~cPEPE'-~ o"iv, 3 cpEpEt-~ alya, cPEPE'-~ fLaTEpt1Tat8a." Kat yap . EVTavOa T] xapt-~ Ea-T tV EK T~~
A.gEw~ T1j~ ~~pEt-~" E7rt TO avTo dvac/JEpOfLEVYJ~
(142) 7TOAAa~ o' av TIS Kat aA.A.a~ EKc/JEpot xaptTa~.
/
c;;:-'
'
'
\ '(;
/
~' '
r t-yvovTaL
OE
Kat-' a1TO
1\E~ EW~ xaptTE~, YJ EK fLETac/Jopa~, w~ E7rt TOV TETTtyo~, ~~'1T"TEpvywv 8' V'1T"OKaKXEEt
\
,
,
c;;:- ,
,
\ ,
t
1\t-yvpalJ aotoav, OTt 1TOT av '+'1\oytov Ka ETav E7rt~~

e,

,,.~,.

~~

,.~,.,

~~

~,

,.~,.

e,

1 ''
01TOV

e dd .: 1TOV""P.
2
E1TLxaprw~ Finckh: E7Tf., (sic) xapLTO~ P.
3 ol:v Paulus Manutius: oivov P.

Sappho 114 L-P.

h Sappho 104(a) L-P. The text has some uncertainties and
a

436

ON STYLE 139-142

gives him gifts, the assurance that his country would no

longer be plundered, a horse, a robe, and a torque.n As it
is, he listed the customary gifts first, and then added last
the novel and unusual gift, and all this combines to give
charm.
(140) There is obvious chann from the use of figures,
preeminently in Sappho, for example the use of repetition
when a bride addresses her own virginity, <<virginity, virginity, why have you gone and left me ?n and it replies to
her with the same figure, never again shall I come to you,
never again shall I come. na The idea has clearly more
charm than if it had been expressed only once, without
the figure. Repetition, it is true, is thought to have been
invented more particularly to add force, but Sappho
exploits even the most forceful features for charm. (141)
Sometimes too she makes attractive use of anaphora, as in
the lines on the evening star,
Evening star, you bring everything home,
you bring the sheep, you bring the goat, you bring
the child to its mother.'~
Here the charm lies in the repetition in the same position
of the phrase, you bring.n (142) Many other examples of
this could be cited.
Charm also comes from the use of a single word, for
example from metaphor, as in the passage about the
cicada,
from under his wings
he pours out a stream of piercing song, as
the second line may contrast the bride who does not return home
to her mother.

437

DEMETRIUS
TTTafLEvovt Karav'Ali,"

(143) 7} 1

EK O"vv(}rov [rov] 2
cc8EO"TTora ITAovrwv 3

ovofLaro~

KaL 8t(}vpafL{3tKov,
\
/
'~
/
fLEJ\aVOTTTEpvywv-TOVTt
OEtVOV,
'
'
/
"
aVTO
TTOtYJO"OV.

/\
~'
~
'
/
/
fLal\tO"Ta
OYJ
KWfL(f!OtKa
TTatyvta

at.\

EO"rt Kat O"arvptKa. 5

/

ytyVETat,

TO~

eefLOVWTYJ~

c
W~

'/

'

'

'

'

cc

'

EO"Tt,

(145)

TO

~ '

ee

TToAAa
/

'
'
avro~

'

EV

'/

'
/
"
aVTtTY}~

l8twrtKov
cc

ovofLaA..
/
00"([! yap, \f'YJO"t,
~'

yyova".
""

'

T(f!

rl..\

'~

""

aVT(f!,

EtfLt, 'f'ti\OfLV

/
''
fLOVWTYJ~

E.t

/\

cptAOfLVeorEpo~

fLOVWTYJ~

TO fLEV yap

Kat

ptO"TOTEJ\Yj~,

Kat

aVTtTY}~

e
W~

TTETTOtYJfLEVOV,

(144)

'A

ELJLL,

/
4
TTVppOTTTEpvywv

'

00"([! yap

OTEpo~

EK

ee ~~

(}/

tOtWTtKWTEpOV

KaL

/
"
yEyova.

,, ~
6
ELOOV~

'

""

TTETTOtYJfLEVOV EK TOV

,, ~
YJOYJ

,
/
aVTO~.

ovofLara Kal- TTapa r~v (}O"tv r~v ETTt

'

1'

cc c

'

,,

1'

/ \

(;

xaptEVTa EO"TtV, OtOV 0 yap opvt~ OVTO~ KOJ\a~

'
' Kat' KO/{3 ai\O~.
\
" 7 EVTaV
'
""(} a YJc xapt~
/
'
'
""
EO"Tt
aTTO
TOV"" O"KW-

TtVO~

.1~
'
>/
/
>/ (}
~I
'-rat
T.OV
opvtV
Ka (} aTTEp
av
pWTTOV, Kat' OTt
ra' fLY}'
'
/
""
!J/
(}
O"VVYJ/(} YJ E' ' ( } ETO OVOfLaTa
,T(f!
opvt
L.
/

rat

xaptTE~

Trap '

' '

'
-;""
atc fLEV
OVV
TOtaV-

'

\ /(;
avra~ ra~ 1\~ Et~.

corruptus, at recte KaTavA.li ~ Finckh: KaTavDEt'Y] P.

2 Tov del. Finckh.
3 ITA.ovTwv M 2 Bergk: 1r A.ovTov P.
4 1rvppo1rTEpvywv Wilamowitz (qui et personas distinxit):
,
p.
1rpo' 1T'TEpvywv
5 a-aTvpLKa Gale: a-aTvpLa P.
6 et8ovs- Orth: E.Oovs- P.
7 Ko{3aA.os- Wilamowitz: KoAaKos- P.
1 locus

Alcaeus 347 (b) L-P. The text is corrupt, the metaphor

probably the attractive conjecture, KaTavA.li, ''flutes.~' The
a

438

ON STYLE 142-145

in the blazing t heat of summer he flies and t

flutes,.a
'

(143) or from dithyrambic compounds, '''Pluto, lord

of the sable-winged'-'that is terrible, make it redwinged.' ,b Such freaks of language are best suited for
comedy and satyr drama. (144) Idiosyncratic language is
another source, as in Aristotle: "the more I am a solitary,
the more I have become a lover of stories. ,c So too are
neologisms, as in the same author and passage: "the more
I am a solitary and selfish, the more I have become a lover
of stories., The word "solitary, is already of a rather
idiosyncratic type, and "selfish, is coined from "self."
(145) Many words owe their charm to their application to
a particular object, for example: "this bird is a flatterer
and a rogue."d Here there is charm because the author
mocked the bird as though it were a person, and applied
words not usually applied to a bird. These then are the
types of charm from single words.
author is likely to be Alcaeus," since like 347 (a) L-P it imitates
Hesiod, Op. 582ff.
b Author unknown, presumably comedy (Supp. Corn. Adesp.
1) rather than lyric (PMG 963). The text is corrupt, but parodies
tragic compounds in "-winged," and is probably a dialogue.
cAr. Jr. 668 Rose (cf. 97, 164). The surrounding context
involves unusual words and uses, and f.LOVWTYJ~ is rare outside
Aristotle, so l8twTtKo~ should here mean "idiosyncratic." If the
text of 164 were sound (see note), the meaning must be ''ordinary," as in 15, 207-8, and it is an accident that we lack proof
that f.LOVWTYJ~ was indeed part of ordinary speech (so D. J. Allen,
Mnernosyne 27 (1971) 119-22).
d Author unknown, cf. Ar. Hist. Anim. 597b23 (of a kind of
owl) Ko{3a'Ao~ KaL IL"f.L'YJT~~.
439

DEMETRIUS

(146) 'EK 8 1Tapa(3o'Af}c;, wc; 1 E1Tt TOV E~EXOVTOc;

dv8poc; ~ !.a1rcPw cPYJ(Jt, ~~1rf.ppoxoc; we; or' dot8oc; o

Af.(J{3toc; d'A'Ao8a1TOL(JtV.n EVTavOa yap xaptv E1TOLYJ(JEV ~ 1rapa(3o'A~ p.,a'A'Aov ~ p.,f.yeOoc;, Katrot ~f}v
EL1TELV 1TEppoxoc; W(J1TEp ~ (JEA~VYJ TWV a'AA.wv
U(J"Tpwv, ~ 0 ij'Atoc; 0 'Aap.,1Tp07Epoc;, ~ O(Ja a'A'Aa f(J'Tt
1TOt'Y}TtKWTEpa. ( 147) 2wcPpwv S Kat avroc; E1Tt TOV
op.,oiov EtDovc; cPYJ(JL, ~~ea(Jat, O(Ja v'A'Aa Kat Kapea
TOt 1Tat8ec; rove; avDpac; {3aAAt,OVTt, oiov 1TEp avri,
.J.:' \
'
T pwac;
"'
' A!>'tavra T(f;J"' 1TaAcy.
\ "' " Kat' yap
'
'f'tAa,
rove;
TOV
EVTavOa E1Ttxaptc; TJ 1Tapa(3o'Ai} E(J'Tt, Kat rove; Tpwac;
Dta1Tat,OV(Ja W(J1TEp 1ra'iDac;.
( 148) !>/E(J"Tt 8 Ttc; lSiwc; xaptc; 2a1TcPtK~ EK f.LETa(3o'Af}c;, orav Tt El1TOV(Ja f.LETa(3a'AAYJTat Kat W(J1TEp
p.,erav.oiJ(JYJ, oiov ~~vlfiov 2 8i}, '' cPYJ(Jt, ~~To p.,f.'AaO pov
df.pare TEKrovec; yaJL~poc; el(Jf.pxErat I (Joe; !>/ ApYJ"i,
dv8poc; p.,eya'Aov 1To'AA.(i1 p.,ei,wv," W(J1TEp E1TtAap.,(3avop.,EvYJ E.avTfjc;, o1-t dSvvarcp xpfJ(JaTo v1Tep(3o'Afl,
Kat OTt ovDEtc; r/i> !>/ApYJ'i L(J"Oc; E(JTLV. (149) TOV S
aVTOV EtDovc; Kat TO 1Tapa TYJAEp.,axcp, OTt ~~svo KVVEc;
Se8aro 1Tpo rf}c; av'Af}c;, Kat Svvap.,at Kat Ta ovop.,ara
"' I<VVWV.
"' aAAa
'\ \ ' Tt/ aV
!>/ f.LOt (3 OVAOLTO
/\
' /
' "' TWV
Et1TEtV
Ta' OVOp.,ara ravra;'' Kat yap oilroc; p.,era(3a'A'A6p.,evoc; p.,era~v
TJ(JTEL(JaTO Kat U1TO(Jtyi}(Jac; Ta ovop.,ara. ( 150) Kat
'
'
/
~'
' \ \
/
/
/
~
e 'A
a1TO
(J'TtXOV
OE aAAOTptOV ytVETat xaptc;, We; 0
pt1 w~
2

440

Radermacher: Kat P.
vtfiov edd.: vitfiw P: 'itfiw Radermacher.

ON STYLE 146-150

(146) Charm also comes from the use of comparison,

as in Sappho's description of an exceptionally tall man as
"preeminent, like the poet of Lesbos among strangers."a
Here the co1nparison creates charm rather than grandeur,
as would have been possible if she had said, "preeminent
like the moon among the stars," or the sun, which is even
brighter, or any other more poetic comparison. (14 7)
Sophron uses the same type when he says: "See how many
leaves and twigs the boys are throwing at the men-as
thick as the mud, my dear, which they say the Trojans
threw at Ajax."h Here again the comparison is charming,
as it makes fun of the Trojans as though they were boys.
(148) There is a kind of charm from a change of direction which is peculiarly characteristic of Sappho. She will
say something and then change direction, as though
changing her mind, for example: "Raise high the roof of
the hall, builders, for the bridegroom is coming, the equal
of Ares, much taller than a tall man."c She seems to check
herself, feeling that she has used an impossible hyperbole, since no one is the equal of Ares. (149) The same
type appears in Telemachus: "Two hounds were leashed
in front of the courtyard. I can tell you the actual names
of the hounds. But why should I want to tell you their
names?"d By this sudden change of direction in the middle, suppressing their names, he too is elegantly witty.
(150) Charm also comes from parody of another writer's
Sappho 106 L-P.
b Sophron 32 Kaibel; cf. Hom. Il. 11.358ff, where Ajax' slow
retreat is like a donkey being beaten by boys.
c Sappho 111 L-P.
d Telemachus, otherwise unknown
(or, but less natural Greek, an unknown author describes
Telemachus, son of Odysseus).
a

441

1
DEMETRIUS
,./.,.'

(JTO~aVYJc;

I
'
A'
~~
U"KWnTWV
nov TOV
uta,
OTL
OV' KEpaVVOL""'

'

rove; novYJpovc;,

,./.,.

~YJo-tv,

, \ \ ' TOV
' EaVTOV
f:
""' VEW
' fJai\1\EL,
a '\ \
'
al\1\a
Kat' ""'
40VVLOV
aKpov , AfJYJVWV.
wa-nEp yovv OVKETL

0 ZEvc;

~'OfLYJpOc; Kat 0 a-rixoc;

\ /
,
'
f:
/
n 1\ELWV EU"TLV YJ xapt8.

KWf.LcpDlia-fJat OOKEL,

aAA'

f:OfLYJPLKOc;, Kat ano TOVTOV

(151) ~'Exova-t DE TL U"TWfLVAov Kat aAAYJyopiat

I

TLVEc;,

t:/

t:t:

WU"nEp TO,

A
\ ,./.,. I
uEI\~OL,

~I

t:

""'

natOLOV Vf.LWV

t:

KVWV

, Kat' ra' ""'

,./.,.
~'
' , ' ""'
4W~povoc; oE Ta Ent rwv yEpovTwv,
f:f:f.vfJaDE ~v 1 KTJYW nap' Vf.Lf.LE rove; OfLOTptxac; f.topf.LL,./.,.

~.::,Of.LaL,

\ '
~
'r
'
' ' 2 yap
'
"''~
""'
nAOOV
OOKa~.::,WV nOVTLOV" apTEat
YJOYJ
TOLe;
""'~

~EpEt.

'~'

Tai\LKOLU"OE Tat ayKvpat

aAAYJyopli, otov

,~,

oa-a

TE

,,

""'

""'

EnL TWV yvvatKWV

en'

lxfJvwv, f:f:a-wAl}vEc;, yAvKvKpEov

KoyxvA.tov, XYJpfiv yvvatKwv 'Aixvevf.La." 3 Kat f.LLf.LtKw4'
""',,
',
/
TEpa ra TotavTa E9'"TL Kat ato-xpa.

( 152) ''Ea-Tt DE TlS Kat i] napa [ T~v] 5 1rpoo-DoKiav

xaptc;, we;
Oi5Ttv."

i]

TOV KvKAwnoc;, OTL f:f:VU"TaTOV EOOf.Lat

ov

yap npoo-EDoKa rotovTo tEvtov ovrE

'0 ova-a-Eve;
~
' ovrE
~~
'
'
A-.. '
of: avaytvwo-Kwv.
Kat' of: 'Apurro~aVYJc;

f.nt Tov 2wKpaTovc;, f:f:KYJpov DtaTrr}tac;," cpYJo-iv, f:f:EiTa

Dta/31}TYJV A.af3wv,

EK

rl}c; naAata-rpac; Lf.LaTtOV vcpEt-

1 evOal)E 6Jv Schneider: evOaDEOV P.

2 1TOVTLov apreat Kaibel: 1TOVTLOV va~ vel1Tovrivat

3 A.ixvEvfLa

apud Athenaeum 86e: lxvEVfLUfTL P.

4
fLLfLLKWTEpa Victorius: fLLfLLKWTEpa P.
5 r~v P: del. Schneider.

442

P.

ON STYLE 150-152

line, like Aristophanes' mockery of Zeus somewhere

because "he does not strike the wicked with his thunderbolts but his own very temple, and ~Sunium, headland of
Athens.' "a It seems as though it is no longer Zeus who is
being laughed at, but Homer and Homer's line, and this
fact increases the charm.
(151) Some allegories have a colloquial turn of wit, as
in: "Delphians, that bitch of yours is with child" ;b and in
Sophron's passage on the old men: "Here I too wait with
you, whose hair is white like mine, outside the harbour,
ready for the voyage out to sea: for men of our age always
have our anchors weighed"; and his allegory of women,
when he speaks of fish: "tube fish, sweet-fleshed oysters,
dainty meat for widows."c Jokes of this kind are ugly and
suit only the mime.
(152) There is also a sort of charm from the unexpected, as i~ the Cyclops' words, "No-man I will eat
last."d Neither Homer nor the reader was expecting this
kind of hospitality gift. Similarly Aristophanes says of
Socrates, ~~He melted some. wax first, then grabbed a pair
of compasses, and from the wrestling school-he stole a
a

Arist. Clouds 401; cf. Hom. Od. 3.278 dA.A.' orE

'
'A..
,
f)' ,,
Lpov ao/LKOf.LE , aKpov
~

~ovvtov

'Af)YJVEWV.
,

unknown ( = PLG. Adesp. pp. 742-43). Text and

meaning are both uncertain.
c Sophron 52 and 24 Kaibel. In the latter crwA.-r}v, a pipe or
tube, is a slang term for the penis as well as a type of fish.
d Hom. Od. 9.369 (cf. 130, 262).
h Author

443

DEMETRIUS

Aero.'' ( 153) 1]817 fLEVToL EK Svo To1rwv vTavOa y~

''
'
~
'
VETO 1] xapL~. OV yap 1Tapa 1TpOa-OOKLaV fLOVOV E1T1]/

~'
VEX 1], al\1\ ovo
1]KOI\OV
/

(}

'

'

'

'

'

/(}

(} /

EL

1"'1

TOL~ 1TpOTEpOL~

1"'1

aVT1] avaKOI\OV La Kai\EtTaL

~
1]~ OE
TOL'

t:!

1"'1 ,./.,.

'

wa-1TEp o 1rapa

YPL'Po~,

!wcf>povL P1JTOPEVWV Bov'Aia~ OVOEV yap aKoAovOov

avrcf) 1 AEYEL. KaL 1Tapa ~1evavSpcp S 0 1TpoAoyo~ TYJ~

l\t1Ea-a-1]VLa~.

( 154) IloAAaKL~ S
xapLv, w~

'

'

~~'
Eyw

Tov
/ \

'

~'
0

OVV
"'

EL~

E1TOL1Ja-Ev

~ '
oLa

'
TOV

{3 aa-LI\Ea
\/

'
Tov

CtfLcPOTEpoL~ To'L~

'
'
!}/
'
/
'
/
TO' aVTO
OVOfLa
E1TOL1JfTEV
T'Y]V
xapLV.

'

/ '

a1TOKO'f'YJ~

acf>aLpELTaL KaL

( 155)

"'\(} ov
1]1\

KaTaAf]~a~ yap v

fLEyav."

KWI\OL~

Of-LOLa

!TayEipwv El~ 'AOY]va~ Out TOV XELfLWVa

fLEyav EK

KwAa

o 'ApLa-TOTEA1]~, ~~EK fLEV 'A(}1]VWv," cP1Ja-Lv,

~
4TayELpa

EL~

KaL

i]

~
TOV ETEpov
KWI\OV TO
1"'1

'

~(

fLEyav,
/

' '
EaV

fTVV-

"

xapL~.

KaL Kar'Y]yopiaL

Ct1TOKEKpVfLfLEVaL vioTE

OfLOLOVVTaL xapLa-LV, WfT1TEp 1Tapa SEvocf>wvTL

0 (Hpa-

KAEL01]~ o 1rapa T~ !Ev0EL 1rpoa-Lwv Twv a-vv8Ei1Tvwv

~
~
~
~'
2 !}/
EKaa-Tcp KaL 1TEL wv owpELa- aL 4EV EL o TL
EXoL
/

'

1"'1

/(}

'

1"'1

' /

(}

/(}

'',./.,./

'

TaVTa yap KaL xapLV TLVa EfL'PaLVEL, KaL KaT'Y]yOpLaL

' ' a1TOKEKpVfLfLEVaL.

'
/
ELfTLV

( 156)

Ai fLEV

1"'1

'

oiJv KaT a
/

~'

'

TOa-aVTaL KaL OL T01TOL, EV OE

'

1rpayp_,a EfTTL. 1TapOLfLLa,

1"'1

TOL~

W~

EPfL1JVELav

xapLTE~ EK 1TapOLfLLa~.

VOVTaL
1"'1

'

T'Y]V

Q/

1TpayfLafTL 1\ap_,,._,acf>va-EL

xapLTE~

,.~.,.

yap
/

4W'PPWV fLEV,

xapLEV
~~'H

1TLO-

A1]~,"3 Ec/>1], ~~0 TOV 1TaTEpa 1Tviywv." KaL aAAaxoOL

.,..,M : avro
' ' p.
avrw
2'
0 TL M''
: 0 TL~ p
1

444

~
I

ON STYLE 153-156

coat.na (153) Here the wit came from two sources: the
last words were not only added unexpectedly, they had no
connection with what precedes. Such incoherence is
called a puzzle; and an example is Boulias making a
speech in Sophron=-s mimeb (he is utterly incoherent), or
the prologue of Menander=-s Woman of Messenia. c
(154) Again, assonance often produces a charming
effect, as in Aristotle: ''I went from Athens to Stagira
because of the great king, and from Stagira to Athens
because of the great storm.=-=-d Through the use of the
same lexical ending in both clauses, he adds charm. If
you remove the word ''greaf' from the second clause, the
charm also disappears.
(155) An innuendo also has an effect sometimes which
resembles wit. In Xenophon, for example, Heraclides,
one of Seuthes' men, goes up to each guest and urges hiln
to give all he can to Seuthes.e This shows some wit, and it
is an example of innuendo.
.
(156) These then are the varieties and sources of
charm in style. Charm in content comes from the use of
proverbs, since they are by their nature delightful.
Sophron, for instance, speaks of "Epioles, who throttled
his own father''; and somewhere else, "off one claw he
Arist. Clouds 149 and 179.
b Sophron 109 Kaibel.
c MenanderJr. 268 Koerte.
d Ar. Jr. 669 Rose (cf. 29).
e Xen. Anab. 7.3.15ff.
a

445

1
I

DEMETRIUS
' rl.

1TOV 'P'YJ(TLV,

ee '

~~

,.,

EK TOV

/
~'t
TOpvvav
Es Ea-EV"

'

KV~LVOV

'

~~

'

, Ir

yap TOV 1\EOVTa Eypa'PEV"

OVVXO~

~~
"1 Kat' yap
'
~
'
E1Tpta-EV.
OV(TL

1Tapot~LaL~ KaL Tpta-LV E1Ta'A'Af]'Aot~ XPiJTaL, w~ E1TL1T A'Y]OvwvTaL 2 avT[iJ ai

~

1'"'1

TWV

aVTOV

opa~aTWV

KaL ~v8o~

( 157)
,

~~

1'"'1

xaptTE~ a-xE8ov
'

Ta~

1Taa-a~ EK

TE
\

'(;

EK/\ES at E(TTLV.

1Tapot~La~

Aa~{3avo~EVO~ Katptw~ euxap[~

OE

,
KEL~EVO~,

Ea-TLV, TJTOL 0

1:

W~

1:

'A

'\

pta-TOTEI\'Y)~

, ,

,.,

E1TL TOV

aETov ~YJa-Lv, oTL "-"~fiJ Ov'Y]a-KEL E1TLKa~1TTwv To pa~r~.

'Po~

a-Ev

'

, /

ovv TqJ

0pw1TO~ WV 1TOTE TJOLKYJ, /

/
'0
/
'
KEL~Evcp ~v cp KEXP'YJTaL Kat

(158) 7To'A'Aov~ 8

KaL 1Tpoa-1T'Aaa-a-o~Ev 1Tpoa--

t:!

~~

~~

1Ta(TXEL OE aVTO, OTL av

/
s(; Evov.

Kotv{iJ.

/
'Popov~
r~.

'

~Ev

.-;-

' , /
Kat OLKELOV~

,.,

1'"'1

TOL~ 1Tpay~aa-LV,

t:!

W(T1TEp

TL~

'

1TEpt

al'Aovpov 'Aeywv, oTt a-v~~OtvEt Ti] a-EATJVYJ [Kal,]

~'\
'
/
/ \
4 t:f
aLI\OVpo~
Kat (TV~1TaXVVETaL, 1TpOa-E1TI\aa-EV
OTL

eeE.vOEv KaL

~'\

~v06~ f(TTLV, w~

'

aLI\OVpov OV yap
Eo-TaL

7]

xapt~,

d'A'Aa

~O.VOV

Kat

7]

KaT

'

a-EA~V'Y]

, '

ETEKEV TOV

'

aVT'Y)V TTJV 1Tf\a(TLV

0 ~vOo~ E~~aLVEL

xaptEV TL,

aT'Aovpov rrotwv o-EA TJV'Y]~ 1TatDa.

( 159) ITo'A'AaKL~ 8 KaL EK 6{3ov aAAaa-a-o~EVOV

YLVETaL xapt~, OTav DtaKEvij~ TL~ cpof3TJ0fl, 5 oiov TOV
i~avTa w~ O~LV ~ TOV Kpt{3avov w~ xaa-1-La Tij~ yij~,
1
2

E7TpLlfEV Hemsterhuys: Elf7THpEv P.

E7TL1TA:YJBVWVTUL M: E7TL7TAYJBVOVTUL P.

del. Spengel.

M: 7Tpo~ E7TAalflfEv P.
5 c/Jof3YJfJfj Schneider: c/Jo{3i} P.
4 7TpolfE7TAalfEv

Sophron 68 and 110 Kaibel. The former is obscure, but

probably Epioles (or Epiales or Ephialtes), the demon of nighta

446

ON STYLE 156-159

drew the lion," he polished even the ladle," and ''he split
cumtnin seeds.~~a He uses two or three proverbs in quick
succession, to accumulate the charm, and almost all the
proverbs in existence could be collected from his mimes.
(157) A neatly introduced fable is also attractive, either a
traditional fable, like Aristotle~s fable of the eagle: "It dies
of hunger, when its beak grows more and more curved. It
suffers this fate because once upon a time when it was
human it wronged a guest. "b Here Aristotle has used a
traditional, familiar fable. (158) But we can often also
invent fables which fit closely and match the context, for
example one writer on the topic of cats said that they
thrive and pine in phase with the moon, and then added
his own invention, "and this is the origin of the fable that
the moon gave birth to the cat. ''c Not only will the new fiction in itself be attractive, but the actual fable is charming
in making the cat the child of the moon.
(159) Release from feard is. also often a source of
charm, for example a man needlessly afraid, mistaking a
strip of leather for a snake or a bread oven for a gaping
hole in the ground-mistakes which are rather comic in
mare and cold fevers, chokes the sleeper, its father" (cf. Arist.
Wasps 1038-39). The first of the three proverbs, building a
whole picture off a detail, is common, as is the third, an exa1nple
of miserliness (Paroem. Gr. i.252 and ii.178), but the second is
attested only here.
h Ar. Hist. Anim. 619a16.
c Author unknown. There was an Egyptian story that a eat's
eyes wax and wane with the moon (Plu. Mar. 376f).
d The text here may be corrupt, but the type of joke is clear
from the examples. Compare the parasite frightened by a
wooden scorpion thrown into his cloak in Plu. Mar. 633b.

447

1
I

DEMETRIUS

a7rEp Kat avra KWfLC[;)8LKW7Epa ECTTLV. ( 160) Kat ElKa/ o~ ' Eta-tv
, ' EvxaptTE~,
, /
.,, rov
' ai\EKrpvova
,\
/
M YJOC[;)
/~
a-tat
av
ElKaa-n~, OTL rT]v Kvp{3aa-iav opOT]v cpE.pEt" {3aa-tAEL
8, OTL 7ropcpvpEo~ ECTTLV, ~ OTL {3o'Yja-avro~ aAEKTpvovo~ dva7rYJ8WfLEV, wa-1rEp Kat {3aa-t'AE.w~ f3o'Yja-avro~,
Kat cpo{3oVfLE8a. 1 ( 161) EK 8 V7rEpj3o'Awv xaptrE~
/\
'
.-.
~/
.-.
~'
e
Q \ '
fLai\LCTTa
ate EV
rat~ KWfLC[;)OLaL<;, 1raa-a OE V7rEpfJOI\TJ
d8vvaro~, w~ 'Apta-TocpaVYJ~ E1rt rij~ a7rAYJCTTLa~ rwv
ITEpa-wv cpYJCTLV OTL ee W1rTOVV {3ov~ Kpt{3aviTa~ dvrt
aprwv." E1rt 8 rwv 8pf!:KWV ErEpo~ OTt eeMYJ80KYJ~ 0
{3aa-tAEV~ {3ovv EcpEpEv o'Aov EV yvaOcy." ( 162) rov 8
avrov Et8ov~ Kat Ta TOtavra ECTTLV, cevytE.a-rEpo~
\
/
"
,./.....
\
/
' ~/
"
KOI\OKVVTYJ~
Kat' ee 'Pal\aKpOrEpO~
EVOLa~,
Kat' ra'
!.a7rcptKa ee1roAv 7raKri8o~ a8VfLEAEa-rf.pa, xpva-ov
/
"
'""'
'
'""'
/
'
'""'
XPVCT07Epa.
1raa-at
yap
ate TOLaVrat
xaptTE~ EK TWV
V7rEp{3o'Awv EVPYJVTat. [at Tt 8tacppova-t.] 2
( 163) Lltacpf.pov_a-L 8 ro yEAOLOV Kat euxapt 7rpwTa
fLEV Tfj v'An xapirwv f.LEV yap VAYJ VVfLcpa'iot Kij1rOL,
EpwrE~, a7rEp ov yEAarat yf.AwTo~ 8 -;-lpo~ Ka'i 8Epa-LTYJ~ TOCTOVTOV ol5v 8toia-ova-tv, oa-ov 0 8Epa-LTTJ~
rov ''EpwTO~. (164) 8tacppova-t 8 Kat Tfj AE~EL avrfl.
~I
TO fLEV yap EVXapt fLETa KOCTfLOV EK'PEPETaL Kat o..,
'

'

1 KaL
2

'

''

'

,./..... /

'

'

~o{3m)JJ-E0a del. Denniston, fort. recte (om. Lat.).

del. Spengel.

