FALLACIES

Legal Technique and Logic:

Term Paper on the Fallacies of Informal
Logic
Submitted to:
Atty. Joaquin Obieta
Submitted by:
Dizon, Hazel Y.
Mercado, Anton Marco N.
Mondejar, Mary Kimberly Lucille L.
Raboca, Joyce Anne C.
Tuao, Francisco Miguel
Block 1-E
Ateneo de Manila University School of Law
March 18, 2015

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Table of Contents
Fallacies of Relevance
Appeal to Emotion (Argumentum Ad Populum)4
Salamat, Kaibigan: Privilege Speech of Senator Ramon Bong Revilla, Jr. (June 9,
2014)
Senator Miriam Defensor Santiagos speech on the pork barrel scam before the PH
Psychiatric Association (January 21, 2014)
Appeal to Pity (Argument Ad Misericordiam)5
President Aquinos SONA (October 30, 2014)
The privilege speech of Senator Jose Jinggoy Estrada (June 11, 2014)
The Appeal to Force (Argument Ad Baculum)...7
Luy tells court: Napoles brother threatened to kill him
The Argument Against the