Cf. Arist. Birds 486-87, and 490. There it is the Persian

king who (rightly) wears the upright tiara, and purple is not mentioned.
a

448

ON STYLE 160-164

themselves. (160) Comparisons too may be attractivefor instance, if you compare a cock to a Persian because it
holds its crest up, or to the Persian king because of its
purple plumage, or because at cockcrow we jumt up as
though a king had shouted,a and we are afraid. (161)
Charm in comedy comes especially from the use of hyperbole. Every hyperbole is impossible, for example Aristophanes on the voracity of the Persians, "they baked oxen
in their ovens instead of bread,"'c and another writer on
the Thracians, "their king Medoces would carry a whole
ox in his jaws."d (162) Of the same type are expressions
such as "healthier than a pumpkin," "balder than a cloudless sky,,,e and Sappho,s "far more melodious than the
harp, more golden than gold."f The charm in all of these
comes from hyperbole.
(163) Laughter and charm are, however, different.
They differ ~rst in their material. Gardens of the nymphs
and loves are material for charm (they are not humorous),
Irus and Thersitesg are material for laughter, and the two
concepts will be as different as Thersites and Love. (164)
They also differ in their actual style. Charm is expressed
This last phrase may well be a later addition (so J.D. Denniston, Classical Quarterly 23 (1929) 8).
c Arist. Acharnians 85-87
1TapETt8Et D' TJI/iv oAov~
EK Kpt{3avov f3ov~. ( ~"') Kat rl.~ ElDE
b

{3ov~ Kpt{3av[ra~;

unknown (cf. 126, there of the Persians).

e Sophron 34 and 108 Kaibel (cf. 127).
f Sappho 156 L-P (cf. 127) andfr: Add. (a) p. 338 L-P.
g Irus, the beggar in Hom. Od. 18.1ff, and Thersites, the ugly
common soldier in Il. 2.216ff.
d Author

449

1
DEMETRIUS

/
VELa~,

' '
\/
Kat.,' aVTL
')'EI\OLOV

(}""

/
/
avp..,a ')'LVETaL.
ate f.LEVTOL
xapLTE~ Ela-L JLETa ta-wcrpoa-vvYJ~t, 4 To 8 f.Kcrpa,ELv

'\
~~
/
,
\ \
/ '/
Ta' ')'EI\OLa
Of.LOLOV
ECT'TL
KaL' Kai\I\W7TLC::,ELV
'TTL'(}YJKOV.

( 166) 8to KaL TJ !a7Tcrw 7TEpl, p..,v KaA.A.ov~ ~8ova-a

'
e ~ ""
'
/
ECT'TL
KaL' YJOELa,
KaL' 7TEpL' EpWTWV

\\
/
Kai\I\LE7TYJ~

~'
OE

Kat.,'

f.apo~ 5 KaL 7TEpL aA.Kvovo~, KaL a7Tav KaAov ovop..,a

, ',./...
, ""
""
' ~'
' , ' ,
EVV'+'aVTaL aVTYJ~ TYJ 7TOLYJCTEL, Ta OE KaL aVTYJ ELpyaa-aTO. ( 167) aA.A.w~ 8 CTKW7TTEL TOV aypoLKOV vvp..,criov
' (} vpwpov
' TOV
' EV
, TOL~
"" yap..,OL~, EVTEI\ECTTaTa
, \
KaL' TOp
KaL'
/

EV 1TE,Ot~

ovop..,aa-L J.La~Aov ~

EV 1TOLYJTLKOt~,

W<TTE

avr-ry~ fLaA.A.ov ECTTL Ta 7TOL~p..,aTa TaVTa 8taA.yEa-0aL

~ ~8ELV, ov8' av apj.Loa-aL 7Tpo~ TOV xopov ~ 7Tp0~ TTJV
A.vpav, EL IL~ 'TL~ ELY] xopo~ 8~.,aA.EKTLKO~. (168) p..,aA.t~' ~
,./...'
, 'TYJ~
""
, '
a-ra OE
OLa'+'EpOVCTL
Kat.,' EK
7TpOaLpEa-Ew~ OV yap
/

op..,oLa 7TpoatpliTaL

o EvxapLa-To~

1 8~' conieci (iam Kat 8~'

2 fort. oa-w Roberts.

Kal,

o yEA.wTo7ToLwv,

Richards): Kat P.

del. Hahne.

a-w~poa-vvYJr;; P: Koap.ov Schenkeveld: an Ev~pofTVVYJr;;?

(cf. 168).
5 E.apor;; Gale: aE.por;; P.
4

450

ON STYLE 164-168

with decorative, beautiful words, a chief source of charm,

for example "the earth is a tapestry of garlands of
flowers,''a and "the pale nightingale."h By contrast, laughter uses ordinary and rather prosaic words [for example
"the more I am a solitary and selfish, the more I have
become a lover of stories,"c] (165) and secondly laughter
is actually destroyed by a decorative style and becomes
bizarre. Charm may be embellished tin moderationt,d
but the formal elaboration of a humorous topic is like
beautifying an ape.e (166) This is why Sappho sings of
beauty in words which are themselves beautiful and
attractive, or on love or spring or the halcyon. Every
beautiful word is woven into the texture of her poetry,
and some she invented herself. (167) But it is in a very
different tone that she mocks the clumsy bridegroom and
the doorkeeper at the wedding. f Her language is then
very ordinary, ~n the diction of prose rather than poetry;
so these poems of hers are better spoken than sung, and
would not suit the accompanimen't of a chorus or lyreunless you could imagine a chorus which speaks prose.
(168) But the main difference is in their purpose: the
. writers of charm and comedy do not share the same purpose, the one aims to give pleasure, the other to make
a

PMGAdesp. 964(a).

Hom. Od. 19.518 (cf. 133).

cAr. Jr. 668 Rose (see also on 97, 144), but neologism at
least is a curious example of ordinary speech, and interpolation is
more likely (so Hahne).
d Text corrupt, concealing "with
elaboration" or "with resulting pleasure."
e Compare the proverbial "ape in purple," which even
dressed up is ugly (Paroem. Gr. i.303).
.
f Cf. Sappho llO(a) L-P.
b

451

DEMETRIUS
'\\'

aAA

'
'..,../...
1
fLEV
Ev'PpaLVELV,

'
\
()
I
E1TaKOAOV
ovvrwv
:!J/

'TE

8 xapLra~

rpaycp8ia

'

EV

""
YJVaL. KaL' '
a1ro' rwv

:!J/
()
EV
a

I
1
I
XPELa
KaL' xapLTWV,

(}""

'
'
fLEV
yap

""

roL~

oE

169) KaL' EK
' T01TOV.

E1TaLvo~.

~'

o oE YEAacr

1\

""

YEAW~,

fLEV yap
'

'

I
crarvpcp
KaL'

roL~

~'

oE

I\

YEAWTO~

~~

'

EV KWfLc_pOLaL~,

fLEV 1TapaAafLf3avEL EV

7TOAAois,

0 8 yA.w~ f.xOpo~ rpaycp8ia~

ov8 yap E1TLVO~CTELEV

av TL~ rpaycp8iav 1TaL,ovcrav,

E7TEL

'
avrL
,

crarvpov ypat/JEL

~~

rpaycpoLa~.

( 170) Xp~crovraL 8
I

1Tp0~

'TE

CTLOL~,

'

'TOV~

KaL'

EV

KaLpOV~,

7TOTE
'?
OLOV

KaL oi cppoVLfLOL yEAoioL~

'e

EV
~'

,
\
'C
E1TL1TAYJSECTLV

OE

""

EopraL~

'

1Tp0~

KaL' 'EV CTVfL1TO'

TOV~

. ,. /. .
I
rpv'PEPWTE-

pov~, w~ 0 TYJAavyov~ 2 OvAaKO~, KaL 7-] KparYJTO~

1TOLYJ'TLK~, KaL cpaKij~ EYKWfLLOV av avayv~ 'TL~
,

aCTWTOL~

~'

'"'

'TOLOV'TO~

OE

e
W~

1TO~. ra yap TOLavra

'

""

o4

']

KaL

3 .,,

YJ

7TAEOV

yEAo'ia

Ka'i yvWfLYJc;. ( 171) EcrT:L

EK rwv YEAOLWV,

'TO'

KaL'

EV

TOL~

K VVLKO~
' rpo1

XPELa~ AafLf3avEL ra~LV

Ka'i rov ~(Jove; rts Ef.Lcpao-ts

I

1TaLyvLa~

.,,

YJ

'

aKOJ\aCTLa~,

e
w~

TOV oivov rov 1TpoxvOE.vra E1TLCTKwt/Ja~ ]]YJAEa 5

aV'TL OlvE.w~.

7-] yap avriOEa-Lc;

T]

1TEpL ra OVOfLaTa

cppovrl,~ EfLcpaivEL rLva t/JvxporYJra ~Oov~ KaL

avaywyiav. ( 172) 1TEpL 8 CTKWfLfLaTWV <ro> 6 fLEV
KaL

T]

1 TE

XPELa Weil: rxvat P.

T1JAavyovs- Casaubon: T1JAavyTJs- P.
3 Delevi.
4
Gartner (iam add. Goeller): Kat P.
5 E1Tta-KwtjJa~ von Arnim: IT1JAEa Sophianus: E7Tta-xwv ra
a-7T~ Aata P.
6
add. von Arnim.
2

:!J

ro

452

'

'

ON STYLE 168-172

us laugh. They differ also in their results, laughter in the

one case, praise in the other. (169) They also fit different
contexts. In some there is need of both laughter and
charm-in comedy and satyr drama-whereas tragedy
often welcomes charm, but laughter is its enemy. No one
could really conceive of a tragedy of humour, or he would
be writing a satyr drama rather than a tragedy.
(170) Even sensible people will indulge in laughter on
such suitable occasions as feasts and drinking parties, and
in reprimanding those who are too inclined to a life of luxury. Examples are Telauges' baga and Crates' poetryh-and you might well read a eulogy of lentil soup to
the profligate. The Cynic manner is very much like this,
for such humour is a substitute for maxims and gnomic
wisdom. (171) Laughter also gives some indication of
character, revealing playful wit or vulgarity. Somebody
once mocked the spilling of wine on the floor as CCOeneus
turned into Peleus."c The punning play on the names and
the laboured thought indicate a character lacking taste
and upbringing. (172) In gibes too, one type is a witty
The text is uncertain, but probably refers to the Telauges of
Aeschines Socraticus (=Jr. 42 Dittmar; cf. 291). The beggar's
bag represents the ostentatiously ascetic life.
h Crates VH 66 Giannantoni. For the mocking poetry of this
Cynic philosopher cf. 259. Since he wrote one, the praise of
the humble lentil soup is also best taken as his.
c Crates VB 488 Giannantoni. The text is uncertain, but the
names of two heroes are used to suggest a pun on wine (oinos)
turned into mud/wine-lees (pelos ).
a

453

DEMETRIUS

XP'YJa-OvTaL TE

'

1\0~.

'

YV1TTta KI\'Y}fLaTL~
,

1"\

'

'

<a1TOKai\OVVTE~

e eeA L'

'

TaL~ TOLavTaL~ ELKaa-LaL~, w~

'

1"\

' KaL'
TOV >2 fLaKpov
'

fLEAava, Kat TO ee()aA.aa-a-LOV 1Tpo{3aTov" TOV fLWpov

''

!"\()\'
al\aa-a-n.

1"\

Tov Ev TYJ
Et

XP'YJa-ovTaL

ToLovToL~

fLTJ, cpEV~OfLE()a Ta (J"KWfLfLaTa W(J"1Tp AoL8opia~.

( 173)

IToLEL

EvxapLv

~'

(]"TO~
'

.,,

aKO'Y}V 'Y}

'

1rp0~

'

'

\ \
Kal\1\0~

OVTW~,

TTJV

EPfLYJVELaV

e ~ '

.,,

'

1"\

e~'

1"\

'

'

~~

'

oa-a

\'

aKOTJV eeKaA.A.ia-TpaTO~,

eepo8oe
opaTaL

Ta TOLaVTa,

1"\

yap

TaVTa KaL 1\EYOfLEVa Kal\a Ea-TL.

A.af.Lf38a

!>/

'

T'Y}V O'f'LV 'Y}OV, YJ TO TYJ OLaVOLf!- EVTLfLOV.

(174) 1Tpo~ fLEV TTJV ol/JLV Tj8f.a

" ee av
' (} oo/opov
A,. '
\ '
"3
xpoov,
XI\Oa~.
'YJOEW~,

Ta

8 Eoo/pa'A,.
' T'YJV
'
1rp0~

TO'

'
E(J"TL

OVOfLaTO~

!>l,ft

Kat

e
'
'
'
wpLa-aTo
o~' avTa

\
'
\ ' OVOfLaTa.
'
'
1\EYOfLEVa
Kal\a

'

'

fLEV

TOL~

'

t' Avvowvt ." 4 ij

~'

OE T'Y}V

1rp0~
'

TE yap

'

TWV

a-vyKpova-L~ Y,xw8f.~ TL EXEL, Kat Tj Twv vv

( 175)

ypafLfLUTWV.

oA.w~

Kat

TO

vv

DL' evcpwviav 5

',./.,. -'\
e 'A.TTLKOL' ee u'Y}fLO(J"
A
(} ,
,
\ ,
,
EV'Y}V 1\EYOVTE~ KaL
ee"'
'
" TYJ OLaVOLf!~
~
~WKpaTYJV.
OE EVTLfLa Ta TOLaVTa Ea-TLV,

Eo/1\KOVTaL OL

1"\

'

!>/

'

'

1"\

'

'

oiov TO eeapxaZoL" aVTt TOV ee1TaAaLo'L" EVTLfLOTEpov OL

yap apxaLOL av8pE~ EVTLfLOTEpoL.

( 176)
\

1"\

IIapa
'

~I

ToZ~ fLOva-LKoZ~ 1\EYETaL TL OVOfLa

\

'

.'

'

!>/\ \

1\ELOV, KaL ETEpov TO Tpaxv, KaL al\1\0

aA.A.' OYKYJpOv.
,

,.~.,.

.,,

AELOV
,

!>/

'

.'

EV1TayE~,

fLEV ovv E(J"TLV OVOfLa TO 8La

.,,

'

1'

o/WV'Y}EVTWV 'Y} 1Ta1JTWV 'Y} OLa 1TI\ELOVWV, OLOV

1 del.

'

KaL

A!>'

La~,

Gale.
addidi, a7TOKaAOVVTE~ post p.-wpov iam Radermacher.
3
XA.oa~ Gomperz: xpoa~ P.

2 TOV

454

ON STYLE 172-176

comparison, and writers can use comparisons like calling

a tall, dark man ~~Egyptian clematis" and an idiot at sea
"sea sheep.~~a This is the kind they can use; otherwise we
will avoid gibes as we would crude insults.
(173) Charm in style also comes from what are called
beautiful words. According to the definition of Theophrastus,b beauty in a word is that which gives pleasure to
the ear or the eye, or has an inherent nobility of thought.
(174) Pleasant to the eye are expressions such as "rosecoloured~~ and "flowery meadow,"c since images pleasant
to see are also beautiful when they are spoken of; and
pleasant to the ear are words like "Kallistratos" and
"tAn noon t'~, d since the double ~~1" and the double "n"
have a certain resonance. (175) In general, it is on
account of the euphony that the Attic writers add an extra
"n" to the accusative forms of Demosthenes and Socrates
(Demosthenen, Sokraten). e Inherently noble in thought
are words like "the men of old'' .which is nobler than "the
ancients," since "the men of old" implies greater nobility.
(176) Musicians speak of words as smooth, rough,
well-proportioned, and weighty. A smooth word is one
which consists exclusively or mainly of vowels, e.g. Ajax
Both are attributed to the Stoic Chrysippus (SVF i.1 and ii.
Chrysippus 11).
b Theophr. F 687 Fortenbaugh, an adaptation of the definition in Ar. Rhet. 1405b17-8.
c Authors unknown.
d Probably corrupt. It occurs only here.
e I.e. the accusative ending in -e becomes -en.
a

'Avvowv P, vix recte.

5 evcrwviav Gale: EVcPYJfLLav P.

455

DEMETRIUS
Tpaxv

S oiov f3{3pwKEv Ka'i avTo S TovTo To

Tpaxv'

''
OVOfLa

KaTa'

/
fLLfLYJ(J"tV

'C

f.~

/
f.VYJVf.KTat

e
,....,
f.aVTOV"

EV1Tay~

S E1TafLcpOTEpt,ov Ka'i fLEfLtYfLEVov 'la-w~ To'i~

ypafLfLaa-tv. (177) To S oyKYJpov v Tpta-i, 1rAaTEt,
/
\/
~
f3 povTa' aVTt
' ' TOV'"'{3 pOVTYJ"
/ Kat'
fLYJKf.t,
1TJ\aa-fLaTt,
OtOV
yap TpaxvTYJTa EK Tij~ 1rpoTpa~ a-v'A'Aaf3ij~ EXEt, Ka'i
EK Tij~ DEvTipa~ J.LiJKo~ fLEV Sta TTJV fLaKpav, 1TAaTvTYJTa S Su1. Tov ~wpta-fL6v 1rAaTa A.a'Aova-t yap
1TcLVTa OL ~wptEL~. DtcJ1TEp ovS EKWJ.L0Dovv Swpi,ovTf.~, aAAa 1TtKpw~ TJTTtKt,ov

7] yap 'ATTtKTJ yA.wa-a-a

a-vvEa-TpafLfLEVOV TL EXEt Ka'i DYJfLOTtKov Ka'i Ta'i~ TOLavTat~ f.VTpa1TEAtat~ 1TpE1TOV. ( 178) TavTa fLEV ST]
1TapaTf.TEXVOAoyl}a-8w 1 aAAw~.

TWV

S ELPYJfLEVWV

OVOfLcLTWV Ta AE'ia fLOVa AYJ1TTEOV w~ yAacpvpov TL

,,

Exovra.

(179) rivETaL 8 Ka? EK a-vvfJEa-f.W~ TO yAacpvp6v

Ea-Tt fLEV o-Dv ov pci-Stov 1TEp'i TOV Tpo1Tov TOV TotovDE
f.L1Tf.LV" ovS yap TWV 1Tp'iv EtpYJTat TtVL 1TEp'i y Aacpv'"'
(}/
' Of.
~' ~/
pa~ (J"VV f.(J"f.W~.
KaTa' TO'~
OVVaTOV
OfLW~ 1TEtpaTf.OV
/

A.iyEtv. ( 180) Taxa yap ST] E.a-Tat Tt~ i}Sov,ry Ka'i

xapt~, av apfLO,WfLEV EK fLETpwv TTJV a-vv8Ea-Lv ~
~'\
e
/
01\WV
YJ'' YJfLL(J"f.WV"

'
~~
OV' fLYJV
UJ(J"Tf.

,./....

~atVf.(J"

(}

'
'
at avTa

fLETpa EV T~ (J"VVELPfLCV TWV Aoywv, aAA', f.L Dtaxwpir Tt~ Ka (}' f.V
t:.\
~'
~
/
/
~ '
e ,./....'
':,Ot
f.Kaa-TOV
Kat' OtaKptVOt,
TOTE
OYJ
V~
rYJfLWl' avTa 2 cpwpua-Oat fLETpa OVTa. ( 181) KUV fLETpo~'"' ~'-;'
' '
\
(}
~/
f.tOYJ
Of. YJ, TYJV aVTYJV 1TOLYJ(J"f.t xaptv 1\aV aVOVTW~ Of.
/

456

1Taparerexvo'Aoy~a-8w Goeller: 1Taparexvo'Aoyea-8w P.

avra Kroll: avrwv P.

ON STYLE 176-181

(Aias). An example of a rough word is ''devoured" (bebroke )-and this particular rough word has a form
designed to imitate its own meaning. A wellproportioned word is one which draws on both and is a
balanced mix of rough and smooth. (177) A weighty word
has three aspects, breadth, length, and emphatic
pronunciation, a for example bronta instead of bronte
("thundern). This word has roughness from its first syllable, length from its second because of the long vowel, and
breadth because of the Doric form, since the Dorians
broaden all their vowels. h This is why comedies were not
in Doric but in the sharp Attic dialect. For the Attic
dialect has terseness, and is used by ordinary people, and
so suits the wit of comedy. (178) But let us leave this theorising as rather an irrelevance. Of all the words I have
listed, you should use only the smooth, since they have a
certain elegance.
(179) Elegance also comes from composition. It is not
easy to describe the process, and no previous writer has
analysed it, but I must try-to do so, to the best of my ability. (180) There will, perhaps, be a pleasing charm if we
integrate metrical units into our composition, whole lines
or half-lines; yet the actual metres must not obtrude in
the general flow of the sentence, but only if it is divided
and analysed in minute detail, then and only then should
we detect that they are metres, and (181) even an approximation to metre will produce the same effect. The
ITA.aa-,ua is vocal inflexion, a fuller sound used by the
trained speaker (cf. Quint. 1.11.6 KaTa1TE1TAaa-,uE.vov).
h Cf. Theocritus 15.88 EKKvata-EvvTt 7TAaTEtaa-Dota-at
.,
a1TaVTa.
a

457

DEMETRIUS

EK

TOL napa8vETaL T]

T1j~ TOLaVTYJ~ T]8ov1]~ xapL~, Ka'i

\ ""'
' TO' TOLOVTOV
""'
ni\EUTTOV
f.LEV

/ E(J"TL
'
""' II EpLnapa' TOL~
""' KaL' napa' II\1\aTWVL
/
~
A-..""'
naT'YJTLKOL~
KaL' napa' t::f.tEVO'f'WVTL
~ /
/
~'
A
(} /
\ \
KaL' ~H pooOT~,
Taxa
OE
KaL' napa' UYJJLO(J"
EVEL nOJ\1\a8ovKvSi8'Y}~ f.LEVTOL nc/Jevye TO ei8o~.

xov

napa8eiyJLaTa
~

:!IE\ / "

~~ :!1

EV

rl-..

1\Efl:,

'f'YJa-L,

npea-{3vTYJV 7J8YJ TTJV 'l]At-Kiav ovTa.

'

rl-..

(182)

aVTOV Aa{3oL TL~ av TOLa8e, oiov w~

uLKaLapxo~

-;-~

ELOO~

:!1

331

afL'f'OTEpWV aL a nO I\ YJS EL~

:!II

""'

TYJ~

\/

Tai\La~

Twv yap KwAwv

~ /
fLETpOELOE~

/(;

~~

"'

'

TL EXOV(J"LV, VnO

8 TOV Etpf.LOV Ka'i T1j~ a-vvac/Je[a~ KAEnTETaL JLEV To

/
~ ~
'
fLETpLKOV,
YJOOVYJ

( 183)
\

rl-..

~'

' 01\LYYJ
'\ /
"'
OVK
EnEa-TL.

IIAaTWV JLEVTOL
/

:!1

E(J"TLV

yl\a'f'vpo~
"'
"'
EXOVTL
OVTE

EV

:!1

noAAo'i~ avT/j> T/j> pv8 JLii>

EKTETaJLEV~

""'
f.LYJKO~

nw~,

'

d'AA'

oiov

,,

""' \

'

~~~

' '
':!1
'
/
TO
f.LEV yap
La-XVOV
KaL'~
OELVOV,
TO'

8 JL1JKo~ JLEyaA.onpenc;.
'

"'

KaL OVTE Eopav

,,

'

EOLKE Ta KWAa, KaL OV'T.

:!1

Ef.Lf.LETpOL~

oA.ia-8cp

TLVL

"' '

navTanaa-LV OVT

afLETpOL~, oiov EV T/j> nep'i JLOV(J"LK1}~ Aoycp f.nav i7 4

~~vvv 8T] f.AyoJLEv"~ S ( 184) Kat naALv, ~~fLLVVpt,WV TE
Ka'i yeyaVWJLEVO~ vno T1j~ 081]~ OtareA.e'i Tov {3iov
~' \
" ' Kat' nai\LV,
/ \
01\0V

'

~~ 'TO

' npWTOV,
""'
~'
f.LEV
EL"' TL (} Vf.LOELOE~

eixev, wa-nEp a-i8YJpOv EJLaAatEV

yAac/Jvpov

Kat

cb8tKOV

a-ac/Jw~

330

EL 8' avaa-TpEljla~

e'inoL~, ~~EJLUAatev wa-nep a-i8YJpOV,

'TOV {3iov,"
1
2

33

~ cc8taTEAEL oAov

EKXEL~ 6 TOV Aoyov 'TTJV xapt-v

ovra edd.: ovrt P.

EKTETafl-EVqJ Victorius: EKTETafl-EVo~ P.

CFH
. .
ermann: OVTE
4
1rav cPD Spengel: E1Tafl-w P.
3 OVT
' ' ' 'EfJ-fl-ETpOt.S
/

458

OVTWc; f.LEV yap

>I

/
fl-ETpot~

p.

EV aVT~

ON STYLE 181-184

charm of this pleasing device steals over us before we are

aware, and the type is a favourite with the Peripatetics,
Plato, Xenophon, and Herodotus; it is also, I think, frequent in Demosthenes, but Thucydides avoids it. (182)
Dicaearchus can offer this example: "At Elea in Italy," he
says, Hwhen already he was old in years" (en Elea tes
Italias, presbuten ede ten helikian onta). a The close of
each clause has a quasi-metrical cadence, but the metre is
disguised by the smooth, continuous flow. The effect is
highly attractive.
(183) Now Plato's elegance in many passages comes
directly from the rhythm, which is given some length but
is free from endings which have a perceptible pause and a
series of long syllables. The former suits the plain and
forceful styles, the latter the grand. Instead Plato's
clauses seem to glide smoothly along and to be neither
altogether metrical nor unmetrical, as in the passage
about music, in the words "we were saying just now,"h
(184) and again ''warbling and radiant under the influence
of song he passes his whole life,''c and again "first, if he
had any symptom of passion, he would like iron temper
it."d This word order is clearly elegant and musical, but if
you inverted it to say, ''he would temper it like iron," you
Dicaearchus 39 Wehrli. In 182-85 the intended rhythmical effects are most clearly seen from the transpositions in
184-85, which introduce hiatus and the clash of consonants
between words and lose the runs of short vowels near the ends of
clauses, thus adding 8pa and fLTJKOc;.
b Pl. Rep. 4lla (cf. 51).
c Pl. Rep. 4lla.
dpl, Rep. 4llb.
a

5 e'AeyofLEV
6

Victorius e Plat.: 'AeyofLEV P.

EKXELc; Dahl: texEts P.
459

DEMETRIUS
oilo-av ov yap D~

<r4J> 1 pv0JL4J

EV

rii DLavoiqw, ovD'

E:v ra'i~ AE~Eo-Lv. (185) Kat 1TEpt rwv JLOVo-LKWV

opyavwv

1TaALV

....h

c:c: \

'

/21t

o/YJCYtV,

xapLEV'TWc;

~ /

EV

iJpJLOCYEV,

'

c:c:

,,

EL1TOLc;

avao-Tp6ya~

/ \

'

/\

Ka'Ta 1TOI\LV I\EL1TE'TaL,

C:/

~ '

,...,

CYafLEV<tJ 1TOLYJCYELc; OP.,OLOV. 'TOV'TO

OE

"

!I !I

!I

'

yap

EL..

JLE (} app.,o-

....h /

!I

D~

otc;

1\Vpa O'YJ CYOL 1\EL1TE'Tat Ka'Ta 1TOI\LV"

DE

E1TLo/EpEt,

c:c:

'

'3'

Kat av

Kar' aypovc; 'TOLe; 1TOLP.,ECYLV o-vpty~ av 'TLc; EL'Y}n. rfi

' ! I /

',...,

yap EK'TaCYEL KaL 'TCf> fL'Y}KEL 1TaVV xapLEV'TWc; P.,EP.,LfLYJ'TaL

DE

rpo1TOV 'TLVa ,ryxov o-vpLyyoc;. Eo-TaL

DijAov, EL 'TLc;

p.,Erao-vvOEtc; A.iyot Kat rovro. ( 186) 1TEpt JLEV D~ rov

Kara o-vvOEo-Lv y Aacpvpov E1TLcpaLVOJLEvov roo-avra,

we; EV

Dvo-KoAoLc;.

ELPYJTaL

EV

poc; 'TOV y Aacpvpov,

DE

Ka8a1rEp

DE

Kat 1TEpt 'TOV xapaKrij-

oo-oLc; Kat 01TWc; yivETaL.

ref)

JLEyaAo1TpE1TEL

1rapEKELTO

l/Jvxpoc; xapaKT~p, OV'TWc; 'TcfJ yAacpvp~ 1TapaKEL'TaL

'TLc; FnYJp.,apTYJJLEVOc;. CwOJLa,w 2 DE avrov r(i> KOLV/i>
!I

r \

OVOJLaTL KaKO&:,YJAOV.

YLVOLTO

.,,
'
"e'
av KaL ovroc;

~'

!I

rpL-

EV

o-iv, wa-1rEp Kat ol AoL1TOt 1ravrEc;. (187) E:v DLavoiqw

/

c:

JLEV, we;

c:

::~

'

EL1TWV

c:c:

'TOV f3ovAEVOP.,EVOV
a-8aL

'

c:

KEVTavpoc; EaV'TOV L1T1TEVWV,

!I

!10AVJL1TLao-Lv

::~::~

'

!I

'

KaL E1TL

AAE~avDpov DpOJLOV aywvio-aEcpYJ

'TLc;

ovrwc;

eo

AA.i~avDpE,

~
/ o-ov,. ., TTJc;
,. ., P.,Y]Tpoc;
' ro' OVOJLa.
,,
, ( 188) EV
'
opap.,E

o-Lv yiyvoLr' av OV'TW~, otov

eeyAa

~'

OE

' /
ovop.,a-

1TOV poDov TJDV-

xpoovn. YJ 'TE yap P.,ETacpopa TJ eeEyEAa:~:~ 1TaVV fLETaKEL-

,. .,

::~

/ {J

'

TaL a1TpE1TWc;, KaL 'TO CYVV E'TOV 'TO

1

Tw
L

460

add. Gale.
Gale:

ovop.,a'w

ovop.,a'et P.

ec: e ~ /

YJOVXPOOV

)!I

'

~'

OVO

'

EV

ON STYLE 184-188

rob the language of its charm, which comes directly from

the rhythm; for it is definitely not in the thought or the
vocabulary. (185) He has integrated yet another attractive rhythm in his account of musical instruments, "it is
the lyre which you are left with in the town."a Invert the
order to say, ~'in the town you are left with the lyre," and
you will change the melody. He adds, "and yes, in the
fields the shepherds would have some pipe." By the
length of the clause and the long syllables he has very elegantly imitated the sound of a pipe, as will be clear to anyone who changes the word order of this sentence also.
(186) This concludes my account of elegance which is
found in composition, a difficult subject; and it also concludes my account of the elegant style, and where and
how it is produced.
Just as the frigid style was adjacent to the grand style,
so there is a faulty style next to the elegant style, and I call
it by that broad term, the affected style. Like all the other
styles, it too has three aspect~. (187) It may be in the
thought, for example one writer spoke of "a centaur riding himself/~b and on the theme of Alexander deliberating
whether to compete in the Olympic games, another said,
"Alexander, run in your mother~s name.~~c (188) It may be
in the words, for example "the sweet-coloured rose
laughed. d The metaphor "laughed" is thoroughly inappropriate, and not even in verse could the compound
Pl. Rep. 399d.
b Author unknown.
c Author unknown. The name of Alexander's mother was
Olympias.
d Author unknown.
a

3 y[vouro

edd.: y[vErat- P.

461

DEMETRIUS

1T'OL~f.LaTL 8EtYJ UV TL~ aKpt{3w~ a-wcppovwv ~ W~ TL~l

Ei1T'EV OTL" f:f:AE7r7at~ 2 V1T'Ea-vpL'E 1T'tTV~ avpaL~.n 1rEpt
f.LEV DTJ TTJV AE~LV OVTW~. (189) a-vv8Ea-L~

A.o~

i]> 3

dvanata-TLKTJ

\
/
KEKI\aO"f.LEVOtS
KaL'

'

Kat

DE

<KaKO,YJ-

ro'i~

JLaAta-ra otKv'ia

aO"Ef.LVOL~ f.LETpOL~,

'e'
/\
OLa
f.Lai\LO"Ta
Ta'

~
/~
4 ~ '
\
/
f:f:
/\
/
""'WTaOELa
OLa TO' f.Lal\aKWTEpov,
O"K'Y]I\a~
KaVf.LaTL
KaAvlfiov,n Kat f:f:a-Etwv f.LEAtYJV ITYJALaDa DE~Lov Kar'

ftf.Lovn dvrt rov f:f:a-Etwv IIYJALaDa f.LEAtYJV Kara DE~Lov

ftf.Lov'' ono'ia yap f.LETaf.LEf.Lopcpwf.Livcp EOLKEv

o a-ri-

xo~, W0"1rEp oi f.LV8EVOf.LEVOL E~ dppivwv f.LETa{3aAAELV

El~ 8YJAEta~. roa-aDE f.LEV Kat nEpt KaKO,YJAta~.

( 190) 'Ent

DE

/
KaL' npayJLaTa

TOV la-xvov xapaKri}po~ EXOLf.LEV 5 av

!>/

LO"W~

""
TLVa' f.LLKpa' KaL' rep"" xapaKTYJpL

npoa-cpopa, otov ro napa Ava-iq-, f:f:olKtDLov Ea-Tt f.LOL

~
\
""
!>/
!>/
!>/
OL1T'I\Ol:JV,
LO"a EXOV
Ta' avw

""

TOL~

/
n
'
~ '
KaTW.
TYJV
OE

/ (;

1\E~

LV

ElvaL nfla-av XP~ Kvpiav Kat a-vv~OYJ f.LLKporEpov

'
"" 6 TO' OE
~' aa-VVYJ
, /
{} E~ KaL'
yap
TO' O"VVYJ {}'EO"T~pov 1raV,

f.LETEVYJVEYf.LEVOV JLEyaA.onpE7rE~.
(191) Kat f.LYJDE
DL1T'Aa OVOf.LaTa TL8ivat TOV yap vavriov xapaKTij-

po~ Kat ravra, f.LYJDE f.LTJV 1T'E1T'OLYJf.LEVa, f.LYJD' oa-a aA.A.a

JLEyaA.onpE7rELav 7rOLEt, f.LcLALa-Ta DE a-acpi] XPTJ riJv
AE~Lv EivaL. ro DE a-acp~ v nAEioa-Lv.
w~ TIS edd.: OU"Tt~ P.
2
AE7TTa'i~ Radermacher: S JIE Tat~ P.
3 KaKo,YJAo~ iJ add. Goeller.
1

!wTaSEta Victorius: u-w/LaTa P.

5 'ExotjLEV Victorius: EKE'i jLEV P.
6 7TUVTwv in 7Tav corr. P.

462

ON STYLE 188-191

"sweet-coloured>> be used by anyone with reliable good

sense. This is true also of the words, "the pine was
whistling to the accompaniment of the gentle breezes.a
This is enough on diction. (189) The composition is
<affected when it is> anapaestic and like the emasculated, undignified metres, particularly the Sotadeanb
because of its rather effeminate rhythm, as in ~~having
dried in the heat, cover up)> (skelas kaumati kalypson) and
"brandishing the ash spear Pelian to the right over his
shoulder (seion melien Peliada dexion kaf o1non)c
instead of "brandishing the Pelian ash spear over his right
shoulder (seion Peliada melien kata dexion oman). d The
line seems to have changed its whole shape, like figures in
the world of fable who change from male into female.
This now concludes my account of affectation.
(190) In the case of the plain style, we should perhaps
keep to subjects which are themselves simple and appropriate to that style, like this passage in Lysias, "I have a
small house on two floors, the one above exactly corresponding to the one below.e The diction throughout
should be normal and familiar, since the more familiar is
always simpler, while the unfamiliar and metaphorical
have grandeur. (191) Do not admit compounds either
(since they too belong to the opposite style), nor yet neologisms, nor any other words which create grandeur.
Above all, the diction should be clear. Now clarity
involves a number of factors.
Author unknown.
h For the dissolute reputation of Sotadeans cf. e.g. DH. CV 4,
Quint. 1.8.6.
c Sotades 17 (meaning obscure) and 4(a) Powell.
d Hom. Il. 22.133.
e Lys. 1.9.
a

463

DEMETRIUS

( 192) ITpwra fLEV E.v ro'L~ Kvptots, E1TEt/ra E.v To'L~

a-vv8E8EfLEVOl8.

TO

da-vv8ETOV Kat 8t-aAEAVfLEVOV

o'Aov do-a~ 1Tiiv a8YJAO~ yap

, ' OLa
~ '
' 1\Va-LV,
\ ,
~'
apxYJ
'TYJV
Wa-1TEp
Ta'

T]

EKaa-TOV Kw'Aov

\ ,
'
paKI\ELTOV"
KaL' yap

~H

E.vaywvLo~ fLEV
'Y~J

\ "C

/\~ L~,
~

0~'

V1TOKpLa-LV 'YJ

a-ro~.

8t-aAEAVfLEVYJ

' ' KaL' V1TOKpLTLK'YJ

~
' Kai\ELTaL
\ '"'
'
aVTYJ
KLVEL'"' yap
~

fa-w~ fLii'A'Aov

oi5v

'Ava-L~. ( 193)

T]
T]

TaVTa a-KOTELVa 1TOLEL TO 1TAELa-TOV

\,

f\V(TL~.

8'

aVTYJ

,./...

~'

'

ypao/LKYJ

T]

Ea-Ttv

\ "C

'

a-VVYJPTYJfLEVYJ

~a-c/Ja'At-a-fLEVYJ To'L~ a-vv8f.a-fLOL~.

'YJ EVavayvw-

/\~ L~

Kat

8t-a TovTo

oiov

Kat

Mf.vav8pov V1ToKptvovTaL <ovTa> 1 AEAVfLEVov E.v TOL~

1TAEta-TOl8, iPLA~fLOVa

, \,
V1TOKpLTLKOV YJ

~,

cafLYJV, 3

~~ '~

0~

,I

1\V(TL~,

!>/

,I,./...

,./... , I \

o/LI\.

' ' \

'

~ '

'

yap

OVTW~
~

1\

~ I
a-VVOYJa-a~

~~

"

e1\0VTa V1TOKpLV-

1\1\VfLElJOV avayKaa-EL KaL TOV fLY}

,~

TOO,

EKTp6pW,

a- aL OLa TYJV f\V(TLV" EL

OTL

,~

'

ETLKTOV,

(194)
,
,
e
2
1TapaoELYfLa EKKELa- W
avayt-vwa-KOVa-LV.

!>/

EL1TOL~,

~~ '~ (; I
0~

a-

!>/
'
'
fLYJV KaL' ETLKTOV
KaL.
EKTPEo/W,
1TOI\I\ YJV a1Ta"8 ELaV TOL~
a-vv8f.a-fLOL~ a-VVEfL{3aAEL~. 4 1Tiiv 5 8 TO a1Tae~ dvv,I,./...

1TOKPLTOV. ( 195) E(TTL

I
~
TLKa,
OLOV
KaL'

"

'

'

1".

Kat a'A'Aa 8Ewp~fLaTa V1TOKpL-

1Tapa' T(f!
1".

E VpL1TLOEL
'
,I~
!J/IWV

,I

ca

TO~

ap1Ta,wv Kat r!p KVKV(f! a1TELAwv [ T!p opvt-Ot-,] 6 a1T01Tal".

'1".'

\I

' '

'TOVVTL Kara TWV ayal\fLa'TWV" KaL yap

\

'

1\a~

,I

1".

1".

1TapEXEL T(f! V1TOKpL'TYJ

1 ovra

'

'

'

1TL ra

KLVYJa-EL~

1(;

'TO~

~
I
opOfLO~

add. Kassel.
EKKE[cr()w Finckh: eyKe[cr()w P.
3
1nre8e~afl/Y]V Kock.
4
crvvef.Lf3aA.e'i~ Roberts: crvf.Lf3aA.e7s P.
5 1rav Victorius: omne Lat.: 1ravv p2 in mg., om. Pl.

464

1TOI\'

KaL

ON STYLE 192-195
(192) First, it involves the use of normal words, sec-

ondly the use of connectives. Sentences which are

unconnected and disjointed throughout are always
unclear. For the beginning of each clause is obscured by
the lack of connectives, as in the prose of Heraclitus, a for
it is mostly this lack which makes it darkly obscure. (193)
The disjointed style is perhaps better for immediacy, and
that same style is also called the actor's styleh since the
asyndeton stimulates dramatic delivery, while the written
style is easy to read, and this is the style which is linked
closely together and, as it were, safely secured by connectives. This is why Menander, who mostly omits connectives, is acted, while Philemon is read.c (194) To show that
asyndeton suits an actor's delivery, let this be an example:
"I conceived, I gave birth, I nurse, my dear."d In this disjointed form the words will force anyone to be dramatic,
however ~eluctantly-and the cause is the asyndeton. If
you link it together to say, "I conceived and I gave birth
and I nurse," you will by using the connectives substantially lower the emotional level, and anything unemotional is always undramatic. (195) Acting technique offers
other aspects to investigate, for example the case of Ion in
Euripides, who seizes his bow and threatens the swan
which is fouling the sculptures with its droppings. e The
actor is given wide scope for stage movements by Ion's
rush for his bow, by turning his face up to the sky
Cf. Ar. Rhet. 1407b13.
c PCG Philemon T 22.
e Eur. Ion 161ff.
a

bcf. Ar. Rhet. 1413b8ff.

dMenander Jr. 685 Koerte.

del. von Arnim.

465

DEMETRIUS
~ 1Tpo~ TOV apa ava{3Ael/Jts TOV 1Tpoa-W1TOV 8LaAeyo.....

'~

'

.....

f-LEVOV Tlp KVKV<f, KaL YJ J\OL1TYJ 1raa-a

'

1rp0~

',../....

OLaf-LOP'PWfTL~

' V1TOKpLTYJV
~
' 1TE1TOLYJf-LEVYJ.
/
'\\'
~
TOV
al\1\
OV, 1TEpL' V1TO-

KpLa-W~ ~IL'-v Ta vvv

o A.6yo~.

(196) <l>EVYETW 8 ~ a-acf>~~ ypacf>~ KaL Ta~ af-LcPL{3oA[a~, a-xT]f-LaTL 8 xpf]a-{}w TV E1TavaATjl/JEL KaAovf-LEVYJ. EJTavaAYJl/JL~ 8 a-rL a-vv8a-f-Lov E1TLcf>opa Tov
aVTOV EV TOL~ 8La f-LaKpov E1TLcPEPOf-LEVOL~ AoyoL~, oiov
~~ ~I

'

!>I

(;

oa-a f-LEV E1Tpas E

.iF. / \

KaTEa-TplfiaTo, Ka'i XEppovYJa-ov

\ ,

' 'A ,../....,

E1TOJ\LOpKYJ(J"V, KaL

'

KaL

'-LJ\L1T1TO~,

'

TYJV

w~

8 pf!-KYJV
/

EtAEv, Ka'i Bv,avTLov

,

...

,~

f.L'PL1TOJ\LV OVK a1TEOWKEV, TaVTa

f-LEV 1TapaAEil/Jw. :" 1 a-xe8ov yap

o f-LEV a-vv8ea-f-Lo~ E1TE-

VEX{}E'i~ aVEf-LVYJ(J"EV ~fLU~ T~~ 1Tpo{}a-Ew~, KaL a1TEKaTE(J"TY]fTEV E1TL T~V apxf]v. ( 197) a-acf>YJVELa~

'

KEV Ka_L OLJ\OYYJTEOV

CTVVTOf-LWTEpov

\ \ /
1TOJ\J\aKL~

EVE-

1TW~

'

TO

~ 2 a-ac/JECT_TEpov W~ yap OL 1TapaTpE-

""'
' '
1TapopwvTaL
EVLOTE,

XOVT~

~~~

YJOLOV yap

~~

OVTW~

\ 'C
KaL' YJ~ AES
L~ 1Tapa-

KOVTaL 8La TO raxo~.

(198) <l>evyELV 8 KaL Ta~ 1TAayuJTY]Ta~ KaL yap

""
TOVTO

aa-a'PE~,

'

,../....'

TEpov

~~
;n. \ '
W(J"1Tp
YJ~ '-LJ\L(J"TOV

'C

AES

L~.

'
fTVVTOf.LW-

1rapa8ELY!La 1rAayia~ AE~Ew~ Ka'i 8~,a Tovro

aa-aov~ TO 1Tapa SEvocf>wvTL, oiov ~~Ka'i OTL TPLTJPEL~

!>I
YJKOVEV

\
'
1TEpL1TJ\0V(J"a~

'
'
a1T

'I WVLa~
'

'

EL~

K LJ\LKLaV
\ ' 3 T a'

f-LOV f!.xovra Ta~ AaKE8aLf-LOVLWV Ka'i aVTOV Kvpov.,

""'
'
.,, >4 Es
'C EV'(} La~
'
' WOE
1' ~'
\ '
TOVTO
yap
<av
f-LEV
1TW~ 1\EYOLTO"
1 1TapaAE[tf;w

2 ''
YJ

466

e dd .:

~
w~

M: omittam Lat.: 1TEpLAE[t/Jw P.

p.

ON STYLE 195-198

as he speaks to the swan, and by the way in which all the

other details are shaped to exploit acting skills. But acting
is not our present subject.
(196) Clear writing should also avoid ambiguities and
use the figure termed epanalepsis. Epanalepsis is the
resumptive repetition of the same particle in the course
of a long sentence, for example ~~on the one hand, all
Philip's activities-how he conquered Thrace, seized the
Chersonese, besieged Byzantium, and refused to return
Amphipolis-all these, on the one hand, I shall pass
over."a The repetition of the particle "on the one hand"
(men) virtually reminded us of the opening and put us
right back to the beginning again. (197) Clarity often
demands repetition. Brevity may in a way add more pleasure than clarity. For just as men who run past us are
sometimes not properly seen, so too the speed of a passage sometim~s causes it not to be properly heard.
(198) Avoid also the use of dependent constructions,
since this too leads to obscurity, as Philistus' style shows.h
A shorter example of how the use of dependent constructions causes obscurity is this passage of Xenophon: "and
that he had heard that triremes were sailing round from
Ionia to Cilicia commanded by Tam us, ships belonging to
the Spartans and to Cyrus himself."c This sentence could
be redrafted without dependent constructions in the folAuthor unknown; cf. Dem. 11.1, also 263.
b FGrHist 556 Philistus T 19. He was noted for his obscure
style, e.g. Cic. Brutus 66.
c Xen. Anab. 1.2.21.
a

3 KtAtKtav Xen.: (J'tKEAiav

4
add. Spengel.

av

P.

467

DEMETRIUS
eeTpt~pEtS 1Tpoo-E80KWVTO EL~ KtAtKiav 1 1TOAAat fLEV

8 I1Epo-i8E~,

AaKatvat, 1TOAAat
'

'

,....,

:J/

~,

o-at E1T avTcp TOVTcp. E1TI\Eov o a1r

8'

Kvpcp vaV1TYJ'YYJ(}li'

'I wvta~
,

vavapxo~

avrat~ E1TE(JTUTEL TafLO~ Alyv1TTLO~.'' fLaKpOTEpov

fLEV ovTw~ 2

yevETo 'io-w~, o-a~Eo-TEpov 8. (199)

Kat

oAw~ TTI ~vo-tKfl 3 Ta~EL TWV OVOfLcLTWV XPYJ(JTEOV, w~

,~
, Eo-Tt
'
'\
' ~ c. ,. . , '
\,
, 4
TO' '='='E 1TtOafLVO~
1TOI\L~ EV OEs Lfl: Eo-1T 1\EOVTL EL~
Tov 'Iovtov KoA1rov" 1rpwTov fLEV yap wvofLao-Tat To
1'
~
/
1TEpt' OV,
OEVTEpov

aA.A.a E~E~7}~.
\
/\LV,

(J)~

TO'

ee

~'

c.\

OE 0

(200)

,....,
/
'
~I
TOVTO
Eo-TtV,
OTt

/\

1TOI\t~,

Kat' Ta'

yiyvotTO fLEV oiJv av Kat TO EfL1Ta-

'EA-.. /

'
/
/
~
/
'f'VPYJ " OV' yap
1TaVTYJ
TaVTYJV
OOKLfLa-

'OfLEV TTJV Ta~tv, ovS TTJV ETEpav U1T000KLfLcL,OfLEV,

Kaea 5 EKTL(}EfLE(}a fLOVOV TO ~vo-tKOV EL8o~ T1]~

Ta~Ew~. (201) v S To'L~ DtYJY~fLao-tv ~Tot a1ro T1]~

op(}ij_~ apKTEOV, ee'E1Ti8afLVO~ Eo-Tt 1T0At~," ~ U1TO T1]~
'

,...,

aLTLaTLK'YJ~,

ate

~'

oE

W~

:J/\ \
a/\1\at

TO'
/

/~
' 1TOI\LV.
'\ "
1\EYETat 'E1TLOaJ.LVOV
T'Y}V

'='=\ /

1TTWo-Et~

'
/A-..
/
/ i::.
ao-a'f'Etav
Ttva 1rapEs
ovo-t Kat'

f3 ao-avov TW TE AE'VOVTL
I
(202) ITEtpao-(}at S
L

aVTW Kat TW UKOVOVTL.

L

fLTJ El~ fL1JKo~ EKTEivEtv Ta~

1TEptaywya~ f!f!o yap 'AxEAqJO~ pewv

EK

Tiiv8ov opov~

:J/
(}
'
/
/ \
6 E1TL
' ' (} al\ao-o-av
/\
aVW
EV fLEV
1rapa' ""'
4TpaTOV
1TOI\LV

DtE~Eto-tv"
1

dA.A.' avTo(}Ev U1TOA~yELV Ka'i dva1TaVEtV

KLALKtav X en.: CTLKEAtav P.

M: ita Lat.: ovro<; P.
3 cpva-tKi} Victorius: cpva-EL Ka~ P.
4 el<; P, om. M, Thuc.
5 Ka()a P suspectum; exspectes d'AA.a.
6 'irparov 1r0Atv M: Stratopolim Lat.: a-rparov 1roAtv P.

2 ovrw<;

468

ON STYLE 198-202

lowing sort of way: "Triremes were expected in Cilicia,

many of them Spartan, many of them Persian and built by
Cyrus for this very purpose. They were sailing from
Ionia, and the commander in charge of them was the
Egyptian Tamus.n This version would perhaps have been
longer, but it would also have been clearer. (199) In general, follow the natural word order, for example "Epidamnus is a city on your right as you sail into the Ionian
gulf.,,a The subject is mentioned first, then what it is (it is
a city), then the rest follows. (200) The order can also be
reversed, for example "There is a city, Ephyra. "b We do
not rigidly approve the one nor condemn the other order;
we are simply setting out the natural way to arrange
words. (201) In narrative passages begin either with the
nominative case (e.g. "Epidamnus is a cityn)c or with the
accusatived (e.g. "It is said that the city Epidamnus ... n).
Use of the other cases will cause some obscurity and torture for the actual speaker and also the listener.
(202) Try not to make your periodic sentences too
long. Take this sentence: ''For the river Achelous, flowing
from Mount Pindus, passing inland by the city of Stratus,
runs into the sea.,,e Make a natural break here and give
Th. 1.24.1 (cf. 201). On theories of natural word order cf.
DH.CV5.
b Hom. Il. 6.152.
cTh. 1.24.1 (cf. 199).
d The Greek construction for indirect speech after e.g. "it is
said that" may have the accusative as the subject (and the infinitive as the verb).
e Th. 2.102.2 (cf. 45-47, 206). The inns of 47 have
becotne signposts (cf. milestones, a Roman adaptation, in Quint.
4.5.22).
a

469

DEMETRIUS
TOV aKOVOVTa OVTw~
/~
II LVOOV

OVTW~

:>1

yap 'AxE'A4)o~

ceo
~'

:>I(;

'

Es EUTLV OE EL~

opov~,

a-acpa-rEpov,

W(J7TEp

pli

JLEV EK

()/\

\'
'
al\aa-a-av " 7TOI\V
yap

av

at

7To'A'Aa (J'Y}fLELa

xova-aL o8ot Kat 7To'A'Aa~ ava7Tav'Aa~ ~YEJLO(JL yap

'

:>I

1"'1

t:

Ta (J'Y}fLELa EOLKEV, 'Y}

YJ,

Kav fLLKpa
/

VELa~

~'
OE

'

aa-YJJLELWTO~

~ /

'

Kat

JLOVOELOYJ~,

a8YJ'AO~ 8oKEL. (203) 7TEpt JLEV 8T] a-acpYJ-

1"'1

TOa-avTa,

t:

'\/
'
\\
01\tya
EK
7TOI\I\WV,
Kat fLai\La-Ta
1"'1

W~

'

/\

'

EV

TOL~ la-xvot~ avTfl Aoyot~ XPYJ(JTEOV.

(204) <I>EVYELV 8 EV rfl a-vvea-EL TOV xapaKT~po~

Tovrov 1rpwTov JLEV ra JL-rJKYJ Twv Kw'Awv JLEya'Ao7TpE-

7TE~ yap 1rav JL~Ko~, wa-7TEP Kat 1rt Twv [ T]pw"iKwv] 1

JLETpwv TO E.~afLETpov T]pw"iKov [ ov] 2 KaAELTaL V7TO
/
~I
3 t:
~/
~ '
/
JLEYE/() OV~ Kat' 7TpE7TOV
YJpWa-LV, YJ KWJL(f!OLa OE a-VVEa-TaATaL El~ To TptfLETpov T] va. (205) Ta 1ro'A'Aa oilv

Kw'Aot.c; TPLfLETpot~ XPTJa-OJLE()a Kat EVtOTE KOfLfLaa-tv,

~I

t:

'

wa-7TEp o JLEV
l"\

.J..

1\aVKCt!vo~

' () E(JEL~.
/
a7TO

'PYJa-L,

r\ /

pata JLETa
Kat'

II 1\a;wv
\ /

t:t:

/ (.}

KaTEtJYJV X

() '

'

E~ EL~

t:

II EL\

7TVKVaL yap at ava7TaVI\aL

A L(JXLVYJ~
'
/

'

cc '

/
()
EKa () YJJLE
a

OE

/
"
JLEV,

A VKEL4_),
/
-e'
c
, () \
() /
OV OL a 1\0 ETaL
Tov dywva 8tart()aa-tv." (206) xrw 8 Kat E.8pav
.J..

o/YJ(JLV,

cc ,

'

1"'1

E7TL TWV

()

aKWV

EV

' .J.. \
aa-o/ai\'Y}
TWV KWI\WV Ta TEI\Y) Kat fJaa-LV,
1"'1

1"'1

'

/\

'

(.}

/ att :
' KaTa' Ta
' TEI\EVTaLa
\
fLEVa
yap
1"'1

7TpE7TEL~,

w~

Ta

8ovKv8i8ov,

co

t:

W~

' /

EKTaa-EL~

AxE'A4)o~

'
Ta' ELpYJ-

JLEyai\0\

7TOTafLO~

pwv EK IIiv8ov opov~" Kat Ta ~~~- (207) cpEVKTEOV

1 T)pwtK&w

del. Spengel.
del. Radermacher et Roberts.
3 ijpwcrtv edd.: T)pwwv P.
2

470

ov

ON STYLE 202-206

the listener a rest: "For the river Achelous flows from

Mount Pindus, and runs into the sea." This version is far
clearer. Sentences are like roads. Some roads have many
signposts and many resting places; and the signposts are
like guides. But a monotonous road without signposts
seems infinite, even if it is short. (203) These are a few
remarks out of the many possible on the subject of clarity,
and clarity is to be used most of all in the plain style.
(204) Next, composition in this style: first, avoid long
clauses, since length always has grandeur, just as in the
case of metres the hexameter is called heroic because of
its length and it suits heroes, a while New Comedy is kept
confined within the iambic trimeter. (205) So we shall for
the most part use clauses of trimeter lengthb and sometimes phrases, as in Plato, "I went down yesterday to
Piraeus with Glaucon ... "c (here the pauses and endings
come close together), and in Aeschines, ''we were sitting
on the benches in the Lyceum, where the stewards of the
games organise the contests."d (206) And let the closing
words of the clauses reach a secure and perceptible end, e
as in the sentences I have just quoted. Long delayed endings belong rather to the grand style, as in the sentence of
Thucydides, "The river Achelous, flowing from Mount
Cf. 5.
h I.e. a length of roughly 15-16 syllables. The phrase is
shorter (see note on 5).
c Pl. Rep. 327a (cf. 21). The whole sentence is intended.
d Aesch. Soc. 2 Dittmar, probably the beginning of the Alcibiades. Compare also the beginning of his Miltiades (in P.Oxy.
2889), It happened to be the great Panathenaic festival, and we
were sitting ... "
e Cf. 183.
a

471

DEMETRIUS

oilv Kat ras rwv p.aKpwv a-rotxEiwv a-vp.1TATJtEt~ f.v

r(i> xapaKrf}pt 'TOV'Tlp KaL 'TWV Dup06yywv OYKYJPOV
\
""
\
Q
yap 1raa-a EKTaa-t~. Kat Et 1rov JJPaxEa a-vyKpov1
Q
I
e
ee
I
\
\
I
\
I
'
n
a-TEOV fJpaxEa-LV, W~ 1TaVTa f.LEV Ta VEa Kal\a Ea-TLV,
~ {3paxa p.aKpols, w~ eeTJEAto~,'' 1 ~ ap.w~ 2 y 1rw~
Dux {3paxwv KaL oAw~ ep.cpatVE'Tat 3 EVKaracppoVYJ'TO~
e
""
'~
0 'TOLOVTO~ 7p01TO~ TTJ~ AES EW~ Kat LOLW'TLKO~, Ka1T
avra 4 ravra 1TE1TOLYJJLEVO~. (208) cpEvyf.rw DTJ KaL ra
a-YJp.EtWDYJ a-x7Jp.ara. 1TUV yap TO 1Tapaa-TJfLOV aa-VVYJ' LOLW'TLKOV.
'~
~
(J E~ Kat\ OVK
TTJV OE
EVapyEtaV Kat TO 'TTL (J aVOV p.aAta-Ta 0 xapaKTTJP oilTo~ E1TLDE~E'Tat. 1TEpL
f.vapyEia~ oilv Kat 1TEpt 1Tt0avoTTJTO~ AEKTEov.
(209) ITpwrov 8 1TEpt f.vapyEia~ yivErat D' T]
f.vapyEta 1Tpwra f.LEV ( aKpt{3oA.oyia~ KaL 'TOV 1TapaAEL1TLV f.LYJDEV JLYJD' EK'TEJLVELV, oiov e~w~ 8' or' dv~p
~~

~~

""

1(;

'

'

'

"
~~
Q\1
'
Kat' "1raa-a
. aVTTJ
TJe 1TapafJOATJ.
TO' yap
f.vapy~ EXEL EK rov 1ravra Elpf}a-Oat ra a-vp.{3aivovra
Kat JLTJ 1TapaAEAEtcpOat fLYJDEv. (210) Kat T] L1T1ToDpop.ia DE T] E1Tt ITarpoKAcp, EV or~ AEyEt, e~1TVOtfj D'
' I\
I,./....
n
~ I,./....
'
E Vf.LTJAOLO
fJ-ETa'PpEVOV,
Kat\ e~ atEL yap Ot'Ppov
E1TLf3YJa-OfJ-EVOL(JLV f.tKTYJV." 1TUV'Ta TaVTa evapyfj E(JTLV EK
'

'"

OXETTJYO~

1 7JA.toc;

Victorius: i}A.toc; P.
dfLwc; Finckh: aA.A.wc; P.
3 EfLcPatvETat Victorius: EfLcPaivecrBat P.
4 Kat' '
' P: Ka1T
' ' avTa
''Rb
avTa
o erts.
2

472

Th. 2.102.2 (cf. 45 and 202).

ON STYLE 207-210

Pindus ... "a and so on. (207) In this style we should also
avoid hiatus between long vowels and diphthongs, since
any lengthening is imposing. If there is any, we should
have it between short vowels (e.g. kala estin at the end of
the sentence ''all that is young is beautiful"h) or between a
short and a long (e.g. eelios, "the sun"), or at any rate
shorts in some shape or form. In general, this type of
style is unimpressive and ordinary, and that is the very
effect it intends. (208) Conspicuous figures should also
be avoided, since anything conspicuous is unfamiliar and
out of the ordinary. Vividness, ho\vever, and persuasiveness will be particularly welcome in this style, so we must
speak next about vividness and persuasiveness.
(209) First, vividness: it comes first from the use of
precise detail and from omitting and excluding nothing,
for example the whole simile beginning "as when a man
draws off w~ter in an irrigation channel. "c This comparison owes its vividness to the fact that all accompanying
details are included and nothing is omitted. (210)
Another example is the horse race in honour of Patroclus,
in the lines where Homer describes "the hot breath on
Eumelus' back" and "for they always looked as if they
were about to mount the chariot."d The entire passage is
Author unknown (cf. 70).
c Hom. Il. 21.257ff: "as when a man draws off water in an irrigation channel from a spring with deep black water, and he
guides the flow of water along his plants and orchards, and with a
spade in his hands, he throws out any obstructions from the
ditch, and as the water streams forth, all the pebbles are jostled
along, and flowing quickly down it gurgles in its sloping bed, and
outruns the man who controls it."
d Hom. Il. 23.379-81.
b

473

DEMETRIUS

rov f.LYJDEv 1TapaAEAli8at rwv TE ervf.Lf3atvovrwv Ka'i

ervf.Lf3avrwv. (211) werT 1TOAAaKtc; Ka'i T] DtAoyia
' /
""'\ \
~~
c 1\EyEtV,
\ /
~~
EVapyEtaV
1TOtEt""' f.La/\1\0V
YJ.,, TO' a1Ta<:,
Wer1TEp
TO'
eeCTV 8' airrov Kat 'WVTU EAEyEt; KUKWt;, Kat vvv U7T08avovra ypaEtc; KaKwc;." 8'ic; yap KEtf.LEvov ro
eeKaKwc;" EVapyEerTEpav erYJf.LatVEt TTJV {3AaerYJf.LLaV.
(212) ~ 01TEp DE rep KTYJertq- f.yKaAovertv we; aDoAE~'
' Oti\Oytac;,
~ \
\\
""'
' ,,terwc; EyKa'
erxorEp<p ota
rae;
1TOI\I\axYJ
f.LEV
AovertV op8wc;, 1TOAAaxfJ DE OVK alcr8avovTat rfjc;
f.vapyEtac; TOV av8poc; Tt8ETat yap TaVTO <D'ic;> 1 Dta
ro 1ToAAaKtc; 1Totliv Ef.Laertv 1TAEtova. (213) oia ra
TOtaDE, ee!rpvayya'i6c; 2 Ttc;, avi}p Mf}Doc;, yvva'iKa
~
/~
\ ' a1ro
' ' rov""' ~~t1T1Tov f.Laxovrat
/
' OYJ
~ '
4aKtoa
Kara f3 aAWV
yap
""'
,
,
r,
() Eaera,
ate yvvatKEc;
EV
4aKatc;
wer1TEp ate 'A f.LasovEc;
f.LEVO~ 8T] TTJV !aKtOa EV1TpE1Tfj Ka'i wpaiav f.LE8f}KEV
a1Tocrw,Ecr8ac f.LETa 8~ rovro cr7Tov8wv yEvof.Lf.vwv,
'
() Etc;
' TYJc;
""'
' a1TETvyxavEV"
'
'~ /~
'
Epaer
yvvatKOc;
EOEOOKTO
f.LEV
avrip U1TOKaprEpE'iv ypaEt DE 1TpOTEpov E1TterroAT]v
r~. ,
, ~ 'E yw' f.LEV
, erE' Eerwera,
,,
TYJ""' yvvatKt' f.LEf.Lo/Of.LEVOc;
TOtaVOE"
' 3 Ot
~ ' Ef.LE
' ' EerW
' '() YJc; EYW
' ' OE
~' Ota
~ ' erE' a1TWI\O'
\ /
Kat' erv' f.LEV
f.LYJV." (214) f.vrav8a E1TtTtf.L1}erEtEV av 'lerwc; Ttc; f3paxvA.oyoc; olOf.LEVOc; Eivat, OTt D'ic; ETE8YJ 1Tpoc; OVOEV TO
eeeerwera" Ka'i eeDt' Ef.LE f.erw8YJc;." TaVTOV yap erYJf.LaLVEt
df.LorEpa. aAA' El dAotc; 8arEpov, ervvaatp1}erEtc;
Ka'i ri}v f.vapyEtav Ka'i ro EK rfjc; f.vapyEiac; 1ra8oc;.
1

~~

1
2

8t~ add. Gartner, cf. ot~ 7ToAAaKts in mg. P.

~rpvayya'io~ Finckh: a-rpvayAto~ P.

3 f.LEV

474

P: om. P.Oxy. 2330.

ON STYLE 211-214

vivid since no detail of what usually happens and did happen is omitted. (211) Consequently repetition is often
more vivid than a single mention, e.g. ccyou are the man
who when he was alive spoke to his discredit, and now
when he is dead write to his discredit. "a The repetition of
"to his discredit" gives the insult a more vivid impact.
(212) This is relevant to the charge of garrulousness
regularly brought against Ctesiash on account of his repetitions. In many passages it is perhaps a valid charge, but
in many others it is a failure to appreciate the author>s
vividness. The same word is often put twice to increase
the impact, as in this passage: (213) 'cStryangaeus, a Persian, unhorsed a Sacian vvoman (for among the Sacians
the women fight like Amazons); his gaze was caught by
the Sacian>s youth and beauty, and he let her escape.
Later, when peace was made, he fell in love with the
woman but had no success. He decided to starve to
death, but first he wrote her this letter of complaint: 'I
saved you, because of me you were saved, yet because of
you I am dead.">c (214) Here perhaps anyone convinced
of his own brevity might object that there is a pointless
repetition in 'CI saved you" and ubecause of me you were
saved," since both mean the same. But if you take away
either, you will also take away the vividness and the
Author unknown (cf. 26).
b FGrHist 684 Ctesias T 14(a).
c F 8(a); cf. F 8(b) = POxy. 2330.
a

475

DEMETRIUS

'

TO'

'
\ /
"
'
'
,...
TO' ee a1TWI\Of.LYJV
aVT~ TOV
eea1ToAAVf.La~," f:vapyu7Epov avTi} Ti} (JVVTEAELCf:- EUTL"

Ka~

' ,/...

E1T~'EPOfLEVOV

8E,/

To yap 8Tj yEyovo~ 8EtvoTEpov Tov f.LEAAovTo~ :ry ytvof.LEVov ETL.

(215)

8 0 1TOLYJTTJ<; oiJToc; ( 1TO~YJ

TL<; <aJJ> 1 ELKOTW<;) E.vapyEiac;

Kat oAwc;

TTJV yap aVTOV KaAOLYJ

DYJfLLovpyo~ f:uTtv f:v Ti} ypa~i} UVfL1TUUYJ. ( 216) oiov

Ka~ EV 70~~ 70~0~(J8E DE~ Ta YEVOfLEVa 2 OVK evev~
AEyE~V OT~ EYEVETO, aAAa KaTa fLLKpov, KPEfLVWVTa

TOV aKpoaTTjv Ka~ dvayKa,ovTa uvvaywv~av. TOVTO

KTYJuiac; f:v Ti} dyyEAiq- Ti} 1TEp~ Kvpov TE0vEwTo~
1TOLE~. E:A.Owv yap 0 ayyEAo~ ovK Eve-u~ A.f.yE~ 07~
a1TE0avEv Kvpo~ 1Tapa TTJV IIapvuaTLV" TOVTO yap ~
AEYOfLEVYJ a1TO !KvOwv piju[~ EUTLV" aAAa 1TpWTOV

fLEV ~YYELAEv OTt v~Kfi., ~ 8 i}u()YJ Kat i]ywv[auEv

fLETa_ 8 TovTo f:pwrfi., {3autAEv~ 8 1rw~ 1rpaTTEt;
8

1TE~Evy ~YJu~ Kat ~ v1ToAa{3ovua Tta-a-a~pvYJc;

'
' "" TOVTWV atTLo~
~'
\
'
,.....
yap
aVTqJ
Kat' 1Tai\LV
E1TaVEpWTCf:-"
/

Kvpo~ 8 1TOV vvv;

0 8 ayyEAo~ afLEL{3ETat E.v()a

~' 8pa~ aVI\LsEU
'\ /r () aL. KaL'3 KaTa'
av

' aya
' () ov~
'
XPYJ' TOV~
fLLKpov Kat KaTa {3paxv 1rpo"iwv 1-Lo"-~~, To 8Tj AEyofLEvov, a1TEPPYJ~EV avTo, fLUAa -Y]()tKW~ Ka~ f:vapyw~ TOV
TE ayyEAov Ef.L~~va~ aKOVO"LW~ dyyEAOVVTa TTJV O"VfL~opav, Ka'i TTJV fLYJ7Epa EL~ aywv[av EfL{3aA.wv Ka'i TOV
'
aKOVOVTa.
/

av M:om .p.
2 yEvop.,Eva Greg.: ytvop.,Eva P.
3 Ka~ Lockwood: Ka~ ovrw Greg.: om. P.
1 ,,

476

ON STYLE 214-216

emotional impact of the vividness. Furthermore, the following words, "I am dead" instead of "I am dying," add
yet more vividness by the use of an actual past tense,
since what has already happened is more forceful than
what will happen or is still happening. (215) Altogether,
this poet (for Ctesias may reasonably be called a poet) is
an artist in vividness throughout his writings, (216) as in
the next example. In the case of a disaster we should not
immediately say that a disaster has happened but reveal it
only gradually, keeping the reader in suspense and forcing him to share the anguish. This is what Ctesias does
when the messenger reports Cyrus' death. a The mess enger arrives but does not immediately say before Parysatis
that Cyrus is dead (for that would be the proverbially
blunt speech of the Scythians). b First he reports the victory of Cyrus. Parysatis feels both joy and anguish. Then
she asks, "J:Iow is the king?" He replies, "He has
escaped." She responds, "Yes, this he owes to Tissaphernes." Again she asks a question: "Where is Cyrus
now?" The messenger replies, "where the brave should
can1p." Moving gradually and step by reluctant step Ctesias at last, in the traditional phrase, "broke the news,''
and in a style full of characterisation and vividness he presented the messenger's reluctance to report the disaster
and stirred the mother's anguish, which he made the
reader share.
a

F 24. The king is Artaxerxes, the elder son of Parysatis (cf.

3).
b

Cf. 297, Paroem. Gr. ii.438.

477

1!
DEMETRIUS

(217)

riveTat

EK

Kat

TOV Ta 1TaperUJfJ-EVa TOL<;

1rpaytJ-aa-t A.f.yEtv E.vapyeta, oiov w<; E1Tt Tov dypoiKov

a ~ /r
!>/ "'~~
ee
/
()
'
/
1
'
""
fJaOtt:,OVTO<; E~YJ TI.S, OTt 1Tpoa-w EV YJKOVETO aVTOV
~""

""

TWV 1TOOWV 0 KTV1TO<; 1TpOa-tOVTO<;,

,~,

~/r

W<; OVOE fJaOtt:,OV-

TO<; dA.A.' oiov YE AaKTL,ovTo<; T~v yijv.

(218)

o1TEp

o IIA.aTwv cpYJa-tv E1Tt Tov t:l1T1ToKpaTov<;, t:t:E.pvOptaa-a<;

[ iJ8YJ Tfl vvKTt 2 ], iJ8YJ yap V1TEcpYJvE.v Tt iJtJ-E.pa<;, wa-TE 3

Karacpavij avTov yEvf.a-Oat,'' OTt fJ-EV E.vapyf.a-TaTov

i} 8'

EO"Tt, 1TaVTt 8ijA.ovo

EK

E.vapyEta yf.yovEv

Tij<;

cppovTi8o<; Tij<; 1TEpt TOV Aoyov Kat TOV a1TOfJ-VYJfJ-OVEV~~

/
'
'
'
'
""\{)
e
a-at, OTt
VVKTWP
1rpo<;
avTov
EtO"'Y}J\
EV o

(219)

KaKocpwvia

'
/ "'\
"
EYKE~a/\O<;,

Kat'

ee

el

/
1T1TOKpaTYJ<;.

EK 8'

1TOAAaKt<;, w<; TO t:t:K01TT',

\ \ '
!>/
/
"
1TOJ\J\a
o~, avavTa,
KaTavTa

/
fJ-EtJ-t-

fJ-YJTat yap TV KaKocpWVLf!: T~V aVWtJ-aA[avo 1TUO"a

EXEt. (220)

fJ-LfJ-YJ.a-t<; E.vapy<; Tt

8
8

Kat Ta 1TE1TOtYJfJ-Eva

ovofJ-aTa vapyEtav 1ro~E'i 8ta To KaTa fJ-LtJ-YJa-tv tEvYJ/

~~

{)

VEX at,
~

wa-1TEp
!>/

'

'

ee \

TO

"

J\a1TTOVTE<;.

"".

~ '
Et' oE

'

ee

1TtVOVTE<;
!>/

"

Et1TEV, OVT EfJ-tfJ-EtTO 1TtVOVTa<; TOV<; KVVa<;, OVTE EvapyEta

!>/
av
Tt<;

'
/
EytvETO.

\/

Kat'

TO'

!>/

ee

\ /
n
y 1\WO"O"YJO"t
/

~ '
""
oE
TCV
""'

J\a1TTOVTE<; 1TpOO"KEtfJ-EVOV ETt EVapyEa-TEpov 1TOtEt TOV

Aoyov.

Kat 1TEpt E.vapyELa<; fJ-EV w<;

EV

TV1Tcp EL1TELV

""
roa-avTa.

To 1Tt0avov 8 E.v 8vo'iv,

(221)
O"VVYJ/ () Et
1

'
TO' yap

"" '

aa-a~E<;

, / () E<; a1Tt
, /() aVOVO
Kat' aO"VVYJ

fJKovEro Cobet: f/Kova-ro P.

YJD'YJ rfl vvKrt del. Schneider.
3 wa-rE Plat. codd.: El~ ro P.
2

478

ev TE T0 a-acpE'i Kat

ON STYLE 217-221

(217) Vividness also comes from the use of circum-

stantial detail, as in someone~s description of a countryman walking along, "the clatter of his feet was heard from
far away as he approached,"a just as if he were not just
walking along but virtually stamping the ground. (218)
Plato too has an example when he is describing Hippocrates: ~~He was blushing, for there was already a first
glimmer of daylight to reveal him."b This is extremely
vivid, as anybody can see, and the vividness is the result of
his careful use of words and keeping in mind that it was
night when Hippocrates visited Socrates.
(219) Harsh sounds are often vivid, as in "He struck
them down, and out spurted their brains" (kopt~, ek a~
enkephalos )c and -=~over and over, up and down" (polla d:>
ananta katanta).d Homer intended the cacophony to imitate the jerkiness, and all imitation has an element of
vividness. (~20) Onomatopoeic formations also produce
vividness, since they are coined to suggest an imitation, as
in "lapping" (laptontes).e If Homer had said "drinking/~
he would not have imitated the sound of dogs drinking,
and there would have been no vividness; and the addition
~.:with their tongues" (glosseisi) after .:.:lapping" makes the
passage still more vivid. This concludes my brief outline
on the subject of vividness.
(221) Next, persuasiveness: it depends on two things,
clarity and familiarity, since what is unclear and unfamila

Author unknown; cf. Hom. Od. 16.6 1TEpt TE

KT1J1TO~ ~ABE

1TODot'iv.

Pl. Protag. 312a.

c Hom. Od. 9.289-90 (of the Cyclops) K01TT', EK S' E)IKE~a
Ao~ xafLUDts pEE, DE'UE S ya'tav.
d Hom. Il. 23.116.
eHom. Il. 16.161 (cf. 94).
b

479

DEMETRIUS
"'
'
'
'~' c
/
~
LV TE OVV
OV' TTJV
7rEptTTTJV
OVOE
V7rEpoyKOV
OLW/
/(} ECTLV
KTEOV EV TYJ 7I'L aVOTTJTL, Kat'r:WCTaVTW~
CTVV
{3E{3atovcrav 1 Ka'i fLYJDEv E.xovcrav pvfJfLOEtDf.~. (222)
f.v rovrot~ rE oiJv ro 1rt-fJavov, Kai f.v $ 8Eopacrro~
TJCTLV, OTL ov 7ravra E7r' aKpt{3Eia~ DEL fLaKpT)yopELV,
d'A'A' E.vta KaraAt7rELV Kat T~ aKpoaTfl CTVVtEVat Ka'i
'Aoyi,EcrfJat E.t aVTOtJ" CTVVEL~ yap TO EAAEtfJv V7r0
CTOV OVK aKpoaTr,~ fLOVOV a'A'Aa Ka'i fLUPTV~ crov yivEr:
Tat, Kat afLa EVfLEVECTTEpO~. CTVVETO~ yap EaVT([J
DOKEL Dta CTE TOV dopfLTJV 7rapECTXYJKOTa avr~ TOV
/
~'
/
r:
'
/
\ /
/
CTVVLEVat,
TO' OE
7raVTa
W~ aVOYJT([! 1\EYEtV KaTaytVWCTKOVTt EOtKEV TOV aKpoaTOV.
(223) 'E7rEL 8 Ka'i 0 E7TtCTTOAtKO~ xapaKTTJP DELTat
c.
'A pTEfLWV
/
,
tCTXVOTYJTO~, Kat 7rEpt avTov AE<;OfLEV.
fLEV
o?Jv o. Ta~ 'AptCTTOTEAOV~ avaypatfia~ E7rtCTTOAa~
\ /(;
1\E~
/

'

1"'1

'

(}

t:/

'

:J/

1"'1

'

'

'

'

1"'1

1"'1

'

1"'1

cPTJCTLV, OTL DEL EV T~ a~T~ Tp07r4J Dt-a'Aoyov TE ypaEtV Kat E7rtcrTo'Aa~ Eivat yap TTJV E7rtcrTo'AY,v oiov To
ETEpov fLEpo~ Tov Dta'A6yov. (224) Kat AEyEt fLEV Tt
~:1
~~"'~'
e
/(}
tCTW~, OV fLTJV a7rav OEt yap V7rOKaTECTKEVaCT at 7I'W~
fLa'A'Aov Tov 8ta'A6yov TTJV E7rtcrTo'A'Y}v
fLEV yap
fLtfLELTaL avTOCTXEDta,ovTa, TJ DE ypaErat Kat Dwpov
7I'EfL7rETat Tp07rOV TtVa. (225) TL~ yovv OVTW~ av 8taAEXfJELYJ2 7rpo~ i'Aov wcr7rEp
'Apt-crroTEAYJ~ 1Tpo~
'AvTL7raTpov V7rEp Tov vya8o~ ypawv Tov ypovTo~ YJcrtv r:r:El 8 7rpo~ a7racra~ OLXETat ya~ 3 vya~
::.1

' '

1 {3E{3atofHrav

Roberts.

480

P vix recte: {3E{3a[av Dahl: {3E{3a[av o:O(JaV

ON STYLE 221-225

iar is unconvincing. So to be persuasive we should aim

for diction which is not elaborate or inflated, and for composition similarly which moves steadily along without formal rhythm. (222) These then are the essentials of persuasiveness, along with the advice of Theophrastus, a that
you should not elaborate on everything in punctilious
detail but should omit some points for the listener to infer
and work out for himself. For when he infers what you
have omitted, he is not just listening to you but he
becomes your witness and reacts more favourably to you.
For he is made aware of his own intelligence through you,
who have given him the opportunity to be intelligent. To
tell your listener every detail as though he were a fool
seems to judge him one.
(223) We will next discuss the style for letters, since
that too should be plain. Artemon, b the editor of Aristotle's Letters? says that a letter should be written in the
same manner as a dialogue; the letter, he says, is like one
of the two sides to a dialogue. (224) There is perhaps
some truth in what he says, but not the whole truth. The
letter should be a little more formal than the dialogue,
since the latter imitates improvised conversation, while
the former is written and sent as a kind of gift. (225) Who
would ever talk to a friend as Aristotle writes to Antipater
on behalf of an old man in exile? "If he is a wanderer over
Theophr. F 696 Fortenbaugh.
b Perhaps the second-century B.C. grammarian. For the letter as part of a conversation, cf. Cic. Ad Att. 13.18, Ovid Ars.
Amat. 1.468 praesens ut videare loqui.
a

8t.aAEX8ELYJ Schneider: 8t.aAEx87J P.

Valckenaer: Ta~ P.

3 y&s

481

1
I

DEMETRIUS
o-DTo~,

W<TTE f.L~ KaTa:yEtV, 8ij'Aov w~ TOL<TYE El~

('/ At8ov KaTEAfJE'iv {3ovAOf.LEVOt~ ov8Et~ cpfJovo~" 0

'

yap

('/

OVTW~

~
\
/
Otai\EYOf.LEVO~

~'

~"~\

E1TtOEtKVVf.LEV(f;) EOtKEV f.Lai\-

AOV, ov A.a'AovvTt-. (226) KaL A.vo-Et-~ lTvxval, 1 o1To'iat/

< ... > 2 OV' 1TpE1TOV<TtV
ypacpfJ T] 'Avo-t~, Kat To

1"1

E1TtlTTOI\at~

,../...'

'

yap EV

ao-ao/E~

f.Ltf.LYJTtKov ov ypacpij~ ovTw~

olKELOV w~ aywvo~, oiov w~ EV T[i> EvfJv8~f.L(f;)" t:t:TlS i}v,
~ !.wKpaTE~, ([> xe~ EV AvKELqJ 8tE'Ayov;

iJ

1TOAV~

Vf.LOS ox'Ao~ 1TEptEt<TT~KEt" Kat f.LtKpov 1TpoE'AfJwv E1TtcppEt, eeaAAa f.LOL tf.vo~ Tt~ cpaLVETat Eivat, {b 8tEAE, -;- , t:
'
/
t:
/
'
yov Tt~ YJV; YJ yap TOtaVTYJ 1Tao-a Epf.LYJVEta Kat
1"1

f.LLf.LYJ<Tt~ vTToKptr-fJ 1TpE1TEt 3 f.La'A.'Aov, ov ypacpof.LEVat~

,

1"1

E1TtlTTOI\at~.

(227) IIAEL<TTOV 8 EXETW TO T](}tKOV T] E1Tt<TTOA~,

('/
' t:
W<T1TEp Kat 0

'\

OtUI\Oyo~

~'
'
, /
('/
<TXEOOV yap EtKOVa EKa<TTO~

Tij~ E:avTov lfivxij~ ypacpEt- r~v E7Tt-lTTo'A~v. Kal, ElTT'-

f.LEv Kat f.t a'A'Aov 'Aoy~v 1TaVT0~ 4 l8E'iv TO i}fJo~ TOV

ypacpovro~, f.t ov8vo~ 8 OVTW~, w~ E1Tt<TTo'Aij~.

(228) To 8 f.LEYEeo~ lTvvEa-Ta'Aew Tij~ 1TurTo'A ij~,

(''
W<T1TEp
Kat' YJe

'C

1\ES t~.

ate

~'

OE

~'
,
ayav
f.LaKpat,, Kat' 1TpO<TETt

KaTa T~V EPf.LYJVELav oyKw8o-TEpat, ov !La T~V a'A~

fJEtav E7TL<TTOAat yvotVTO av, a'A'Aa lTVYYPUf.Lf.LaTa,
TO xaipEtV EXOVTa 1Tpoo-yEypaf.Lf.LEVOV, Kaea1TEp TOV
IT'AaTwvo~ 1To'A'Aat 5 Kat T] 8ovKv8i8ov. (229) Kat TD
1

o-vxvat Victorius: lo-xvat P.

lacunam stat. Goeller: ai Tov DtaA.oyov prop. Roberts.
3 1TpE1TEL Victorius: 1rpe1Tot P.
4 1ravro~ Victorius: 1ravrw~ P.
2

482

ON STYLE 225-228

all the world, an exile with no hope of being recalled

home, it is clear that we cannot blame men like him if
they wish to return home, to Hades."a A man who talked
like that would seem to be making a speech, not chatting.
(226) Yet a series of abrupt sentence breaks such as
< ... >b does not suit the letter. Abruptness in writing
causes obscurity, and the imitation of conversation is less
appropriate to writing than to real debate. Take the
Euthydemus: <<Who was it, Socrates, you were talking to
yesterday in the Lyceum? There was certainly a large
crowd standing round your group." And a little further on
he adds: I think he was a stranger, the man you were
talking to. Who was he ?"c All this sort of style in imitation
of reality suits oral delivery better, it does not suit letters
since they are written.
(227) Like the dialogue, the letter should be strong in
characterisati9n. Everyone writes a letter in the virtual
image of his own soul. In every other form of speech it is
possible to see the writer's character, but in none so
clearly as in the letter.
(228) The length of a letter, no less than its range of
style, should be restricted. Those that are too long, not to
mention too inflated in style, are not in any true sense letters at all but treatises with the heading, Dear Sir." This
is true of many of Plato's letters, and that one of
Thucydides.d (229) The sentences should also be fairly
Ar. Jr. 665 Rose = F 8 Plezia.
b Add e.g. suit the
dialogue."
c Pl. Euthyd. 27la.
d An unknown later fiction, unless it is the letter of N icias in
Th. 7.11-15. Neither it nor the Plato letters begin with xaipEtv.
a

5 rov IT.Aarwvo~

1To.A.Aal, Finckh: ra IT.Aarwvo~ 1ro.A.Aa P.

483

DEMETRIUS

a-vvTagE,J fLEVTot AE'Ava-fJw fLaA'Aov yE'Ao'iov yap

1TEptOOEVEtV, WU"1TEp OVK E1TtU"TO/\YjlJ a/\1\a OtKYJV ypacpovTa. Kat ov8 yEAo'iov fLOVOJJ a'A'A' ov8 cptAtKOJJ (TO
'
~ '
'
/
ee '
yap
OYJ
KaTa' TYJV
1TapotfLtav
Ta a-vKa a-vKa 1\EyofLEVOV) E1TtU"TOAa'i~ TavTa E1TtTYJ8EvEtV. ( 230) El8f.vat
8 xp-rJ, OTt ovx EpfLYJVELa fLOVOV a'A'Aa Kat 1TpayfLaTa
Ttva E1Tta-ToAtKa f.a-Ttv. 'Apta-ToTf.'A YJ~ yovv o~ 2
fLUAta-Ta E1TtTETEVXEVat 8oKEL TOV [ avTov 3] E1TtU"TOAtKOV, ee'TOVTO 8 ov ypacpw a-oi," cPYJU"LlJ" eeov yap ljv
E1Tta-ToAtKov." (231) El yap Tt~ f.v E1Tta-To'A iJ a-ocpia-fLaTa ypacpot Kat cpva-to'Aoyia~, ypacpEt fLEV, ov fL~v
E1Tta-To'A~v ypacpEt. cpt'Aocpp6vYJa-t~ yap Tt~ {3ov'AETat
EtVat YJ E1TtU"TO/\Yj U"VlJTOfLO~, Kat 1TEpt a1T/\OV 1TpayfLaTO~ EK8Ea-t~ KaL EV OVOfLaU"tV a1TAo'i~. (232) KaAAo~
fLEVTOt avTij~ at TE cptAtKat cptAocppov-r}a-Et~ Kat
1TVK1Jat 1TapOtfLtat E~OVU"at. Kat TOVTO yap fLOVOJJ
EVEU"TW avTi} a-ocpov, 8toTt 8YJfLOTtK01J TL EU"TtV ~
1TapotfLia Kat Kotvov,
8 yvwfLoAoywv Kat 1TpoTpE1TOfLEVO~ OV Ot
E1TtU"TO/\Yj~ ETt 1\a/\OVVTt EOtKEV, a/\1\a
<a1To> 4 fLYJxavij~. (233) 'Apta-ToTEAYJ~ fLEvTot Kat
a1To8EigE(TL 1TOV xpijTat E1TtU"TOAtKW~, oiov 8t8agat
{3ov'AofLEvo~, oTt ofLoiw~ XP~ EvEpyETE'iv Ta~ fLEya'Aa~
1ToAEt~ Kat Ta~ fLtKpa~, cpYJa-iv, ((oi yap fJEoL f.v afLcpoTEpat~ tU"Ot, WU"T
E1TEt at xaptTE~ Eat, tU"at a1TOKEt, Kat' yap
' TO' ,a1TOOEt~
U"OJJTat (TOt 1Tap '',./....
afL...,_,OTEpat~.
t
, /
KVVfLEVOJJ avTcp E1TtU"TO/\tK01J Kat YJ a1TOOEts t~ aVTYJ.
~

t:l

, \

~/

'

1"'1

-;-

'

'

'

1"'1

1"'1

'

'

"

1"'1

1"'1

'

~'

t:l

3/

'

'

3/

1"'1

(}

3/

1"'1

l Kat TD CTVVTlLtEt p2:

2 o~ M: w~ P.
3

'

TatEt p 1.

'

avrov del. Spengel.

484

3/

1"'1

/~

'\ \ '

ON STYLE 229-233

loosely structured. It is absurd to build up periods, as if

you were writing not a letter but a speech for the law
courts. Nor is it just absurd to be so formal in letters, it is
even contrary to friendship, which demands the proverbial calling of "a spade a spade."a (230) We should also be
aware that there are epistolary topics as well as style. Certainly Aristotle is thought to have been exceptionally successful in the genre of letters, and he comrnents, ''I am
not writing to you on this, since it is not suitable for a
letter."b (231) If anyone should write in a letter about
problems of logic or natural philosophy, he may indeed
write, but he does not write a letter. A letter's aim is to
express friendship briefly, and set out a simple subject in
simple terms. (232) It has its own beauty, but only in
expressions of warm friendship and the inclusion of
numerous proverbs. This should be its only permitted
philosophy, pe!mitted since the proverb is ordinary, popular wisdom. But the man who utters sententious maxims
and exhortations seems to be no longer chatting in a letter
but preaching from the pulpit.c (233) Aristotle, however,
sometimes even develops proofs, though in such a way
that they suit the letter. For instance, wanting to prove
that large and small cities have an equal claim on benefactors, he says: "The gods are equal in both; so, since the
Graces are gods, you will find grace stored up equally in
both."d The point being proved suits a letter, and so does
Paroem. Gr. ii.654, literally figs.
b Ar.fr. 670 Rose= T 4(b), F 16 Plezia.
c I.e. as a deus ex machina, speaking from on high.
d Ar. Jr. 656 Rose = T 4( c), F 17 Plezia.
a

a1ro add. Cobet (Ruhnkenium secutus).

485

DEMETRIUS

S Kat 1roAEa-iv 1TOTE Kat {3aa-tAEva-tv ypa-

(234) E1TEt

c/Jop.,Ev, Eo-Two-av TotavTaL [ ai] 1 E1TLo-ToAat p.,tKpov

'l:
/
Es
YJPP.,EVaL

/
'
O"'Toxaa-TEOV
yap
KaL' 'TOV 1TpOCTW1TOV
~ ypac/JETat ~YJpp.,vYJ p.,vToL Ka'i 2 ovx wa-TE a-vyypap.,p.,a ElvaL av'T' E1TtCTToA-ry~, W0"1TEp ai 'Apta-'TO'TE\
' 'A\J\ES
/ (; avopov,
~
' 'TOV~
' uLWlJO~
A /
'
/
J\OV~ 1Tp0~
KaL' 1rp0~
OLKELOV~ T] ITAaTwvo~. (235) KaOoA.ov S p.,Ep.,ixOw T] E1TLa-ToA ~ Ka'Ta 'T~lJ E:pp_,YJVELalJ EK Svo'Lv xapaKTTJPOLlJ
'TOV'TOLV, 'TOV 'TE xapLEV'TO~ KaL 'TOV LCTXVOV. KaL 1TEpL
E1TLO"ToA-ry~ P.,EV 'TOO"aVTa, Kat ap.,a 1TEpt TOV xapaK'T-rypo~ Tov ta-xvov.
( 236) ITapaKELTat S Kat T~ la-xv~ DtYJp.,apTYJp_,ivo~
'
\
~'
xapaKTYJp, 0~ s(; YJPO~
KaJ\OVP.,EVO~.
YLVE'TaL OE
KaL'
~
~
ovTo~ EV Tpto-tv EV otavotq. p.,Ev, wa-1TEp TL~ E1TL t::i.tEpc;
,.I.,.
Q
S 0~ Eo/YJ, O'TL Ka'TEtJaLVEV 0 t::i.tEps 'Y}~ P.,E'Ta 1TalJTWlJ 'TWV
E:avTov." p.,aAa yap E?"P.,LKpVVEV 'TO 1Tpayp.,a, av'Tt 'TOV
~~
, ""' 'A ,
~
,
,, ' ""' [ .,, J3 ~~
,
,
P.,E'Ta 'T'Y}~
a-La~ a1TaCT'Y}~
EL1TELV YJ
P.,E'Ta 1TaVTWV
<Twv> 4 E:avTov'' c/JT]a-a~. (237) 1TEpt S T~v A.i~tv
yivETaL 'TO ~YJPOV, O'TaV 1Tpayp.,a p.,E.ya a-p.,tKpo'L~ ovop.,ao-LV a1TayyeAAYJ, 5 oiov w~ 0 raSapEv~ 6 E1TL 'T-ry~ EV
!aAap.,'Lvt vavp.,axia~ cfJYJa-i < ... > 7 Kat Tov VaAaptSo~ Tov Tvpavvov E.c/J'YJ TL~, ~t:aTTa yap
vaA.apt~
i}vwxAEL To'L~ 'AKpayavTivot~." vavp.,axiav yap
/
/
8 ' /
' '
Toa-aVTYJV
Kat' Tvpavvov
wp_,OTYJTa ovxL
T(f) ~~ aTTa
/

1"1

1TW~.

1"1

1"\

'""''

1"1

'

'

1"1

'

'

>I

<!I

~~

'

1-<-1 /

<!/

(;

'

'

'

1-<-1 /

""'

1"1

,,

"

2 Kat del. Goeller.

ai del. Spengel.
3
4 rwv add. edd.
~ P: del. edd.
5 a1rayyA.A.YJ edd.: a1TayyiA.YJ P: a1rayyeA.i7 Radermacher,
fort. recte.

486

ON STYLE 234-237

the proof itself. (234) Sometimes we write to cities and

kings: such letters must be a little more elaborate, since
we should consider the person to whom the letter is written, but it should not be so elaborate that the letter turns
into a treatise, like those of Aristotle to Alexander or that
of Plato to Dian's friends.a (235) In summary, in terms of
style the letter should combine two of the styles, the elegant and the plain, and this concludes my account of the
letter, and also of the plain style.
(236) Next to the plain style is its faulty counterpart,
what is called the arid style, and it too has three aspects.
The first is the thought, as in one writer's account of
Xerxes, ''he was coming down to the coast with all his
men."b He has greatly trivialised the event by saying
"with all his men" instead of "with the whole of Asia."
(237) In diction aridity is found when a writer narrates a
great event in trivial language, for example the man of
Gadarac on the sea battle of Salamis < ... >, d or another
writer on the tyrant Phalaris, "Phalaris was a bit of a nuisance to the people of Acragas."e So momentous a sea
battle and so cruel a tyrant should not have been
Pl. Epist. 7.
b Author unknown.
c The "man of Gadara," the probable text, may but need not
be Theodorus of Gadara, a rhetorician of Augustan Rome.
d A quotation seems lost.
e Author unknown.
a

ra8apev~ edd.: ra87JpEv~ P.

lacunam stat. ed. Glasg.

p2: tyranni Lat.: Tvpavvwv pl.

8 Tvpavvov

487

DEMETRIUS

OVOJLaTL ov8 rep ee~vwx AEL" expfJv 'A.f.yELV, d'A.'A.' EV

/\
'
/
,. ., e
/
/
jLEyai\OL~ KaL 1TpE1TOVO"LV TqJ V1TOKELJLEVqJ 1TpayjLaTL.
(238) f.v 8 a-vvOf.a-EL yivETaL TO ~YJpov, ~TOL orav
1TVKVa
Ta KOJLJLaTa, W0"1TEp EV TOL~ ,A</JopLO"JLOL~
EXEL" eeo {3io~ f3paxv~, T] 8 TEXVYJ JLaKpa, 0 8 KaLpo~
o~v~, Yj 8 1TEtpa a-cpa'A.Epa
~ OTav EV f.hEya'A.qJ
1TpayJLaTL a1TOKEKOJLJLEVOV
TO Kw'A.ov Kat JLTJ EK1TAEWV, wa-1TEp TL~ 'Apta-rEi8ov KaTYJyopwv oTL ovK
acptKETO EL~ TTJV EV !a'A.aJLLVL vaVJLaxiav, eed'A.'A.a
avTOKAYJTO~," EcpYJ, [OTL] 1 eeT] f.hEV ilYJJL~TYJP ~AOEv Kat
/
'ApLO"TELOYJ~
/~
~ ' OV.
'' " YJe yap
'
'
'
O"VVEVaVJLaXEL,
OE
a1TOK01TYJ
,,
'
,,,
,...,
'
,
KaL a1TpE1TYJ~ KaL aKaLpo~. TaL~ JLEV TOLaVTaL~ a1TOK01TaL~ f.v E:rf.poL~ XPYJa-rf.ov. (239) 1To'A.'A.aKL~ JLEvroL ro
JLEV 8taVOYJJLa avro t/Jvxpov TL EO"TL, Kat w~ vvv ovoJLcL'O~EV KaKO,YJAOv, TJ a-vv0Ea-L~ 8' a1TOKEKOJLJLEVYJ
2
KaL KI\E1TTOVO"a TOV OLaVpYJJLaTO~ TYJV aYJOLaV, W0"1TEp
E1Tt TOV VEKpfi. riJ yvvaLKt JLLX0EVTO~ EcpYJ TL~, OTL eeov
JLLYVVTaL avriJ ail" .. 3 TO JLEV yap 8taVOYJJLa Kat rvcp'A.cp
8ij'A.6v cpaa-Lv, Yj a-vvOEa-L~ 8 a-va-raAEta-a KAE1TTEL
JLEV 1rw~ rT]v dYJ8iav 4 rov 1rpayJLaro~, 1TOLEL 8 ri}v
vvv OVOJLa exova-av ~YJPOKaKO,YJAiav O"V')'KELJLEVYJV EK
8voZv KaKwv, eK JLEV TTJ~ KaKo,YJ'A.ia~ 8La To 1rpayJLa,
eK 8 rov ~YJpov 8La ri}v a-vvOEa-Lv.

,,

1"1

:1

~/

C/

art del. Hahne.

dYJ8iav Weil: a8etav P.

avri] aiJ M, fort. recte: avr-q~ av P: aiJ ri} dvfJpw1rcp

Roberts.
3

488

ON STYLE 237-239

described by words like "a bit of'~ and ccnuisance," but in

impressive terms appropriate to the subject. (238) In
composition aridity is found when there is an unbroken
series of phrases, as in the Aphorisms, "Life is short, art
long, opportunity fleeting, experience deceptive,~~a or
when the subject is important and the clause is abruptly
broken off and not completed, as in one writer~s accusation of Aristides for not coming to the battle of Salamis,
"But Demeter came uninvited and fought on our side in
the sea battle, but Aristides not.~~b Here the abrupt ending is inappropriate and ill-timed. Such abruptness
should be used in other contexts. (239) Often it is the
thought itself which is frigid, or in our current terminology affected, while the composition is abrupt and tries to
disguise the unpleasant nature of the thought. Someone
says of a man who lay with his wife~s corpse: "he does not
lie with her. again~~ (ou mignutai autei au). c The meaning,
in the words of the proverb, is clear even to the blind;d
but the wording is so compact that it disguises to some
extent the unpleasantness of the subject, and produces
what we now term arid affectation, a combination of two
faults, affectation in the subject and aridity in the composition.
Hippocr. Aphorism. 1.1 (cf. 4).
b Author unknown. Aristides fought at Salamis, and this fiction sounds like a piece of school declamation.
c Author unknown, text uncertain but including ugly hiatus
and abrupt monosyllables.
d Cf. 112.
a

489

DEMETRIUS

(240) Ka'L Ta 1TEpL T7j~ OELVOTYJTO~

\

'

1"1

~I

'

87}A.a av liYJ

'

'

.,,

I\OL1TOV EK TWV 1TpOELpYJf.LEVWV, OTL Kat aVTYJ YEVOLT av

'

Tpta-LV,

EV

EV

\'

'~

e,

aVTa

(JLV, Ka a1TEp

aVTYJ~

'

OELVOV~

e8,

1"1

'~

.,,

OOKELV, KaV f.LYJ

E01TOf.L1TO~ Ta~

~"~

'

KaL

xapaKTYJpE~

t E.avTwv o-Tt 8Etva, wa-TE Tov~

yap 1rpayf.LaTa Ttva

1\EYOVTa~

'31"1

OLfr1TEp OL 1rp0

!"'II

T([)

EV

1"1

OELVW~

\'

1\Eyw-

1"1

3\

EtpatEL aVI\'Y}-

~I ~
Kat fl-OOVTa~ KaL opxovf.LEVOV~, TaVTa 1TcLVTa OELVa [ OVOf.LaTa] 1
,

'

'

1"1

'

Kat Ta 1TOpVELa Kat

Tpta~

~~

1"1

'

OVTa KaLTOL aa-8EVW~ EL1TWV

(241) KaTa
/

'

.,,

3 \

TOV~

1"1

'

'

EL

'

1"1

OOKE.L.

OELVO~

TTJV a-vv8Ea-Lv

ytvotT av 1rpwTov f.LEV

1"1

aVI\OVVTa~

xapaKTTJP o15To~
~I

'

'

/ \

KOf.Lf.LaTa EXOL avTL KWI\WV"

To yap f.L7JKo~ f.KAvEt TTJV a-cpo8poTYJTa, To

f.v

oA.iycp 1TOAV Ef.LcpatVOf.LEVOV OELVOTEpov 1Tapa0ELYf.La

TO'

A aKEOaLf.LOVLWV
~
'
'
..=F..'\
ee A
/
1rp0~
'-J:'LI\L1T1TOV,
uLOVV(JLO~
EV
'
e
~
ee
A
/ .
K optv. ~ EL OE Es ETELVaV aVTO, uLOVV(JLO~ EK1TE(JWV
3

33

'

'

'(; /

T7j~ apx7J~ 1TTWXEVEL

Kopiv8~ OLOaa-KWV ypaf.Lf.LaTa,33 OLTJYYJf.La a-xEOOV av ~v f.LaAAov avTL Aot8opta~. (242) KaV TOL~ aAAoL~ 8 cpva-EL f.(3paxvA.oyovv

EI!

~
/
'
'Q
'
'3
OLeA/
aKWVE~ OELVO'TEpov yap TO fJpaxv KaL E1TLTaKTL,

~"~

'

KOV,

TO

alTE'iv.

f.LaKpYJyopELV

~'

~"~

T([)

OE

'

LKETEVELV 1TpE1TEL

KaL

(243) 8to Ka'L Ta a-vf.Lf3oA.a EXEL OELVOTYJTa~, oTt

Ef.LcpEp7} Ta'i~ (3paxvA.oyiaL~ Ka'L yap EK Tov (3paxw~

pYJ8EvTo~ v1rovo7}a-at Ta 1r AE'ia-Ta

f3 /\

~(JOVTat'
e

~"~

a1TI\W~

'

Kat TO

OVTW~

OELVOTEpov
'(}

EPPYJ YJ,

1 ovof.LaTa

490

' '

~~

frVf.L 01\WV"

ee

'

~ /

ee

OE'i,

'(}

xaf.LO

EV

Ka8a1TEp EK Twv
e

OL

TETTLYE~

aAAYJyoptKW~ pY]OEv ~
~

~"~

Ta oEvopa Vf.LWV EKK01TYJa-ETaL.

del. Schenk!.

1"1

Vf.LLV
EL1TEp

33

ON STYLE 240-243
(240) Next, forcefulness. It should be clear from what

has already been said that forcefulness, like all the previous styles, has three aspects. Some subjects are forceful
in themselves, so that those who speak about them are
thought to be forceful, even if they do not speak forcefully. Theopompus, for instance, speaks about the flute
girls in the Piraeus, the brothels, and the men playing
flutes, singing and dancing;a all these are forceful in
themselves, and although his style is feeble, he is thought
to be forceful.
(241) In composition this style would result, if, first,
phrases replace clauses. Length dissipates intensity,
while a lot of 1neaning packed into a few words is more
forceful. An example is the message of the Spartans to
Philip, ~~Dionysius in Corinth. >>b If they had expanded it,
"Dionysius was deposed from rule and is now a povertystricken scho_olteacher in Corinth, the result would have
been a virtual narrative rather than an insult. (242) In all
circumstances the Spartans had a natural inclination
towards brevity in speech. Brevity, after all, is more
forceful and peremptory, while length in speech suits
supplications and requests.c (243) This is why expressions
which symbolise something else are forceful, since they
resemble brevity in speech. We are left to infer a great
deal from a short statement, as in the case of symbols. For
example, the saying ~~the cicadas will sing to you from the
ground is more forceful in this allegorical form than if it
had been straightforwardly expressed, "your trees will be
cut down.d
FGrHist 115 Theopompus T 43, cf. 75.
h See note on 8.
c Cf. 7.
d Cf. 99-100.
a

491

DEMETRIUS

(244) Ta~ YE ~~v 17Ept6Dov~ E.a-iyx8at ~aA.a DEL

/\
'
~
/
~' \ /
KaTa' 1 TO' TEI\0~
'YeJ yap
17Eptaywy'Y}' OEtVOV,
'YeJ OE
1\VO"t~
a17AOVO"TEpov Kat XP'YJO"TOYJ8Eia~ O"'YJ~ELOV, Ka8a1TEp ~
apxaia 17iia-a p~YJVELa a77Aoi.Kot yap oi apxaLot. 2
(245) WO"TE EV DEtVOT'Y}Tt EvyEtV DEL TO apxatOEtDE~
Kat rov ~8ov~ Kat TOV pv8~ov, Kat KaraevyEtV
/\
' '
""
~
""
~al\tO"Ta
E17t T'YJV VVV KaTEXOVO"aV OEtVOT'YJTa.
TWV
';'
/ \
e
""
ee e
\ /
/
OVV KWI\WV at TOtavrat a170 EO"Et~, W~OI\OY'YJO"a TOVTOt~, W~ av oio~ TE ~' O"VVEpELV,H EXOVTat ~aAta-ra OV
ELP'YJKa pv8~ov. (246) 77otEL D rtva Kat ~ f3ia KaTa
' O"VV
/(} EO" tV OEtVOT'YJTa.
~
~
'
' 1701\1\a
\\
T'YJV
OEtVOV
yap
XOV"" Kat'
~ /
A..(}
~~
e ~
/
/
ro' ova-\f'
oyyov, W0"17Ep
ate avw~aAot ooot.
1TapaDEty~a TO flYJ~Oa-8EvtKOV TO eev~a~ TO Dovvat V~LV
3(;""
:):)
Es Etvat.
~' ,
/
:)
""
/
T a' oE
(247)
.
avrt/(} Era Kat' 77apo~ota
EV rat~ 17EptoOots cPEVKTEOV" oyKov. yap 1TOtOVO"tV, ov OELVOT'Y}Ta,
77oAAa xov D Kat t/JvxporYJra dvrt DELVOTYJTO~, oiov
w~ 0 8E0170~170~ . KaTa rwv Eraipwv rwv <I>tAt1T170V
~
ee '
~
1\Eywv EI\VO"EV TTJ aVTt EO"Et T'YJV OEtVOT'YJTa,
avopo,1.. /
~ '
'
,/... /
_,,
'
~
/
'
\f'OVOt
OE TYJV \f'VO"tV OVTE~,
1\Eywv, ee avop0170pVOt
TOV
;po77ov l]a-av" ri} yap 1TEpta-a-orExviq.., ~aAAov D
KaKorexviq.. 1Tpoa-f.xwv 0 aKpoaT~~ E~W yivEraL
/ (248) 1701\1\a
\ \ ' ~EVTOt
/
e
'
'
""
""
(} V~OV,. . 1TaVTO~.
V1T
aVTWV
TWV
1Tpay~arwv W0"1TEp avayKaa-8'YJO"O~E8a a-vv8ELVat
a-rpoyyvAw~ Kat DEtvw~, oiov ro ilYJ~oa-8EvtKov ro
/

:)

(} /

-''\

,...

(} /

'

1 KaTa
2

Victorius: Kat P.
OL apxa'iot M: apxa'iot P.

492

ON STYLE 244-248

(244) Periods should be tightly concentrated at the

end. Periodic rounding is forceful, while a loose structure is more straightforward and a sign of simple innocence, like the whole early style; for the early writers were
straightforward. (245) It follows that in the forceful style
we must avoid old-fashioned qualities of character and
rhythm, and resort to the new fashion of forcefulness.
Clauses which have endings of the following kind, ~~I have
agreed to speak to the best of my ability in their
support,"a keep closest to the rhythm I have mentioned.
(246) Violent collocation also creates a kind of force. For
in many passages harsh sounds are forceful, like rough
roads,h as in Demosthenes' sentence "(he has deprived)
you of the power for you to grant" (hilmas to dounai
hilmfn exeinai). c
(24 7) We should avoid antithesis and assonance in

periods, since they add weight, not force, and the result is
often frigid instead of forceful.. Theopompus, for example, attacks the friends of Philip but destroys the force by
his antithesis, "men-killers by nature, they were menharlots in behaviour."d By having his attention drawn to
the excessive artifice, or rather the inept artifice, the
hearer loses all sense of anger. (248) We will often find
ourselves compelled by the very nature of the subject
matter to construct sentences which are compact and
forceful, as in this example from Demosthenes: "Just as
aDem. Lept. 1 (cf. 10-11, 20).
b Cf. 48.
c Dem. Lept. 2, the end of a long period. Note hyperbaton,
assonance, hiatus, and only one short syllable.
d FGrHist 115 Theopompus T 44 and F 225(c) (cf. 27,
250).

493

DEMETRIUS
'"'

(( (:1

'TOLOV'TOV,
'
"'
ovK
av

'

'

>I

W0"1TEp yap EL

,It

eypa~a~

'

(:1

( I \

"'
'
av
a-v' ' "
vvv

ovTw~

'

I \:''

EKELVWV Eai\W, O"V Tao

'TL~

> \\

(\'"'

al\cp~,

ov'

ai\1\0~

ypal/Jet" avTo yap To 1Tpayf.La Kat ~ Tat"~ avTov

,./...

,...,

tJLaa-af.LEVo~

av

O"Vf.L1T6.1-'VKVLaV
Q

>f

,/.,. ,. .,

,,

TL~

'

, {}

'

' \:' '

EO"XEV 'T'YJV O"VV EO"LV, KaL OVOE

a-a\{JW~
(

\:' ,

p(/:oLw~

'{}

'

a-vve YJKEV avTo.

ETEpw~

v yap 1To'A'Aols 1Tpayf.Laa-L a-vvTiOef.Lev, wa-1Tep ol Ta~

KaTa{3aa-eL~

TpixovTE~,

1Tpayf.LaTwv.

(249)

'

'

'

'\

v1T'

avTwv

1TOL'YJTLKov

{} ,

'

\:'

f.'AKof.LEVoL

Twv

8etvoT'YJTO~ a-TL Kat

\
Q
,
TO E1TL 'T1\EL 'TL EVaL TO OELVO'Ta'TOV" 1TEpLI\af.LfJaVOf.LE'
,
I
'
Q\ I
,
VOV yap
EV
f.LEO"Cf!
af.LfJI\VVETaL,
Ka {} a1TEp
'TO' 'A V'TLO" {},E-

VOV~, ((a-xe8ov yap o8VV'rJO"EL av8pw1TO~

'

avaa-Ta~

"

'

L)

'

EK

(:1

EL yap f.LETaO"VVUEL'YJ

'TL~ OV'TW~

cPPVyavwv
'

aVTO,

C(

a-xe-

\:''
'
'
,/.,.
I
'
'
>I{}
'\:'
I
oov
yap
EK \fJpvyavwv avaa-Ta~ av pw1To~ ooVVYJ"3
,
, '
, '
,
, '
>f
L) ,
O"EL,
KaLTOL TaVTOV EL1TWV OV TaVTOV E'TL VOf.LLO"U'YJO"E-

TaL 'Aiyetv.

(250) ~ 8 avTi8ea-L~, ~v

1TOV EcP'YJV,

ov8 f.v Tpt~ il7Jf.L00"8EVLKOL~ ijpf.LOO"EV,

>I

L)

,/.,.

EVua o/'YJO"LV,

yw 8

(C '

I\

7/\EL~,

'

'

\:' '

EYW 0

'

yw 8

E'T1\0Vf.L'YJV"

cPoiTwv f.TptTaywvia-Tet~,

~i1TL1T'TE~,

E1Tt TOV

IIpi1TEt

3 \:'I\:'

EOLOaO"KE~,

yw 8

8ewf.L'YJV"

a-vpLTTov" KaKoTexvovvTL yap

EOLKEV 8ta TTJV avTa1To8oa-tv, f.La'A'Aov

' ayavaKTOVV'TL.
'
,...,
OVK

(251)

8eo1TOf.L-

1TaL,OV'TL,

Tfj 8etvoT'YJTL Kat Twv 1TEpt68wv

1]

1TVKVO'T'YJ~, KaLTOL EV TOt~ AOL1TOt~ xapaKTTJPO"LV OVK

E1TLT'YJ8Eia oila-a. a-vvexw~ 5 yap TL8Ef.LEV'YJ f.LETPCf! ELKaa-87}a-ETaL 'Aeyof.LEVCf! EcPE~ij~, Kat TOVTO 8etv4) f.LETpcp,
1 CTV rao' Dem. codd.: CTV o' P.
2 CTVfl./TTEcjJvKv'iav Victorius: crvp..1TEcpvKv'ia

3 oovvr}crEL

494

Goeller: oovvr}crELEv P.

P.

ON STYLE 248-251

you would not have made this proposal if any of them had
been convicted, so if you are convicted now, no one will
make it in future.,,a This particular arrangement clearly
grew naturally out of the subject itself and the order it
demanded, and not even by violent dislocation could anyone have easily constructed it differently. In many topics
in constructing sentences we are swept along by the subject itself, just as though we were running down a steep
slope. (249) It also creates force to put the most striking
part at the end, since if it is put in the middle, its point is
blunted, as in this sentence of Antisthenes, "for almost a
shock of pain will be caused by a man standing up out of
brushwood. ~,b If you were to change the order, ~~for a man
standing up out of brushwood will cause almost a shock of
pain/, you will be saying the same thing but will no longer
be believed to be saying the same. (250) But to revert to
antithesis, _which I condemned in Theopompus:c it is not
suitable either in that passage of Demosthenes where he
says, "you were initiating, I was initiated; you were a
school teacher, I went to school; you took minor roles in
the theatre, I was in the audience; you were driven off the
stage, I would be hissing.,,d The elaborate parallelism
seems too artificial, and more like word play than honest
anger.
(251) A massive series of periods fits the forceful style,
though it does not suit the other styles. Put continuously,
they will suggest successive lines of metre, and forceful
aDem. Aristocr. 99 (cf. 31).
nantoni. For the advice cf. 50-53.
d Dem. De Cor. 265.
4

ypap.,p.,aTa add. M, Dem.: om. P.

edd.: (TVvexe'i P.

5 (TVvexws-

Antisthenes VA 45 Gianc Cf. 27, 247.

495

DEMETRIUS
W0"1TEp OL xw'AiafL{30L. (252) afLa fLEVTOL 1TVKVat EO"TW'
,
\,
~'
~,
\
,
' ,
a-av Kat O"VVTOfLOL, 1\EYW OE OLKWI\OL TLVE~, E1TEL TOL
1ToAvKw'Aoi YE 1 oiJa-at- Ka'A'Ao~ fLii'A'Aov 1Taptova-t-v, ov
8ELVOT'Y]Ta.

8' T]

(253) Ovrw

""'

""'

O"VVTOfLLa rep xapaKT'YJPL XP'YJO"L-

fLOV, WO"TE Kat a1TOO"LW1T7}a-aL 1TOA'Aaxov 8EtVOTEpov,

Ka0a1TEp

o ~'YJfLoa-Oiv'YJ~

~~d'A'A' yw fLEv, ov {3ov'AofLa'-

8va-xEPE~ ov8v EL1TELV, oiJro~

'

O"XE8ov

' ,
EO"TL

rov""'

'

,,
( 254) Kat' V'Y]'
av.

EL1Tovro~

( av 3]

'

(} Eov~
'

rov~

aa-acPELa 1TOAAaxov 8ELVOT'YJ~

Kat TJ

~
,
OELVOTEpov

EK 1TEpt-ova-ia~

o2 O"LW1T'Yja-a~ EVrav(}a 8ELVOTEpo~

Kar'Y}yopEt." O"XE8ov
1ravro~

'
yap

~
,
V1TOVOOVfLEVOV,

TO'

TO'

~'

ta1T 'Aw0v KarapovE'irat-.

8'

( 255) ''Ea-rL
Kat fLaAt-a-ra

01T'Y] KaKowvia 8Et-VOT'Y]Ta 1TOLEL,

f.av ro v1ToKELfLEvov 1rpiiyfLa 8'YJrat-

avTij~, 4 W0"1TEp TO ~OfL'YJP~KOV, TO ~~TpwE~

a-av,

~1

01TW~

,, ~

,, rf....

' , \

"

'

8'

f.ppiy'Y]-

'

'

' rf....

LOOV aLOI\OV O'PLV YJV fLEV yap Kat EV'PW-

VOTEpW~ El1rovra a-w&at- ro fLErpov, ~~TpwE~

8'

ppi-

~'
,, rf....
' ,\
9 ~
"
' \ \ '
"
'
.,,
~
YYJO"aV, 01TW~
O'PLV
aLOI\OV
ELOOV
" al\1\
OVT
av
0
\ ,
~
'
~'
,, ~ (:
,,
~ 5 ,, rf....
'
,
( 256)
1\EYWV
OELVO~ OVTW~ EOOs EV OVTE 0
O'PL~ aVTO~.

rovrcp oiJv E1TOfLEVOL r{i> 1Tapa8EiyfLaTL Kat ra a'A'Aa

1Tpoa-a-roxaa-OfLE0a 6 Ta OfLOLa,

oiov aVTt fLEV TOV

~~1TaVra av <EypaljJEv" ~~1TaVTa> 7 Eypal/JEV av/' avrt
1 ')'E
3

Goeller:

av del. edd.

TE

P.

oWeil: w~ P.

DE'YJTUL avTij~ M: DEYJ TOLUVT'YJ~ P.

o M:om.P.
6
7Tpoa-frroxaa-oJLE8a Goeller: 7Tpoa-Toxaa-oJLE8a P.
4

496

ON STYLE 252-256

metres at that, like the choliambic.a (252) These massed

periods should, however, be short (I suggest two clauses),
since periods with many clauses will produce beauty
rather than force.
(253) Brevity in fact is so useful in this style that a sudden lapse into silence often adds to the forcefulness, as in
Demosthenes, "I certainly could-but I do not wish to say
anything offensive, and the prosecutor has the advantage
in accusing me."h His silence here is almost more effective than anything anyone could have said. (254) And
(strange as it may seem) even obscurity is often a sort of
forcefulness, since what is implied is more forceful, while
what is openly stated is despised.
(255) Occasionally cacophony produces vigour, especially if the nature of the subject calls for it, as in Homer's
line, "the Trojans shuddered, when they saw the writhing
serpent" (: .. idon aiolon ophin).c It would have been
possible for him to construct the line more euphoniously,
without violating the metre,' "the Trojans shuddered,
when they saw the serpent writhing" ( . . . ophin aiolon
eidon), but then neither the speaker nor the serpent itself
would have been thought forceful. (256) On this model
we can attempt other similar experiments, for example by
replacing ''he would have written everything" (panta an
egrapsen) with "everything would he have written"
(panta egrapsen an), or "he was not present" (au
See on 301.
b Dem. De Cor. 3.
c Hom. Il. 12.208. The line scans if the first syllable of oqnv is
"irregularly" lengthened (as if oPE_hin).
a

7 ~~1TUVTa
'
~,
av

e dd .:

'

1TUVTWV

P : ~~ eypa-yEV
,,
1 "

'
1TUVTU

add . Rad er-

macher.

497

DEMETRIUS

(257)

TOV ccov napeyf.vETo" cc7rapeyf.vETO ovxC'

'

a7T'OI\ YJ'YOVTE~
'

cc

TOV

/,

~ /

OE 7T'OTE

'

~ /
a-VVOE(J"f..LOV~

'
EL~

KaL

A-.

/\ \

KaLTOL napayyEI\1\ETaL

TE

tLV T~V TOLaVTYJV

aAAa

""'

~VYELV

cc ~ , ,

'

TOV
'

OE

'

.,,

YJ

/\

TYJV a7T'OAYJ-

7T'OAAaxav XP~a-Lf..LO~ TOtaVTYJ

av yf.voLTO, oiov CCOVK Ev~f..LY](J"E f..LEV, attov OVTa,

' /
~ / "
""'
/
~
""' \ /
"
' \ \ ,
YJTLJ.Laa-E
OE,
KaL' 1 TO' cc~
...::..XOLVOV
TE ...::.,KWI\OV TE,
al\1\
f.v f.LEV ro'i~ cOf..LYJPLKOL~ f..LEYEOo~ E7T'OLYJa-Ev ~ El~ Tov~

a-vv8f.a-f..LOV~ TEAEVT~.

EL

8ELVOTYJTa,

dpoa-VVYJ~
~I

oa-La

TL~

TE

~~\

"

01\W~

TE

( 258)

7T'OL~(J"ELE

V7T'O Tij~ aa-E{3Eia~

C

yap YJ

av

EL7T'OL ccaVETpEt./JEv 2

c18E
'

8'

1\ELOTYJ~

'

'

KaL TO EVYJKOOV

pOTYJTO~ f8t-a, ov 8ELVOTYJTO~ Ea-TLV, OVTOL

8'

Kat

V7T'O Tij~

Ta LEpa

TE

'

7T'OTE

TE
\

Ta
A...

yl\a~V-

OL xapa-

KTijpE~ f.vavru:JTaToL 8oKova-t-v.

(259) KatTOL Ea-TL 7T'OAAaxov EK 7T'at-8La~ napaf..LEf..L"Yf..LEV~~ 8Et-VOTYJ~ Ef..Lat-VOf..LEVYJ TL~, oiov f.v Tat~
~/
'
,....
c K
'
/
c
'
K pa/
KWf..LqJOLat~, KaL 7T'a~ 0
~VLKO~ Tp07r0~, W~ Ta
ce

TYJTO~

(260)

7rYJpYJ

KaL' TO'
~

TL~

""'' 4

yat-

A
/

uLOYEVOV~

~~

' '

~~

"

Ea-TL f..LEa-4} EVL OLV07T'L 7T'OVT4_) .

TO'

'

EV

'0 1\Vf..L'TT'Uf,
\
/

~~

OTE

c
\ /
TOV""' 07T'I\L-

'
/
''
'/
c
'
E7T'LTPEXWV
aVTO~
EKYJpVTTEV
EaVTOV
""' ra' 'Q\AVf..L7T'La
/
/
' 0 /
\ ' 0/
VLKav
navTa~ av pwnov~ Kai\OKaya u1:.

TOV

opaf..LOVTO~

1 Kat Radermacher: w~ P.
1
1
2 avErpE-.yEV
~ 1
,/,
"{Xl '1 '
,/,
'
vvel : av. eypa-yEV

3
4

P.

1ri}pYJ Victorius: ro 1ToriJpYJ P.

ya't' Victorius: yap P.

The negative moves to final, emphatic position. The point

of the first example is presumably that
prefers a weak position.
a

498

av

ON STYLE 257-260

paregeneto) with "present he was not" ( paregeneto

ouchi);a (257) or by ending sometimes with a connective,
"on the other hand" (de) or "too" (te ), even though the
normal instruction is to avoid such endings. But this sort
of closure can often be useful, for example "he did not
praise him on the one hand (men), though he deserved it;
he insulted him, on the other hand" (de); b or "and
Schoenus and Scolus too ... '' (Schoenon te Skolon te
... )c-though in Homer's lines it is grandeur which is the
result of ending with a connective. (258) But sometimes it
can also produce force, as in this sort of sentence (with
repeated te), "He overturned, in his folly and his impiety
too, things sacred and holy too. "d In general, smoothness
and euphony are characteristic of the elegant style, not
the forceful, and these two styles seem to be direct opposites.
(259) Yet !flixing in an element of playfulness often
produces a kind of vigour, for example in comedy; and the
whole Cynic manner is like this, as in the words of Crates,
"There is a land of Beggarbag in the midst of the winedark sea'';e (260) and the story about Diogenes at
Olympia, when after the race between men in armour he
ran forward and personally proclaimed himself victor in
h Author unknown.

Hom. Il. 2.497 (cf. 54).

d Author unknown.
e Cf. 170. Crates VH 70 Giannantoni, a parody of Homer's
description of Crete (quoted in 113). Demetrius (or a copyist)
is too close to Homer: compare the correct version in Diog.
A,.
Laert. 6 .85 , II'YJP'YJ TIS 1TOJ\l8 ECTTt., fLECTqJ EVt., Ot.,V01Tt., TV'-(Jq},
"There is a city ofBeggarbag in the midst of wine-dark delusion."
c

I\

''

'

''

499

DEMETRIUS

Kat yap yEAaTat TO ELPYJf.LEVOV af.La Kat OaVf.LU,ETat,

Kat TjpE.f.La Kat 1rrro8aKvEt 1TW~ AEyof.LEvov. (261) Kat
TO 1Tpor; TOV KaAov pYJOEv aVTCfJ" 1TpOa-1TaAaiwv yap
KaA[iJ 1Tat8t b..toyE.vYJ~ 8tKtv~8YJ 11'W~ TO al8o'iov, TOV
8 1Tat8or; rpof3YJ0EVTO~ Kat a71'01TYJ8~a-avTo~, f:f:Oaprl-.. 1
c;::- /
'
'
'
/
t:/
"
pEt , E't'YJ,
W 11'atotov
OVK
Etf.Lt
TaVTYJ
Of.LOtO<;.
yEA.o'Lov yap To 7rpoxEtpov Tov A.oyov, 8EtvTj 8' T] KEvOof.LEVYJ Ef.Lrpacrt~. KaL oAw~, a-vvEAOVTt rppacrat, 1TaV
TO Ei8o~ TOV KvvtKOV Aoyov a-aivoVTt af.La EOtKE T(f!
Kat 8aKVOVTt. (262) XP~(J"OVTat 8' aVT~ KaL oi P~TO, 7TOTE, Kat' ,
,
A
,
' 1Tpo~
' TOV
'
pE~
EXPYJa-avTo,
va-ta~
f.LEV
pwvTa Tij~ ypao~ A.E.ywv, OTt ee-ry~ pftov ~v dptOjLij'
'c;::- /
.,,
'
c;::'\
,
'
'
c;::/
a-at TOV~
OOOVTa~ YJ TOV~ oaKTVJ\OV~ Kat yap OtVOt:/
Ta Ta af.La
Kat' yEAOtOTaTa vE.YJvEv TTJV ypavv
t:/Of.LYJPO~ 8 TO
1TpoyEypaTTTat.
'
.,,
/
/
c;::/
(263) en r; 8' av
Kat' 'EK crxYJf.LaTWV
ytyvotTO
OtVOTYJ~, AE~Of.LEV' EK 'f.LEV ovv TWV Tij~ 8tavoia~ crxYJf.LUTWV, EK f.LEV Tij~ 1TapaALl/JEW~ OVOf.La'Of.LEVYJ~ OVTw~
ee:~'O \
n
'
c;::- '
1\. /r n ,
\\
,
1\VVUOV
f.LEV
OYJ
Kat' lV_1_UWVYJV
Kat' 'A1TOJ\J\WVtaV
/
/
'\
'
'
'8 pq..KYJ~
/
~""'"
~
Kat'c;::-OVO
Kat' TptaKOVTa
1TOJ\ElS
Ta~ 1Tt
EW EV
t:/
~{3
/\
'
yap TOVTOt~ Kat EtpYJKEV 1TaVTa, oa-a
E OVJ\ETO, Kat
1rapaAt1TELV avTa rpYJcrtv, w~ DEtVOTEpa EL1TELV EXWV
ETEpa. (264) Kat ~ 1TpOEtpYJf.LEVYJ 8' a1Toa-u{J1TYJ(J"tr; TOV
aVTOV Et8ov~ 2 EXOf.LEVYJ DEtVOTEpov 1TOt~(J"EL TOV A.6yov.
"

:1/

f:f: ';"

'

'

:1/

EcP7J Greg.: om. P: ei1rev post 7Tat8iov M.

ef8ovs- Orth: 0ovs- P.

500

ON STYLE 260-264

the Olympic games over all mankind, in nobility of

character. a This announcement raises simultaneous
laughter and applause, and unobtrusively it also somehow
gently bites as it is being said. (261) So do his words to
the handsome youth: wrestling with a handsome youth
Diogenes somehow experienced an erection, and the boy
became afraid and jumped away. "Never fear, my boy,'~ he
said, "I am not like you in that way.''b There is wit in the
speed of the reply, and force in the meaning hidden
below. Generally speaking, to summarise, the whole
character of Cynic sayings suggests a dog that fawns as it
bites. (262) Orators will also sometimes use it, as they
have in the past, for example Lysias when he said to the
old woman's lover, "her teeth could be counted sooner
than her fingers."c He revealed the old woman most
forcefully in a most ridiculous light. Homer also used it,
as in an example I have already quoted, "No-man I will
eat last. "d
(263) We shall next discuss how force can result from
figures. First, figures of thought, beginning with the figure given the name of paraleipsis, for example ~~I pass
over Olynthus, Methane, Apollonia, and thirty-two cities
in Thrace. "e In these words Demosthenes has actually
stated everything he wanted, yet he claims to pass over
them, to imply that he has other more forceful points to
make. (264) The figure of aposiopesis which I have
already mentionedf is of the same kind, and it too adds
Diogenes VB 449 Giannantoni.
b Diogenes VB 410
Giannantoni.
c Lys.fr. 1 Thalheim (cf. 128).
d Hom. Od. 9.369 (cf. 130, 152).
e Dem. Phil. 3.26.
f Cf. 253 (rather than 103).
a

501

DEMETRIUS

(265) 7TapaAaf-Lf3avOI/TO 8' av a-xiJf-La 8tavota~ 7Tpo~

8etVOT'YJTa <~> 1 7rpoa-w7To7Totta KaAOVf-LEVYJ, otov
1:1:86taTE v,_t'iv Tov~ 7rpoyovov~ ovet8i,etv Kat 'Af.yetv
, ~ Ttva' YJ.,, TYJV
' I:E 1\1\aoa
\ \ , ~ YJ.,, TYJV
' 7TaTptoa,
"~
\ a ""'
Taoe
1\afJova-av
yvvatKo~ a-xiJf-La''. (266) wa-7Tep f.v T~ E7TtTac/Jt4J II'Aarwv TO I:I:JJ 7Ta'L8e~, OTt f-LEV EO"T 7TaTEpwv ayaOwv
'~
... , Kat OVK EK TOV tOtOV
7rpoa-W7TOV /\'YEt a/\1\a EK
rov rwv 7TaTpwv 7To'Av yap vepya-Tepa Kat 8etvorepa c/JaiveTat V7TO rwv 7rpoa-w7Twv, f-LUAAov 8 8paf-LaTa aTEXVW~ ytVETat.
(267) Ta p.,ev 8-ry 2 rij~ 8tavoia~ [Kat] 3 a-xY,f-LaTa
"

'

1
2

'

""'

'

""'

i'

i'

.i'

'\ \

.i'

~ add. Hammer.

3 KaL del. Spengel.

DTJ Spengel: ELD7J P.
4 E7TL Tov~ VOfLOV~ KaA.e'is add. Aesch., M in mg., om. P.
5 EO"TtV, w~ Victorius: 'ta-w~ P.

502

'

'

ON STYLE 265-268

force to what we say. (265) Another figure of thought

which may be used to produce force is the figure called
prosopopoeia, for example "Imagine that your ancestors
are rebuking you and speak such words, or imagine
Greece, or your country in the form of a woman."a (266)
This is what Plato uses in his Funeral Speech, "Children,
that you are the sons of brave men ... "b He does not
speak in his own person but in that of their fathers. The
personification makes the passage much more lively and
forceful, or rather it really turns into a drama.
(267) The figures of thought may be used as I have
described; and the instances above will serve as a sample.
As for figures of speech, the more varied your choice, the
more forceful their impact on what you say. Take repetition, as in ''Thebes, Thebes, our neighbouring city, has
been torn from the middle of Greece."c The repetition of
the name giyes force. (268) Or take the figure called
anaphora, as in "against yourself you summon him,
against the laws you summon him, against the democracy
you summon him.''d Here the figure in question is threefold. It is anaphora, as I have already said, because the
same word is repeated at the beginning of each clause; it
is asyndeton because it is expressed without connectives;
and it is homoeoteleuton because of the recurrent endAuthor unknown, perhaps an invented pastiche since ancestors and country give the two standard categories of animate and
inanimate, e.g. Cic. Orator 85.
b Pl. Menex. 246d.
c Aesch. Ctes. 133.
d Aesch. Ctes. 202.
a

503

DEMETRIUS
cL7TOAYJ~LV TOV eeKaAli~" <TE8Eta-av> 1 7TOAAaKL~. Kat

8ELVOTYJ~ ~fJpota-TaL EK Twv 7ptwv,

~I

OVTW~,

ee '

E1TL CTaVTOV

KaL

TOV~

Et1TOL TL~

El 8'

KaL TYJV OYJfLO-

VOfLOV~

KpaTtaV KaAlis," aJ.La Tot~ a-x~fLaa-tv ~atp~a-EL Ka'i

Ti}v 8ELVOTYJTa. ( 269) fLcLALa-Ta

1TaVTWV la-TEOV Ti}v

8taAVCTLV 8ELVOTYJTO~ pyaTLV, oiov ee1TOpEVETaL 8u1

TYJ~ ayopO.s TGS yvafJov~ 4>va-wv, TQS ocrpv~ E7TYJpKW~, ta-a {3aivwv ITvOoKAEL''

a-vv8a-fLOL~, 1Tpq.oTEpa

El

yap a-vvacrOfl TavTa

f.a-TaL. (270)

AafLf3avotT' ilv

Kat ~ KAtfLa~ KaAOVfLEVYJ, WCT1TEp !lYJfLOCTfJEVEL

Ei1TOV fLEV TavTa, OVK E.ypat/Ja
'
OVK

'
I
a
E1TpECTtJEVCTa

~ \

'I

E1TELa-a oE
\

1\0yo~

'
I
a
E1TpECTtJEVCTa

'~'
OVO

ee

Kat

'
OVK

'
'
EL7TWV

(271)

ov8v.

I
fLEV,

8 YJtJaLov~
Q
n
~\
\
'
Q
e
a-xEoov yap E1TavafJaLvovTt o
'

'

EYW

KaL'

I,

It

KafJo'Aov

V1TOKpLCTLV

Kat

'

EL OE

ypa'Pa~

Ka'i E7TELa-a 8YJf3aiovc;,': DL~YYJfLa

eeOVK

ov8' E.ypat/Ja fLEV,

''
'
\
rI
1 7
EOLKEV
E1TL
fLELsOVWV
fLELsOVa

,..,
TCf-VTa,

TL~

~I

OE"

70

~I

OVTW~

''
EL1TOL

'
I
a
I
E1TpECTtJEVCTa

pEt

7E

p.,ovov, DELvov

TYJ~ 'Af.~Ew~ Ta a-x~fLaTa

aywva

7~

1TapEXEL

'Af.yovTL,

fLcLAta-Ta TO 8taAEAVfLEVOV [ TOVT' ECTTL 8ELVOTYJTa]. 3

Kat 1TEpt fLEV TWV CTXYJfLcLTWV afL4>07Epwv Toa-avTa.

(272) Af.~t~

AafLf3ava-fJw 1raa-a, OCTYJ Kat ev T~

fLEyaAo7TpE7TEt xapaKTYJpL, 1TAi}v OVK E1Tt

1\

TE/\0~

..,../.,. I

''

70
,..,

KaL yap fLETao/EpOVTa ECTTL OELVa 7TOLELV,

aVTO
e
W~

70

KaAlis TEBliU"av Denniston: KaAe'iU"Bat P: KaAe'ir;; iam edd.

E7TL U"avTov Victorius: E7TavTov P.
3 del. Radermacher.
2

504

If

ON STYLE 268-272

ing, "you summon him." Force is the cumulative result of

the three figures, and if you were to write, against yourself and the laws and the democracy you summon him,"
you will remove the force along with the figures. (269)
But you should realise that above all other figures it is
asyndeton which produces force, as in "he walks through
the marketplace, puffing out his cheeks, raising his eyebrovvs, keeping in step with Pythocles."a If the words
were s1noothed out with connectives, they will be tamer.
(270) The figure called climax should also be used, as in
this sentence from Demosthenes, "I did not express this
opinion, and then fail to move the resolution; I did not
move the resolution and then fail to serve as envoy; I did
not serve as envoy and then fail to convince the
Thebans.''h This sentence seems almost to be climbing
higher and higher at each step, and if you were to rewrite
it like this, "after I gave my opinion and moved the resolution, I served as envoy and convinced the Thebans," you
will give a mere narrative of events, with nothing forceful
about it. (271) In summary; figures of speech, particularly
asyndeton, provide the speaker with scope for dramatic
delivery and immediacy [that is to say force].c This concludes my account of both kinds of figures.
(272) The diction to use should be entirely the same
as that in the grand style, but with a different end in
view. Metaphor, for example, creates force, for example
Dem. De Pals. Leg. .314.
h Dem. De Cor. 179, the traditional example, e.g. Quint.
9.3.55. Literally ladder, KALf.Lag has a narrower Ineaning than its
derivative, "climax," since each step must be repeated.
c The perverse word order in the Greek seems to demand
deletion.
a

505

DEMETRIUS
c~:Tfi> ITv()wvt Opao-vvoJLEVCf! KaL 1To'A'Afi> povTt Ka8'
c
"" ' '
'
/ 1 1\E'YOVTa,
\ /
c
'
A
{) /
Vf.LWV
(273) Kat' EtKao-ta~
W~ TO UYJJLOCT Ecc

VOV~,

""
/A....
'
/ ' ,
/
/\
TOVTO
TO' 'It
't'YJlf.ltCTf.La
TOll
TOT
E1TtOVTa
TYJ"" 1TOI\Et

Kiv8vvov 1TapE'A()liv E1TOLYJCTEv, wo-1TEp vcpo~."

at 1Tapa{3o'AaL

Tfj DEtVOTYJTt ovK E1TtT~DEtat

f.LYJKO~, oiov TO t:t:WCT1TEp

(274)

8u1

To

KVWV yEvval-o~, a1TEtpo~,

a1Tpovo~TW~ E1TL Ka1Tpov cppETat". Ka'A'Ao~ yap KaL

,
/{3 /
,
/
, ,/.... /
~'
~
aKpt Eta TI.S EV TOVTOlS Ef.Llf.latVETat, YJ OE OEtVOTYJ~
1:

o-cpo8pov Tt {3ov'AETat KaL CTVVTOJLOV,

1T'A~TTovo-tv E.otKEV.
,

OVOf.LaTO~

OELVOTYJ~,

KaL eyyv()Ev

(275) yivETat 8 KaL EK o-vv()Tov

~~

/e

1:

/e

WCT1TEp Kat YJ CTVVYJ Eta CTVVTL YJ-

CTtV 8EtVW~ 1To'A'Aa, f:f:TTJV xaJLatTV1TYJV" KaL f:f:TOV 1Tapa\ ""

" Kat' Et,, TL a/\1\0
''\ \
""
""
1TI\Y}ya
TOtOVTOV"
Kat/ 1Tapa' TOL~

P~Topo-t

"" e
pao-

~t

1To'A'Aa av Tt~ Evpot TOtaVTa. ( 276) 1TEL-

,, /
OE Ta OVOJLaTa
~,

1TpE1TOVTW~

\/

1\EYELV

""

1Tpay-

TOL~

f.LaCTtV, oiov E1TL f.LEV Tov. {3iq. KaL 1Tavovpyif!: 8pao-avcc ~

/
"2 E1Tt
' ' OE
~ ' TOV
"" {3 U/:
I
,/....
""
TO~
OLE{3 tao-aTO,
Kat' lf.lavEpW~
Kat'
~

\ /

KaL A.a()paiw~ 3 ~:cETPV1TYJCTEv" 4 ~ ~:r:8tcpayEv," ~

Et

'
/
f.LETa' a1TOVOta~

~:~:

'C ~

, It

'C ""\

Es EKO't'EV, Es Et/\EV,

"

' '
E1TL

'

OE

TOV""

001\LW~

TL

TotovTov 1Tpoa-cpopov Tol-~ 1Tpayf.Laa-tv ovoJLa.

(277)
/
e
f.LEYE

0~

To 8 etaipEo-()ai 1TW~ 'A.aJLf3avOJLEVOV ov

'AyEtv Eto-w
1HK
' a en,/ a r;;;
2

" /

,\ \ , ,

TTJV XEl-pa E.xovTa

M : H,H,K/
a a-Ha r;;; p

DtE{3uia-aro M: DtE{3t{3aa-aro P.
3 'Aa8pa[wr;;; Victorius: 'Aa8pa we; P.
4 an E.tErp{nrYJa-Ev?

506

1TOtEt f.LOVOV a/\1\a Kat OEtVOTYJTa,

DEl-,

1:

W~

Ala-xivYJ,

TO

t:f: ,
OV

d'A'Aa

ON STYLE 272-277

"Python grew bold and was a rushing torrent in full spate

against you,~'a (273) and so does simile, as in Demosthenes' passage, uthis decree made the danger which then
threatened the city pass by like a cloud."h (274) But
detailed comparisons do not suit the forceful style
because of their length, for example ''as a gallant hound,
ignorant of the danger, recklessly charges a boar."c There
is an element of beauty and precise detail about this sentence, whereas forcefulness needs to be short and sharp,
like a close exchange of blows. (275) Compound words
also give force, as usage proves in many forceful compounds such as "street-lay," "brain-crazy,"d and the like.
Many similar examples may be found in the orators. (276)
Try also to use words which match their subject, for
example say of a man who acted violently and ruthlessly
that "he forced his way through," or of a man who acted
violently in a11 open and reckless manner that "he slashed
his way out, he hacked his way out," or of a man who
acted treacherously and evasively that "he wormed his
way, he gnawed his way through," or whatever words similarly match the subject.
(277) Some uses of heightening the tone produce
force as well as grandeur, for example "It is not as an orator that you ought not to hold your hand out, Aeschines,
aDem. De Cor. 136 (cf. 80).
h Dem. De Cor. 188.
c Xen. Cyrop. 1.4.21 (cf. 89).
d Literally ground-struck (prostitute) and sideways-hit (mad).
Compounds also dominate 276, providing all but one of the
examples (to be emended therefore?). Cf. 93 for the concise
power of compound verbs.

507

DEMETRIUS

rrpEa-{3EvELV Eta-w TTJV XE'ipa E.xovTa." ( 278) Ka~ To

~~dA.A.'
TTJV Ev{3oLav EKE'ivoc; a-ETEP'-,ofLEvoc;" ov

yap vrrp TOV p,eyav 1TOL-Y}a-aL TOV Aoyov ~ E.rravaa-Ta0"18' dAA' vrrp TOV OELVOV.

yivETaL

OE TOVTO rrav

JLETa~v ~apOvTEc; 1 KaTrryopwfLEV rLvoc; wa-1rep yap

Ala-xivov KaTYJyopia, To o <f>LAL7T7TOV ea-Tiv. (279)

OELVOV OE Kat TO epwrwvra rove; aKOVOVTac; El/La

\ ,
, ,.~...
,
~~ , \ \ , ~
' EV~'{3 OLaV
1\EYELV,
KaL' fL'Y'J a1TO\f'aLVOfLEVOV,
aJ\1\ 0 TYJV
EKE'ivoc; a-ErEpL,()p,Evoc; Kat Karaa-KEva,wv E7TLTEiX'-O"fLa E7Tt TTJV 'A TTLK~V, 1T07Epov ravra 1TOLWV T]oiKEL, 2 Kat EAVEV TTJV elp~VYJV, ~ ov;" Ka0a7TEp yap Elc;
a7Topiav ayEL TOV aKOVOVTa E~EAEYXOfLEVq_J EOLKOTa
Kat JLYJOEV a7TOKpivaa-0aL EXOVTL. EL

o JJoe

fLETa{3a-

Awv E.YJ Tl-\;' e~TJOLKEL Kat EAVE TTJV Elp~V'Y}V'" a-awc;

DLOaq-KOVTL E~KEL Ka~ <ovK> 3 f.A.f.yxovTL. ( 280) ~ o
KaAovp,EV'Y} E7TLfLOVTJ q-rt p,v EPJLYJVEia 1TAEiwv rov
rrpayfLaToc;, fLEYLO"Ta o a-vfLf3aAoLT' av Elc; OELVOTY)Ta. rrapaOEt-yfia o avrijc; TO ilYJfL00"0Evovc;,
~~VOO"'YJfLa yap, dJ avOpEc; 'AOYJva'iot, OELVOV EfL7TE7TTW'
'
eE:JI\1\aOa
\ \ ' ~ . . ." < ... > 5 OVK
'
.,,
~~
';"'
KEV 4 18
T'YJV
av
OVTW<;
YJV
OELVOV.
(281) Taxa o Kav 6
Ev'YJJL'-a-p,oc; KaAovp,Evoc;

JLETEXOL TTJ<; OELVOT'YJTO<;, Ka~ 0 ra Ova-'YJfLa EVYJfLa

1 E.tapOf.vTE'} Spengel: E.tatpEBEvTE'}
2 Ka'i 7rapEa-1TDl'DEt add. M, Dem.

:3 ovK add. Victorius.

4'EfL1TE1TTWKEV
,
M : fLEV
' 7TE7TTWKEV
,
5

508

Iacunam stat. Victorius.

P.

p.

6 Kav

Goeller:

Ka'i

P.

llf
ON STYLE 278-281

but as an envoy not to hold your hand out. "a (278) And
sin1ilarly: "No, he was annexing Euboea ... "b The rise in
tone is not aimed to make the style dignified, but to rr1ake
it forceful. This happens vvhen the heightening is introduced as we attack so1neone, just as the former passage is
an attack on Aeschines. the latter on Philip. (279) It is also
forceful to express some points by asking the audience
questions rather than by rnaking a staten1ent, for exa1nple
"No. he was annexing .Eu boea and establishing a base
against Attica-and in doing this vvas he wronging us and
breaking the peace, or was he not ?"c J)einosthenes forces
his listener into a sort of corner. so that he seen1s to he
cross-examined and unable to reply. If you were to
redraft and substitute this version~ "he was wronging us
and breaking the peace,,. it \Vould see1n an open statement rather than a cross-exa1nination. (280) The figure
called epimoi}t\ which is an elaboration going beyond the
bare statement of fact d can contribute verv successfully
to a forceful effect. I-I ere is an' example from D<-nno;thenes~ "men of Athens. a terrible disease has fallen on
c; reece,, < ... > the sentence would not then have had
force.
(281) Perhaps some force 1nay be found even in what
is called euphen1isrn, language "'hich n1akes inauspicious
l)enl. De Pals. Leg. 2.5.'5. Aeschines n1ay use the hand gestun~s of the orator, but should not takf' bribes.
h De1n. De Cor. 71.
e The sa1ne passage now illustrates a
different point, the use of rhetorical questions.
d I.e. the same idea is variously expressed, as in the example
fro1n IJen1. De Pals. Leg. 259, which continues with a list of variants on 8Etv(5v. This will have been clarified in the lacuna. Add
e.g. "If it were cut short at this point."
a

509

DEMETRIUS
1TOU~Jv Kat Ta ft(JE{jTjf.LaTa EV(JE{jTjf.LaTa, oiov w~

,
N LKa~

'

Ta~

,. . ,

XPV(Ja~

\ ,

'

0 Ta~
,. . ,

xwvEVELV KEAEvwv KaL KaTaxpYJ-

(JOat TOt~ xpT]f.La(JLV EL~ TOV 1TOAEf.LOV ovx OVTW~

-;EL1TEV

'

'

1TPOXELpW~,
/\

~ /

(:/
OTL

..,./...

ee

'.I.

KaTaKO~Wf.LEV
'

.,,

TOV 1TOI\Ef.LOV OV(J'f'Y}f.LOV yap av

'

Ta~

~~

OVTW~

N'LKa~
'

EL~
~

KaL 1\0LOO-

poVVTL EOLKO~ ~v Ta~ 8Ea~, d'A'A' EVcpYJf.LOTEpov, OTL

ec(JVYXPYJ(JOf.LE()a Ta~~ NLKaL~ EL~ TOV 1TOAEf.LOV:,. ov
' KaTaK01TTOVTL
'
' N LKa~
'
:J/
(:/
e
f) '
yap
Ta~
EOLKEV
OVTW~ PYJ EV,

aAAa

(JVf.Lf.Laxov~ f.LETa1TOLOVVTL.

(282) ~ELVa 8 Kat Ta ~YJf.La8ELa, KaLTOL t8tov KaL

aT01TOV Tp01TOV EXELV 8oKOVVTa, E(JTL 8 avTWV ~
8ELVOTYJ~ EK

TE TWV Ef.Lcpa(JEWV YLVOf.LEVYJ, Kat E~ aAAYJ-

yopLKOV TLVO~ 1TapaAaf.L{javOf.LEVov, Kat TptTov ~

V1TEp{jo'A i]~.

(283)

oi6v f(JTL TO

ce

ov TE()VYJKEV )A'A-

~av8po~, ~ av8pE~ 'Af)Y]Va~OL" ~'EV yap av ~ OLKOVf.LEVYJ Tov VEKpov.n TQ f.LEV yap ((~'Ev=n avT'i Tov
cc '
' \ \ YJYOPLKOV
'
e
Q \
'
~~
YI(J f) a' vETO " al\1\
Kat' V1TEPtJOALKOV
af.La,
TO'

8 T~V OLKOVf.LEVYJV al(Jf)aVE(Jf)aL Ef.LcpaVTLKOV Tij~

8vvaf.LEW~ Tij~ 'A'AE~av8pov, Kat af.La 8 TL EK1TAYJKTLKov EXEL o 'A6yo~ T]f)poL(Jf.LEvov EK Twv Tptwv 1Tn(Ja
8 EK1TAYJ~"~ 8Etv6v, E1TEL8~ cpo{jEpov. (284) Tov 8
avTov Et8ov~ Kat TO [ OTL J1 ccTOVTO TO lfir}cpt(Jf.La ovK

yw ypal/Ja, d'A'A' o 1TOAEf.LO~ Tip 'AAE~av8pov 86paTL

ypacpwv,n Ka'i To ((otKE yap T] MaKE8ovLK~ 8vvaf.LL~,
a1ToAwAEKvta Tov 'A'A~av8pov, Tip KvKAW1TL TETvcpAwf.Levcp.n (285) Kat a'A'Aaxov 1TOV, ((1TOALV, 2 ov T~V
E1Tt 1Tpoy6vwv T~V vaVf.Laxov,
1

510

del. de Falco.

aAAa ypavv, (Jav8aALa

1roALv Lhardy: 1raALv P.

ON STYLE 281-285

things appear auspicious and impious things appear

pious. A speaker, for example, once recommended that
the golden statues of Victory should be melted down and
the proceeds used to finance the war: he did not say
openly, Hlet us cut up the Victory statues for the war.':>
That would have been inauspicious and like an insult to
the goddesses. He put it more auspiciously, Hwe will have
the support of the Victories for the war,"a a version which
suggests not the cutting up of the Victories but their conversion into allies.
(282) There are also the forceful sayings of Demades,
though they are thought to be of a peculiar, and even
eccentric nature, and their force results from innuendo,
from the use of an allegorical element, and thirdly from
hyperbole. (283) This is an example: CCAlexander is not
dead, men of Athens; or the whole world would have
smelled hi~ corpse."h The use of C(smelled" instead of
ccnoticed" is both allegory and hyperbole; and the idea of
the whole world noticing implicitly suggests Alexander's
power. Further, the words carry a shock, the cumulative
result of the three sources; and what shocks is always
forceful, since it inspires fear. (284) Of the same kind are
the words, HI was not the one to write this decree, the war
wrote it with Alexander's spear,"c and HThe power of
Macedon after the loss of Alexander is like the Cyclops
after his blinding,"d (285) and in another passage, ((a city
which is no longer the city of our ancestors fighting sea
Author unknown, example also in Quint. 9.2.92.
h Demadesfr. 53 de Falco.
c Fr. 12 de Falco.
d Fr. 15 de Falco.
a

511

DEMETRIUS

\:'

I'

OEtov

\:'

'

E7TuraA.r.;

""

,..,

Ka'i

TO(ravra~

apKEt

inrt:pj3ol\ 'l] Kat J.Lav-ts,

Kwp.,c_pD[ a r.;.

JLLKTcn;

Ef'X'YJ!la rur fLE lJOll f.v A(J'Y41

i>i}ropt:r.; yt:Aotu)<; 1TOLOVfFLP Kat p.ETa E.p.4)(1JYEuJ~

( 287) 1'1(>
vi)P

Q)'El1 VOVr.;
""

I'

Yj aAA 1]!'0[->La

7TOt.iJT t.Kor

Knt

oi

Kat.rot

Et0LJ EL )' 1TOtYJTLK0l'

KaL 1TOL'Y}Tt..KOJ! TqJ

i>E

EXOVa-YJ' Tt
ovK Ei'p..ip..YJroJ.J p.(fA.a f.t'Ea-rt. yap rt

OEIJ'OT7JTO~

'

lfXYJ!-La.

KaAovp..ElloP

ot Oll

ap..o.. Kal

'

(TTL

/).-ETa

1\0)IOV

..-..

aA YjthJ/fjl' DE

(28~5')

1\Ef'Ofl-EllOll,

TOVTOl.J1

OVOLV

a(Tq>etA~io.s.

Kat

ElJ7TfJE7TELO.S

al-'afll''YJfTTLKij~,

EtnrperrE[a~

JLEl',

II Aarr.uP A pt(TTt1T1TOP Kal. K AE<'>fLf3porol' Aotbopi}(rat. fJeA.-r}a-ar;;. ~v AiyillYl rn/Jo4>a:yovl-'Tac; 8c:8t:.J.LE-

oto1 .. c~r.;

POl'

p.,1]

~-

L)

'

'\

'

AuYJl''YJfTLl-' E7TL 7TOI\t\ac; 'Y)JLEpac;, Kat

bta 1r AEt~fra.P7as:3 < 7rp(H;> 4 rhz. ETatp(H' Ko..t
._.(t>Kparol.H;;;:

8t.8a-

(TKO..i\01',

~~ \

Kat TOt.

OVX

01\01)~

a 7TEXOl 1TQS

otaKO(TtOV~

crra8iov~ r<7H.~ 'AfJYJI'(~l-'. ravra 7TUI/Ta ?napp~O'Y)V JLEV

otJK ei7rtzr Aot8op[a
1rw<;

yap

o Aoyo~

Ev7Tpt:7n';;r;;

rc)r8E ro1~ T po1roll pwr'YJ0Eis yap <> ct>a[owv Tovr;;

'

'

1Tapoz;rac:; ... wKparv~ Kat

pwr'Y)0Eir;;

512

~~.:

El Kal..

\
I'L_
KaTai\E~ar;;

'.A.picrrtrr7To~

~I

'

EKaa-rol'. E1TavE-

Kat

K AEoJLf3poror;;

ON STYLE 285-288

battles, but an old hag, wearing slippers and gulping her

broth."a Here "hag" is used allegorically to describe a
weak city in terminal decline, whose impotence it also
suggests implicitly and with hyperbole~ and "gulping her
broth" is also allegorical, describing a city then preoccupied with feasts and banquets and squandering the funds
for the war. (286) This is enough on the forcefulness of
Demades, a type which has an element of risk and is not
very easy to imitate. There is in its nature an element of
poetry, if allegory, hyperbole, and innuendo are poetic,
but it is poetry with a blend of comedy.
(287) Next, what is called allusive verbal innuendo. It
is used by current orators in a ridiculous way, with a vulgar and what one might call obtrusive explicitness, but
genuine allusive innuendo is expressed with these two
safeguards, tact and circumspection. (288) Tact is shown,
for example., when Plato wants to blame Aristippus and
Cleombrotus because they were feasting in Aegina when
Socrates was imprisoned for many days in Athens, and
they did not sail over to .visit their friend and teacher,
although they were less than two hundred stades from
Athens.h Plato did not say all this explicitly (for that would
have been an open insult) but with some tact, as follows.
Phaedo is asked who were with Socrates, and he lists
them one by one. Next he is asked if Aristippus and
Fr. 18 de Falco.
h I.e. roughly twenty-five miles.
a

3
4

8t-a7TAevcravra" p2: 8t-aA.vcravra" pl Greg.

add. Gartner.

1rpo"

513

DEMETRIUS
1rapijCTav,
1ravra

~~ov,"

yap

ra

cPYJCTLv,

t:t:f.v

AlyivYJ

1TpoELpYJp.i.va

~CTav"

yap

Ef.Lc/JaiveraL

~t:f.v

T(i>

' /
'3"
"
\ '
~
/
\ /
~
A LYLVYJ
YJCTav
KaL' 1TOI\V
oELVOTEpo'l
oe AOYO'l
ooKEL

I"\

I"\

I"\

rl...

'

'

TOV 1Tpayp.-aTO'} aVTOV EfL'PaLVOVTO'} TO OELVOV, OVXL

TOV A.f.yovTO'}. TOV'} f.LEV ovv ap.-c/Jt TOV , ApLCTTL7T7TOV
Kat AoLOopijCTaL LCTW'l aKLvDvvov OVTO'l f.v CTXrrJf.LaTL
IT'A.arwv f.'A.otoopYJCTEv.
/

.,,

~'\

(289)

Q/

1To'A'AaKL'l
~

~ 7rpo'l

'

TVpaVVOV YJ a/\1\W'} tJLaLOV TLVa OLai\EYOf.LEVOL KaL

OVELOLCTaL opp.-wvTE'} XPD,Of.LEV E~ avayKYJ'l CTXrrJf.LaTO'}
Tov

~YJf.LrrJTpto'l
4>aAYJpEv'} 1rpo'} KpaTEpov
~1aKEDova E1Tt XPVCTTJ'l KALVYJ'l KafJE,Of.LEvov

A.oyov, 1

W'}

fLETEwpov Kat f.v 1Topc/Jvpfi: X 'A.aviot, Kat V7TEpYJc/Javw'}

U7T00EXOfLEVOV Ta'} 1TpECT/3ELa'} TWV eEA.A.rr}vwv, CTXYJ~La
TLU"a'} Ei7TEV OVELDLCTTLKW'}, OTL eeV1TEDE~af.LEfJa 1TOTE
1TpECT{3EVOVTa'} TJfLElS TOVCTDE 2 Kat KpaTEpov TOVTov"

EV yap T(iJ DELKTLK(iJ T(iJ c:TOVTOVn Ef.Lc/JaLVETaL ~ V1TEpYJc/Javia Tov KpaTEpov 1TaCTa wvELOLCTfLEVYJ f.v CTXrrJf.LaTL.

(290)

TOV avrov ELOOV'} EU"Tt Kat TO IT'AaTWVO'} 7rpo'}

A
/
, 1t
/
'
/
~~
uLOVVCTLOV
'YEVCTafLEVOV
KaL' apVYJCTafLEVOV,
OTL

ee '

EYW/

\ /
, ~' WfJ.-01\0YYJCTa,
( \ /
/
'
CTOL II1\aTWV
OVOEV
CTV' f.LEVTOL,
VYJ' TOV'}

fJEov'}." Kat yap f. 'ATj'AEyKTaL f.yEvCTp.-f.vo'}, Kat EXEL TL

0 Aoyo'} CTXTJ!La p.-EyaA.liov ap.-a Kat aCTc/JaAE'}. (291)

1roA.A.axiJ p.-EvToL Kat E1Tap.-c/JoTEpi,ovCTtv toi'l f.otKE/\
Ir /
Ir /
'3"
VaL EL3' TL'} E'f) E/\OL
KaL' ,'YOYOV'}
EL' KaL' 0c ,'YOYOV'}
ELVaL
[fJf.'A.ot Tt'l]t 3 1TapaDEtyp.-a To Tov AlCTxivov E1Tt Tov
1 A.oyov Finckh: oA.ov P.
2 rovO"DE edd.: rovOE P.
3 locus corruptus, fort. ov pro
Grube: ()f.A.oL rL~

Roberts.

514

del.

ON STYLE 288-291

Cleombrotus were also there. "No," he replies, "they

were in Aegina.''a Everything that precedes leads up to
the words, "they were in Aegina," and the passage seems
far more forceful because the force is produced by the
fact itself and not by an authorial comment. So, although
he could presumably have openly insulted Aristippus and
his friends without any personal risk, Plato has done so
allusively. (289) But in addressing a tyrant or any other
violent individual, if we wish to be censorious, we often
need to be oblique out of necessity, as in the case of
Demetrius of Phaleron: when the Macedonian Craterus
sat high above him on a couch of gold and in a purple
robe and received the Greek envoys with insolent pride,
he addressed him, using innuendo to censure him, "We
ourselves once welcomed these Inen as envoys, including
this man, Craterus."h By the use of the demonstrative,
"this man," all the pride of Craterus is implicitly indicated
and allusively censured. (290) Under the same heading
comes Plato's reply to Dionysius, who had broken a
promise and then denied ever making it: "1, Plato, have
not made you any promises, but you-well, heaven
. knows!"c Dionysius is convicted of telling lies, while the
words themselves carry a dignified and circumspect innuendo. (291) People often use words with an equivocal
meaning. t If you wanted to be like them and use invective which does not seem invectivet, d there is an example
in Aeschines' passage about Telauges.e Almost the whole
Pl. Phaed. 59c, similarly interpreted as an attack on Aristippus in Diog. Laert. 3.36.
b Dem. Phal. 183 Wehrli.
c Cf. Pl. Epist. 7, 349b.
d Text very uncertain, but the general sense is clear.
e Aesch. Soc. Jr. 48 Dittmar. Cf. 170.
a

515

DEMETRIUS

TYJAavyov~ 1Tacra yap crxE8ov ~ 1TEp'i TOV TYJAavy~

8t-'rJYYJCT"l8 a1Topiav 1TapacrxoL av 1 EtTE Oav~UO"fLO~
ELTE XAEVUO"fLO~ EO"TL. TO 8 TOLOVTOV EI8o~ a~cf>if3o\
,
'
, OV,
,, EXEL
"'
''
1\0V,
KULTOL
ELpWVELU
OVK
TLVU'':'
OfLW~ KaL ELpW/

,
VELU\;

"'

A,.

E~\f-JU(J"LV.

av

( 292) ~VVULTO 8'

TL~ Ka'i ETEpw~ CFXYJ/LaTt,ELV,

oiov OVTw~ E1TEL87] a'Y78w~ aKOVOVCFLV oi 8vvaa-TaL Kat

8vvacrTL8E~

TfL

avTwv

UfLapT'rJfLaTa,

1TapaLvovvTE~

avTo'i~ fLiJ afLapTaVELv ovK ~ Ev0Eia~ povfLEV,

dA.A.'

i}TOL ETEpov<; lfigOfLEV TLVa<; Ta o~ota 1TE1TOI/YJKOTa<;,

otov 1Tpo~ ~LOVVO"LOV TOV Tvpavvvov KaTa <t>aA.apt8o~
rov Tvpavvov f.povfLEV Kat r-i}\; <PaA.apL8o~ a1TOTOfLtac;
'
/
{}/
A
/
/
YJ' ' E"lTaLVEO"OfLE
a TLVa<; .u.LOVVCFL<p
Ta' '
EVaVTLa
1TE7TOL1J-

r EI\WVa
/\
,,
YJ

-e-

KOTa<;, OLOV

~I

~~

'

I'

Epwva, OTL 7TaTpacrLV EqJKE-

a-av_ T~c; 2LKEAiac; Kat 8L8aa-KaAoL~ Kat yap vovOETEtTaL aKOVWV ap.a K~L ov AoLDopELTaL KUL '1JAOTV1TEL

,. . r EI\WVL
/\
,
,
E7TULVOVfLEVq>

, , ,

Tq>

I'

KaL E7TULVOV opEyETUL KUL

o.Uroc;. (293) 7ToAAa 8 ToLavTa 1rapa ro'i~ rvpavvoL~,

otov Cf>tAL7T1TO<; fLEV 8La TO ETEpo~OaAfLO<; ELVUL wpyi7

~::,ETO,

,,

EL

TL~

I'

'

'"'

OVOfLUO"ELEV E7T UVTOV

fLOV oA.wc; ~EpfLELa~

TaAA.a 1Tpfi,oc;'

we;

KVKI\W7TU
/ \
.,, ,
\
YJ 0\f-J Ul\,~.,.{}

'ATapvf.w~ apga~, KULTOL

8' 0 TOV

'AiyETUL, OVK av YJVEO"XETO Pct:8iwc;

TLvoc; fLaxaipLol' ovofLa,ovToc; ~ Top.Y]v ~ EKTo~Y]v 8La

ro Evvovxoc; EivaL.
p.Evoc;

fLUALa-Ta

fLUALO"TU

XPfl,ov

TavTa
TO

8'

-i}Ooc;

A.oyov

EtpYJKa EfLcf>iJvaL f3ovA.6TO

8vvacrTEVTLKOV,

aa-cf>aAovc;,

O<;

we;

KaAELTaL

EO"XYJ~UTLO"fLEVO<;. (294) KUtTOL 7TOAAaKL<; Kat ol 8-TJfLOL

oi fLeyaAoL Ka'i la-xvpo'i 8ovraL ToLovrov E'i8ovc; Twv

516

ON STYLE 291--294

narrative about Telauges will leave you puzzled whether it

is meant as ad1niration or mockery. This a1nbiguous way
of speaking, although not irony. yet has a suggestion of
ironv.
(292) Innuendo Ina~' be used in yet another \va~-- as in
this case: since powerful men and \vomen dislike hearing
their own faults mentioned, we will not speak openly, if
we are advising thern against a fault. but we \\ri]J either
blame others "'ho have acted in a siinilar \vay~ for exanlp1e, in addressing the tyrant J)ionysius. wP "rill attack the
tvrant
Pha1aris and the crueltv of Phalaris: or \Vf' "\\rill
.
praise people \vho have acted in the opposite \\ ay to
Dionysius~ and say that (;elo or lliero. for exan1ple, are
like fathers and teachers of Sicily. Dionysius is receiving
advice as he listens~ but he does not feel insulted; he is
envious of (;elo, the subject of this praise~ and wants to be
praised hin1s~lf. (293) Such caution is often needed in
dealing \vith rulers. Because he had only one eye. Philip
wou1d gro\\7 angry if an~TJnc mentioned the Cyclops in his
presence or used the \vord. "eye" at all. Jlermeias. the
ruler of Atarneus. \\las in other respects good-ten1pered. it
is said, but he resented any tnention of a knife~ surgery, or
a1nputation, because he was a eunuch. I have tnentioned
these points to bring out very clearly the true nature of
those in power~ and to show that it especially calls for that
circumspection in speech which is called innuendo. (294)
It is also the case. however, that great and powerful
.I

.517

DEMETRIUS
\
I
~'
I
I
1\0YWV,
W(J"1TEp
OL( 'TVpaVVOL,
Ka () a1TEp

'A() 'Y}VaLWV

8-ryil'o~, apxwv -r-ry~ (EA.A.a8o~ Kat KOAaKa~ -rpf.cpwv

,/.,...,
\
K 1\EWVa~
KaL K\1\EOw.pWV'Ta~.
I

' OVV
,. KOI\aKEVELV
\
I
'TO' il'EV

'

'

~\

aLa-xpov, 'TO

OE

'

,-.,

,1,_

'

E1TL'TLi1'aV

\I

l/

apLa-'TOV

E1TLa-w.pai\E~,

il'E7a~v, 'TOV'T' E(J"'TL 'TO ea-x'YJil'a'TL(J"il'EVOV.

~\

OE 70

(295) Kat

'
'
'
(
I
'
/
'
E',/.'
1TO'TE aV'TOV
70V
ail'ap-raVOV'Ta
E1TaLVE(J"Oi1'EV,
OVK
'P

or~ YJil'ap7EV, aAA' ' or~ ovx YJil'UP'T'YJKEV, orov -rov

opyL,Oil'EVOV, O'TL xO~ E1TYJVli-ro 1Tpfi:o~ avEt~ E1TL

'TOL~ 'TOV 8EtVO~ ail'ap-rf]il'aa-LV, Kat 07L ''YJAW'TO~ 'TOL~

1roAi-raL~ a-vvEa--rLv Y]8f.w~ yap 8~ EKaa--ro~ il'"il'E'i-rat

(

'

'

/1

It

/\

'

,,

,..., \

EaV'TOV Kat a-vva'f'aL fJOVI\E'TaL E1TaLV(f! E1TaLVOV, il'ai\-

Aov 8' f.va oil'aA -ry E1TaLvov 1TOL-rya-aL.

(296) Ka06A.ov 8 W(J"1Tp 'TOV av-rov K'YJPOV 0 il'EV
/

,,

( ~' Q ,...,
( ~'
0 OE fJOVV, 0 OE

KVVa E1TI\aa-EV,

'TL~
,-.,

''<:I

1Tpayil'a 'TaV'TOV 0 flEV

yopwv 'YJa-LV, O'TL
\

,-.,

I\EL1TOV(J"L

'TOL~

1TOV(J"LV,

'T~V

-rov-ro

((o.lJ

'

a1TOw.paLVOi1'EVO~

KaL Ka'T'Y}-

av0pw1TOL XP7Ji1'a'Ta il'EV a1TO-

'

1TaLa-LV, E1TL(J"'T'YJil''YJV

'TOL~

XP'YJ(J"Oil'EV'Y}V

~\

'

OV (J"VVa1TOI\ELa1TOAEt0Eta-tv". 2

OE

-ro EI8o~ 7ov A.oyov 'ApLa--rt1T1TEtov A.f.yE-rat

~'
' '
()
,...,
/
() /
OE 'TaV'TOV V1TO E'TLKW~ 1Tp00L(J"E'TaL, Ka a1TEp

~'

,1,_ ,-.,

t:=.Evow.pwv-ro~
/

\ \

~I

1'

-ra 1TOI\I\a, otov O'TL

'

,...,

il'a'Ta il'OVOV a1TOI\L1TELV

,...,

70L~

KaAovil'Evov

8oKova-Lv

EI8o~

''YJAwa-aL

<:<: ~

,-.,

oEL

,...,

'

yap ov XP'YJ'\ \ '

'

EaV'TWV 1TaUTLV, al\1\a KaL

E1TLa-Tf]il''Y}V 'T~V XP'YJ(J"Oil'EV'YJV

l8iw~

~'

L1T1TOV, OV'TW Kat

E'TEpO~

',1,_

7L~

~'

av-ro'i~., ( 297)

"!.wKpa-rLKov,

70 8

il'aALa-7a

Ala-xiv'YJ~ Kat ITA.a-rwv, il'E7a-

1 ~'
~p
OTL OL~dd~'
OTL OE

e .:
ro'L~ a1ToAELc/>0E'La-tv Victorius: ro'L~ a-vva1ToAELc/>BE'La-tv P.

Not a fragment of Aristippus (IV A 148 Giannontoni). We

518

ON STYLE 294-297

democracies often need this type of speech just as much

as tyrants, for example the democracy of Athens when it
was ruler of Greece and the home of flatterers like Cleon
and Cleophon. Flattery is shameful, open criticism is
dangerous, and the best course lies in the middle, namely
innuendo. (295) Sometimes we will compliment the very
man who has a weakness not on the weakness but on his
avoidance of it. We will compliment a bad-tempered
man, for example, that he was praised yesterday for the
mildness he showed when so and so was at fault, and that
he is a model to his fellow citizens. Every one likes to be
his own example and is eager to add praise to praise, or
rather to win one uniform record of praise.
(296) In general, language is like a lump of wax, from
which one man will mould a dog, another an ox, another a
horse. The same subject will be treated by one person in
the form of direct statement and accusation, for example
"men leave property to their ~hildren, but they do not
leave with it the knowledge of how to use the
legacy,,a_this is the type used by Aristippus. Another
will, as Xenophon frequently does, put the same idea in
the form of a precept, for example ''men ought to leave
not only property to their children, but also the knowledge of how to use it.,, (297) What is specifically called the
Socratic manner-the type which Aechines and Plato in
have three variations in the styles of Aristippus, Xenophon, and
Socrates of a passage described as open rebuke as if by a deus ex
machina in Pl. Clitoph. 407b, "mankind, where are you rushing
to? are you not aware of your inappropriate behaviour, devoting
all your energy to making money but with no thought for how
your children, to whom you will leave it, will understand how to
use it justly?, See A. Carlini, Rivista di Filologia e di Istruzione
Classica 96 (1968) 38-46.

519

DEMETRIUS
/
'']I"
,...
pv (J J1-LCI"Lf..Jl
az;
TOVTO TO' 1Tp0..')1Jl-O..
TO'
EpWTY)U'LI/

JJ8

'
El8

1TW~ otol' r~JJ 1TO..t_~ 1T<)<ra (T()L XP~Jl-O..Ta

U7rEAL7TfV 0 1TO..T~p; ~ noAAa

dnAt7TE1J

TLVCL Kat

Evapi-

OVK

'2.wKpaTE~.-rtpa oiJv Kat

JJ

(}p.YJT0.. ;--7ToAAa,
(T7-r}p.YJP

1TpOELpYJJ1-~1 0V

E7Tt-

(TOL TTJt' XfYfJCTOpi.l'YJI' avrol.,;, aJLa

yap KO.. L EL~ a?Topiaz} E{:3aAElJ TOl-' 1Ta'i8a AEAYJHOTW~,

' '

t:l

'

~~

'

KO..L YJl'EfJ.ZJ'Y]CT1/ OTL O..l'E7TUTTY)f.LlJJl/ ECTTL. KO..l 1TaLOEV~

L)
".I.
,
:) fj ,. .,
' :)
f(.TUat, 1Tp07pE\f'O.TO' TO..VTO.- 1Tal'Ta YJ LKW~ Kat EJl-J.LE7

\
""'
AW<;,

'

Ka~,

'
'
ovxt.

~ '
OYJ

ro
'

\
I
AEYOJLEPOI'

8' ol.

(29H) EVYJJl-EpYJ<TU.J'

.'
'
""
iJ
rovro
a1ro
....
Kvuwv.
I"

Tc)TE tEvpE-

TOLOVTot A<)yot

fJPTES' T<J 1TfJWTOt', Jl-UAAOIJ

f,EnAYJ~av Tit> TE fLLJLYJ-

TLK~2 Kat rip EllnpyEt Knt Tip fLETa f.LEYa'AopocrvvYJsvov0ErtK{i>. 7TEpt

f-LEI-' 8~

1TAa<TfLCLTOr;; Aoyov Kat o-xYJ-

'
,
Jl-aTUTjl.(I.H' apKEtT<u
TO..VTCl.

(29.9) ~H S AEu)TYJ" 1]
KEXJJYJl'Tat fLaAurro.

(Tl~;yKpov<rtv

TTJl'

J.LaA.a E1TLT'YJDEia

rwv

EK rij<; CTVfJ.7TATJ~EW<;
~f

rh

q1T~ 'I<roKparov~. 4>vA.ataJLEVot

oi

<rTi

1TEpt TTJP <rvvfJE<TtJJ. otq.

cf>wvYJEI/TWl'

ypaf1-I-Larwv,

ov
bEt-l!cp 'A<1yq.r 1roA.A.a yap [ ra :3]

alJ avrijc; YEVOLTO

'"'

8E0'07Epa~ oiov

'

TOV yap 'PWKLKOV <TV(TTal/TO') 1TOI\EfLOV,

""

'

otJ yap

EywyE E7ToAtrE1HlfJ.-YJl'

KO.. L (TVVa\fHJS

/\WI-'
ot'

TL~

11-

'

I,/

'1'

(IJO.

1rw r()TE."

)f

fL1TOt.

~(

.-.

OV

El 8
\

Ot

'

'
/
Ef..LE,

J.LEra{3a-

'

TOV 'Tl'OI\EfLOV yap OV

Tov <f>wKtKov <rv<rralJro~ ov yap

7ToAtrEvo-

fLYJV ywyi 1TW 7(5TE~" OVK oA.iyov tnE~atp~a-Et Tijc;

OELVOTYJTOc;,

E7TEL

1TOAAaxov

KaL

r(J

a-vyKpova-Ew') LCTw<; E.(rTat OEtvorEpov.

' ,/..
I
'
'
~!
TO' atfJpOPTL<TTOV
aVTO
Kat' TO' W<T1TEp

.520

~xwDfc;

(.300)

rijc;

Ka'i yap

~
rJ.. '
aVTO't'VE~

~
I
OELVO-

ON STYLE 297-300

particular are considered to emulate-would redraft the

same idea in the form of questions, in this sort of way:
"'My boy, how much property did your father leave you?
Was it a lot and not easily assessed?> 'It was a lot,
Socrates.' 'Well now, did he also leave you the knowledge
of how to use it? Socrates unobtrusively drives the boy
into a corner; he reminds him that he does not have
knowledge and encourages hin1 to find instruction. All
this is done with characterisation and in perfect taste, far
from the proverbial Scythian bluntness.a (298) This type
of speech was very successful at the time it was first
invented, or rather it stunned everyone by the verisimilitude, the vividness, and the nobility of the ethical advice.
Let this then be enough on how to mould speech, and on
innuendo.
(299) Smoothness of composition (of the kind particularly used by the followers of !socrates, who avoid any
clash of vowels) is not well suited to forceful speech. In
many cases the very hiatus wotild increase the force, for
example '\vhen the Phocian war broke out, through no
fault in me, as I at that time was not yet active in public
life. "b If you were to redraft the words more smoothly,
"when through no fault in me the Phocian war broke out,
as I was at that time not yet active in public life," you will
remove much of the force, since in many passages
perhaps the very resonance of the hiatus will be more
forceful. (300) The fact is that words \Vhich are unpreCf. 216.
b Dem. De Cor. 18. Note especially the jerky hiatus between
the clauses, pole1nou, ou dt eme, ou. On hiatus cf. 68-74.
a

ra del. Spengel.
521

DEMETRIUS

/\

, ,

TYJTa 7rapaa-TYJ(JEL TLVa, j.Laf\L(JTa E7ralJ opyL::PJ.LEVOVc;

EJ.L~atVWJ.LEV avrovc; ~ i}DLKYJJ.LEVOVc;.

\/

'e

1\ELOTYJTa KaL

'\\,

a/\1\a

,./.,.

'

apJ.LOVLaV 'PPOVTLc;

/r

7rat~:,OVTO~

7rEpt T~V

i] 3

/
'""\\
fLa/\1\0V.

OVK

opyL~:,OJ.LEVOV,

, E1rtOELKVfLEVOV
,
/

E(JTt

Kat

(301) Kat wa-1rEp ro DLaAEAVfLEVov a-xiJfLa DELvorYJra

1rOLEL, w~ 7rpoAEAEKTaL, OVTW 1rOLrrJ(JEL

('/\

01\W~

/ (} Ea-L~. (JYjfLELOV
,. .
(JVV

KaL' TO'

~'

OE

i]

DtaAEAVfLEVYJ

el1r1rWVaKTOc;
/
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8 pava-EV TO
, ' '(}
' ,, (}
avrL EV Eoc; KaL apv -

Dopi]a-aL yap {jovAOfLEVOc; rove; f.xfJ povc;

' ,

\'

J.LErpov, KaL E7rOLYJa-Ev XWAOV

~

'\

''

J.LOV, TOVTE(JTL OELVOTYJTL 7rpE1TOV KaL 1\0LOOptq_ TO yap

E.ppvfJJ.LOV Kat EVrrJKOOV EJIKWJ.LLOLc; av 7rpE7rOL fLaA'Aov
lr /
'""
/
YJ"' ,~oyotc;.
roa-avra
Kat' 1TEpt' a-vyKpova-Ewc;.

(302) ITapaKELTaL 8 TLc; Kat T~ DELl!~ xapaKTTJpL,

we; TO ELKOc;, DtYjj.LapTYJJ.LEVOc; Kat avroc;, KaAELTaL

,,

axaptc;.

YLVETaL

~'

OE

,....

EV

TOLe; 7rpayfLaa-tV,

E7ralJ TLc;

alO"xpa KaL 8vO"pYJTa ?-va~av8ov A.EyYJ, Ka8a7rEp 0

riJc; TtfLctVDpac; 1 KaTYJyopwv we; 1rE7rOpVEVKVtac; T~V
\
/~
'
',
Q \
'
'
1\EKaVtOa
Kat' TOVc;
OfJOI\OVc;
KaL' TYJV

,//
{}
~ta OlJ

\
Kat' 71"01\-

'A-r}v TLva rotaVTYJV Dva-YJfLtav Kar-r}paa-Ev rov 8LKa-

(303) TJ CFVVfJEa-Lc;

CFTYJptov.

8LE0"7raO"pivn
ee

t OVTWO"t
e

'

0~'

EJ.LEp~c;

DE

n,

~atlJETaL axapLc;, EUV

Ka0a7rEp

Et1rWV,

''
/
,....
t"2 Kat' E7raV
' ' Ta'
EXOV
TO' Kat' TO,
KTELVaL.

Kw'Aa J.LYJ8EJ.Ltav EXYJ 7rpoc; aAAYJAa a-vv8EO"LV,

OJ.LOLa 8tEPPYJYJ.LEVOLc;.
KaL' J.LaKpat'

Ka'i ai 7rEpto8oL

/
'
Kat' ,
a7r01rVLYOVO"aL
TOVc;

d'A'A'

ai O"VVEXELc;

\/
1\Eyovrac;
OV,

0 7~~ Tt-fLaVOpa~ edd: OTL av T~~ TYJfLav8pa~ P.

locus corruptus, ovTw~ 8' P: ovTwcri cum praecedentibus
Radermacher, fort. recte.
1

522

r
1

ON STYLE 300-303

meditated, and somehow spontaneous, will in themselves

create some vigour, especially when we show our anger or
sense of injustice, whereas careful attention to smoothness and harmony signals not anger so much as a lack of
seriousness or a display of rhetoric. (301) As has already
been said, a the figure of abruptness creates force. The
same may be said of abrupt composition on a wider scale.
Hipponaxb is a case in point. Wanting to insult his enemies, he shattered his metre, he made it limp instead of
walk straight, he made the rhythm irregular, and therefore suitable for forceful insult. Regular, harmonious
rhythm would be more suitable for eulogy than invective.
This concludes my account of hiatus.
(302) Next to the forceful style there is, as might be
expected, a corresponding faulty style. It is called the
repulsive style. It occurs in the subject matter when a
speaker mentions in public things that are disgusting and
obscene, like the man who accused Timandrac of being a
prostitute and spewed out over the court her basin, her
fees, her mat, and many similar ugly details. (303) Composition sounds repulsive if it seems disjointed, like the
man who said, "tthis and that being the case, to killt',;d
and when the clauses are in no way linked to one another,
but are like broken fragments. Long continuous periods,
too, which run the speaker out of breath cause not only a
Cf. 269.
b Hipponax turned the iambic trimeter into "limping"
iambics by making the final iamb a spondee. Cf. 251.
c Author unknown; perhaps Hyperides in his attack on this
famous prostitute (=Jr. 165).
d Author unknown, text very uncertain.
a

523

DEMETRIUS

p.,ovov KaTaKop~ aAAa Kat aTEp7TE~. (304) Tfj 8 ovo/ 1

\ \ ..
..
/
,,
'
..
p_,aa-tq. 7TOI\J\aKL~ xaptEVTa 7Tpayp_,aTa OVTa arEp7TEa-rEpa 4>aivErat, Ka()a7TEp
KAEirapxo~ 7TEp'i r-ry~
...
\ /
'f ...
\ ...
'
...
TEV () PYJOOVO') 1\Eywv, <;,WOV P.,EI\ta-a-YJ EOLKOTo') Karavep.,ETat p.,Ev," cpYJa-L, eeT~V opEtv-r}v, Et(JL7TTaTaL 8 EL')
TQS KoiAa') 8pv')" W(J7TEp 7TEp'i {3oo') aypiov ;ry TOV
'Epvp.,av()iov Ka7Tpov Aywv, aAA' ovx'i 7TEpt p.,EALa-(J"Yj~ TLVO~, wa-TE Kat ({x_aptv TOV Aoyov ap.,a Kat
t/Jvxpov yEvf.a-8at. 1TapaKELTat OE 1TW') aAA -rjAot')
TaVTa ap.,cporEpa. 2

TV S ovo/Lacriq, Victorius: T] 8 ovo/Lacria P.

~'Y/fLYJTpiov 1TEp'i EPfLYJVEia~ subscriptio in P.

524

!:(

ON STYLE 304

surfeit but actual aversion. (304) The choice of words

often makes even subjects which are themselves charming lose their attractiveness. Clitarchus, for instance,
gives this description of the wasp, an insect like a bee: "It
lays waste the hillsides, and rushes into the hollow oaks."a
It is as if he described some wild bull, or the Eryrnanthian
boar, rather than a kind of bee. The result is that the passage is both repulsive and frigid, and in a way these two
faults lie next to each other.
a

FGrHist 137 Clitarchus F 14 (cf. T 10).

525

INDEX
Poetics
Note: 5lb21 = 145lb21, 6lb21 = 146lb21, etc.
Achilles, 54bl4
Aegeus, 6lb21
Aegisthus, 53a37
Aeschylus, 49al6. Choephori,
55a4. (?)Mysians, 60a32.
Niobe, 56al7. Philoctetes,
58b23. (?)Phineidae, 55al0.
(?)Phorcides, 56a2.
(?)Prometheus Bound, 56a2
Agathon, 56al8, 24, 30. Antheus,
5lb21
Ajax, 56al
Alcmaeon, 53a20, 53b24. See also
Astydamas
Amphiaraus, see Carcinus
Antheus, see Agathon
Antigone, see Sophocles
Ariphrades, 58b31
Aristophanes, 48a27
Astydamas, Alcmaeon, 53b33
Athens,48a36,48bl,49b7
Callippides, 6lb35, 62a9
Carcinus, Amphiaraus, 55a26.
Thy estes, 54b23
Centaur, see Chairemon
Chairemon, 60a2. Centaur, 4 7b21
Chionides, 48a34
Choephori, see Aeschylus

Cleobulina, 58a29
Cleophon,48al2,58a20
Clytemnestra, 53b23
Crates, 49b7
Creon,54al
Cresphontes, see Euripides
Cypria, 59b2, 4
Cyprians, see Dicaeogenes
Danaus, 52a28
Deiliad, see Nicochares
. Dicaeogenes, Cyprians, 55al
Dionysius, 48a6
Dorians, 48a30
Empedocles, 47bl8, 57bl3-14,
24,58a5,6la24
Epicharmus, 48a33
Eriphyle, 53b24
Eucleides, 58b7
Euripides, 53a24, 29, 56al7, 27,
60b34. Cresphontes, 54a5.
Iphigeneia in Aulis, 54a32.
Iphigeneia in Tauris, 52b5,
54a7,54b31,55al8,55b3,14.
Medea,53b28,54bl,6lb20.
Melanippe, 54a31. Orestes,
54a29, 6lb21. (?)Peleus, 56a2.
Philoctetes, 58b25. Trojan
Women,59b7

527

POETICS
Eurypylus, see Sophocles

Glaucon, 6lbl
Haemon ..54a2
Hector. 60al.5. 60b26
Hegemon, 48al2
Helle . .54a8
H erades ..51 a22
Herodotus. 51 b2
Hippias ofThasus, 61a22
Homer. 47blR, 48all. 22, 26,
48b28,34,5la2:1,54b15 .
.58a:3l, 58bl 2, 60a5. 18. Iliad.
4Hb3H, .51 a.29 ..54h2. 5f1a J :3,
56b1, 57 a2H ..S7b1 1, 5ba7.
.58h.'3l. .59a3L 59h:3. 14. 60a.1.5.
60b26, 61 a2-33 pas'sim. 62b3.
H. .Margifes. 48h:10. :38.
Odyssey. 4Ha 1..51 a24 ..5:3a32.
54h26. 30 ..5.5a2, .s.5b.L 7..57hJ o.
58b2.5, 2H ..59b:3, I.!J, 60a26, 35,
61b5,62b8
IphigtIwia. sec Euripid{'s
lxion, .56a1

Little Iliad, 58b2. 5

LyncPtts. sec Theodeck~
Ma~nes.

48a:34
i\1argites. see Homer
1\fedea, see Euripides
Me~arians. 48a:31
Melanippe. sef/ Euripides
Meleager. .5:3a20
Menelaus ..54a29. 61 h2I
Meropt'. 54 aS
Mitvs. 52aS
Mnasitheus. 62a7
Mjlmiscus. 61 h:34
A1ysians, see Aeschylus. Sophocles

Neoptolemus, .58b6

528

Nkochares. Deiliad, 48a1.3

Niobe. see Aeschylus
Odysseus, see Homer, Odyssey
Odysseus the False Messenger,
.55al.3
Odysseus Wounded, see Sophocles
Oedipus. 53a1 1, 20. See also
Sophocles. Oedipus Tyrarmus
Orestes, 53a20, :37, 53b24. See also
Euripides. lphigeneia in Tauris,
On:stes
Pauson,48a6
Peleus. see Euripides, Sophocles
Philoctetes, .59h5. See also
Aesch~lus, Euripides
Philoxenus, 48a1.5
Phinr.idoc, sec Af'schvlus.
Sophocks

Plwrcides. see Aeschylus

Phthiotides, see Sophodes
Pindarus. 61 b:35
Polygnotus, 48a5, 50a27
Poh.idus. S5afi. 5Sh I 0
Prometheus, see Aeschv1us
Protagoras ..S6hV5
.-

Sack (~f Troy . .5Hb6

Scylla . see Timutheus
Sidlv. 48a~32. 49h 7
Sinon. sre Sophocles
Sisyvhus, .1)6a22
Sophocles. 48a26. 48a19, Ei6a27.
60b:33. Antigone . .54 a 1. Elettra,
60a:3I. t r)Etirypylus, .5Hb6.
(?)A-1ysians: n0a:32.
(?)Odysseus \Vounded, 5:1h~14.
Oedipus Tyrannus. 52a24 _
.5:3b7, 31, 54hR. 55al8. 60a30.
62b2. (?)Peleus, .56a2
(?)Phineidae, 55al0.
'

INDEX
(?)Phthiotides, 56al. (?)Sinon,
59b7. (?)Spartan Women, 59b6.
Tereus,54b36. Tyro,54b25
Sophron, 47bl0
Sosistratus, 62a7
Spartan ""'omen, see Sophocles
Sthenelus, 58a21

Telegonus, 53b33
Telephus, 53a21
Tereus, see Sophocles
Theodectes, Tydeus, 55a9.
Lynceus, (?)52a27, 55b29

Thyestes, 53all, 21. See also

Carcinus
Timotheus, Cyclops, 48al5. Scylla,
54a31, (?)6lb32
Trojan Wmnen, see Euripides
Tydeus, see Theodectes
Tyro, see Sophocles
Xenarchus, 47bl0
Xenophanes, 6lal
Zeuxis, 50a27, 6lbl2

529

INDEX
On The Sublime
Aeschylus, 15.5-6. Seven against
Thebes 42-6, .51, 15.5;Jr. .58,
15.6;Jr. 281, 3.1
Alexander, 4.2
Ammonius, 13.3
Amphicrates, 3.2, 4.4
Anacreon,Jr. eleg . .5, 31.1
Apollonius of Rhodes, 33.4
Aratus, Phaenomena 299, 10.6;
Phaenomena 287, 26.1
Archilochus, 13.3, 33 ..5. Fr. 10.5-6
\Vest, 10.7
Aristeas, Arimaspea Jr. 1 Kinkel, ,
10.4
Aristophanes, 40.2
Aristotle,Jr. 131 Rose, 32.3
Bacchylides, 33.5
Caecilius, 1.1, 4.2, 8.1, 8.4, 31.1,
32.1, 32.8
Callisthenes, 3.2
Cicero, 12.4
Clitarchus, 3.2
Demosthenes, 2.3, 12.4, 14.1-2,
22.3, 27.3, 32.1, 34.1-3, 36.2.
Orations 4.10 and 44, 18.1;
7.4.5, 38.1; 18.18, 24.1; 18.169,
10.7; 18.188, 39.4; 18.208, 16.2;
18.296, 32.2; 21. 72, 20.1;

530

23.113, 6.3; 24.208, 15.9;

2.5.27-8, 27.3
Dion, 4.3

Eratosthenes, Erigone, 33.5

Eupolis,Jr. 106 Kassel-Austin, 16.3
Euripides, 15.3-6, 40.2-3.
Bacchae 726, 15.6; Electra 379,
44.12; Hercules Furens 124.5,
40.3; Iphigenia in Tauris 291,
15.2; Orestes 255-7, 15.2;
264-.5, 15.8;Jr. 221 Nauck2,
40.4;fr. 668, 39.2;fr. 779, 15.4;
Jr. 93.5, 15.4
Gorgias,Jr. .Sa Diels-Kranz, 3.2
Hecataeus,Jr. 30 Jacoby, 27.2
Hegesias, 3.2
Heraclides, 4.3
Hermocrates,4.3
Hermon, 4.3
Herodotus, 4.7, 13.3, 18.2. 1.105,
28.4; 2.29, 26.2; 6.11, 22.1;
6.21, 24.1; 6. 7.5, 31.2; 7.181,
31.2; 7.188, 191, 43.1; 7.225,
38.4; 8.13, 43.1
Hesiod, Shield of Heracles 267,
9.5; Works and Days 24, 13.4
Homer, 9.4-15, 13.3-4, 14.1-2,
33.4, 36.2. Iliad 1.22.5, 4.4;
4.442, 9.4; 5.85, 26.3; .5. 7.50,

'

INDEX
9.6; 13.18, 9.8; 13.27-9, 9.8;
15.346-9, 27.1; 15.605-7, 9.11;
15.697--8, 26.1; 17.645-7, 9.10;
20.60, 9.8; 20.61-5, 9.6;
20.170-1, 15.3; 21.388, 9.6.
Odyssey 3.109-111, 9.12;
4.681-9, 27.4; 10.251-2, 19.2;
11.315-7, 8.2; 11.563, 9.2;
17.322-3, 44 ..5
!socrates, 4.2, 31.1. Panegyricus 8,
38.2
Jews, the lawgiver of, Genesis 1. 3,
1.9-10, 9.9
Lysias, 32.8, 34.2, 35.1
Marathon, 16.2-4, 17.2
Matris, 3.2
Parmenio, 9.4
Phaethon, 15.4
Philistus, 40.2
Phryne, 34.2
Pindar, 33.5
Plato, 4.4, 13.1, 13.3, 14.1, 23.2,
28.2, 29.1, 32.5-8, 35.1. Laws
741c, 4.6; 773c-d, 32.7; 778d,
4.6; 801b, 29.1. Menexenus
236d, 28.2; 245d, 23.4.
Phaedrus

264c, 36.2. Republic 573e, 44.7;

586a, 13.1. Theaetetus 144b,
13.1. Timaeus 65c-8.5e, 32.5
Polyclitus, 36.3
Pythia, 13.2
Sappho,fr. 31 Lobel-Page, 10.1
Simonides,fr: 52 Page, 15.7
Socrates, 4.4
Sophocles, 33.5. Oedipus
Tyrannus 1403-8, 22.3.
Oedipus at Colonus 1.586ff,
15.7. Fr. 523 Radt, 15.7;fr: 768,
3.2
Stesichorus, 13.3
Terentianus (Postumius), 1.1, 1.4,
4.3, 12.4, 29.2, 44.1
Timaeus, 4.1-5. Fr. 102a Jacoby,
4.3;fr. 122, 4.5;fr. 139, 4.2
Xenophon, 4.4-5, 8.1, 19.1.
Agesilaus 2.2 = Hellenica
4.3.19, 19.1. Cyropaedia 1.5.12,
28.3; 7.1.37, 25. Memorabilia
1.4..5, 32.5; 1.4.6, 43.5.
Respublica Lacedaernoniorum
3.5, 4.4
Zoilus,fr: 3 Jacoby, 9.14
Unknown authors, 23.2, 23.3, 38.5

531

INDEX
()n

Style

Note: RefPrence is to the section numbers.

Aeschines (orator), Ctes. 133, 267;
202,268
Aeschines Socraticus, 297. Fr.
42(? ), 170;fr. 2, 205;fr. 48, 291
Alcaeus, 347 (b), 142
Alcidamas, 12. Fr. 1.5, 116
Anacreon,fr. 51,5
Antiphon,jf: 50,53
Antisthenes,fr. VA 45, 249
Archedemus,fr: 7, .'34
Archilochus,frr. 172, 185, 5
Aristippus, 2R8. Fr. IVA 148,296
Aristophanes, 12R(?). Achamians
86, 161; Birds 486-7, 490, 160;
Clouds 19, 179, 152; 401, 1.':50
Aristotle, 41, 128(?), 223, 234.
Rhet. 140.5b35ff, 116; 1408b31,
41;1408b32,38-9;1409a35,11;
1409b16, 34; 1410b35,
1411b32, 81; Hist. Anim.
497b28, 97; 619a16, 157;
frr.82,28;656,233;665,225;
668,97,144, 164;669,29,154;
670,230
Artemon, 223
Attic, 175, 177
Cleobulina,fr. 1, 102
Clitarchus,fr. 14,304
Com. Adesp., 7, 143

532

Crates,frr. VH 66, 170; VB 488,

171; VH 70, 259
Ctesias, 212. Frr. 8(a), 213; 24, 216
Cynic, 170, 259, 261
Demades,fi~r.

.53, 12, IS, 18, 282-5

Demetrius Phalereus,fr. 183, 289
Demosthenes, 181. Aristocr. 99,
31, 248; De Cor. 3, 253; 18, 299;
71,278-9;136,80,272; 179,
270;188,273;265,250;De
Fals. Leg. 2.55, 277; 259, 280;
314,269;Lept. 1, 10, 11,20,
245; 2, 246; Phil. 3.26, 263
Dicaearchus,fr. 39, 182
Diogenes,fr. VB 449, 260;.fr. VB
410,261
Doric, 177
Egyptian (hymns), 71
Epicharmus,fr. 147, 24
Euripides, Ion 161ff, 195;
Meleager,fr. 51.5, 58
Gorgias, 12, 15. Fr. 16, 116
Hecataeus,fr. 1, 2, 12
Heraclitus, 192
Herodorus (?), 66
Herodotus, 12, 37, 112, 181.1.1.1,
17, 44; 1.203.1(?), 66

INDEX
Hesiod, Op. 40. 122
Hippocrates, Aphorism. 1.1, 4, 238
Hipponax, 132, 301
Homer, 5, 12, ~37. Iliad 2.497, .54.
257:2.671-4, 61; 4.126, 81:
4.443, 124~ 6.152, 200: 9.502-3,
7; 9..526, 2.5; 10.437, 124:
12.113' 111 : 12.208, 255;
13.339.82: .13.798, 64,81:
14.433. 56: 16.161' 94, 220;
16.358, 48. 105:20.218, 79:
21 1' .56; 21.257. 209; 21.388.
8:3:22.133 . .189; 23.116.219:
23.154,.57:23.379--81. 210;
Odyssey 3.278. 1.50: .5.203-4,
.1)7: 6.105-8, 129; 9.289--90,
219:9.369. 1.30. 152.262:
9.394. 9+ 11.596, 72; 12. 73.60:
16.220 ..57:16.288-94 =
19.7-13, 107; 19.172, 113;
19.518-9. 133. 164:21.226, 57;
fr inc .. 78
H~perides{ ?),fr 165, 30

Pratag. 312a, 218; Rep. 327a,

2L 205; 399d. 185:. 411a-b, .51.
.183, 184: Epist. 7. 290. See also
53 for addition in M of Grg.
465e-466a
Polyerates, f1~ .11, 120
Pr~xiphane.s,fr 13, 57
Proverbs. 7. 8, 9, 28, 99, l 02, 112,
119,122,156.165.171,172,
216.229,24.1.243

Sappho, 1.32, 166. Frr. 104(a). 141;

105(c). 106; 106, 146:111. 148;
114 . 140: 156.127, l62:fr add.
!a) p. 338, 162
Socratic (dialogue), 297
Sophocles,.fr 611. 114
Sophron.128. Fn: 24. ].5.1: 32,
147; 34, 127; 52, L5l; 68.1.56:
108. 127; 109,153;110, 156
Sotades,frr: 4(a), 17, 189
Stesichorus ..fr 281(h), 99

Nicias (painter), 7n

Telt:machus (?author), 149

Theognis (tragedian), fr 1, 85
Theophrastus,frr: 686, 114: 687,
173;696,222; 703,41
Theopompus, 75. 240. Fr. 22.5(c),
27, 247, 2.50
Thucydides. 40. 49, 18L 228.
1.1.1, 44: 1.5.2. 25; 1.24.1. 199,
201: 1.24.2, 72:2.48.1' :38, 39;
2.49.1' 48:2.102.2, 45, 202,
206; 4.12.1, 6.5;

Peripatetics, 181
Phidias (sculptor). 14
Philemon, 193
Philistus, 198
Plato.37.80,181,183,228,234.
Euthyd. 271a, 226: A1enex.
246d, 266. Phaed. 59c, 288:
Phdr: 246e, 56; Pol. 269c, .5:

Xenophon, 37, 80, 181, 296. Anab.

1.1.1. 3, 19; .1.2.21' 198; 1.2.27,
1.39; 1.5.2, 93: 1.8.10, 104;
1.8.18. 84; 1.8.20. 103; 3.1.31,
137; .4.4.3, 6, 121; 5.2.14, 98;
6.1.13, 131; 7.3.15ff, 155:
Cyrop. 1.4.21, 89, 274; 2.2.1.5,
134

Isocrates. 12, 29. 68, 299. Helen

17, 23; Panegyr. 1, 25, 26: 58, 22 .

Lyr Adesp .. 9L 1.51, lfl4

Lysias.1.9. 190;.fr. 1. 128. 262;.fr
93. 128
Menander,.fr: 268, 153;fr 68.5. 194

533

fresh rendering of the work is based on

the earlier Loeb translation by W. Rhys
Roberts. Her new introduction and notes
represent the latest scholarship.
Stephen Halliwell is Professor of Greek,
University of St. Andrews; Donald Russell
is Lecturer in Classics, St. John's College,
Oxford; Doreen C. Innes is Fellow In
Classics, St. Hilda's College, Oxford.

The Loeb Classical Library is the only existing

series of books which, through original text
and English translation, gives access to all that
. is important in Greek and Latin literature. A
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University Press.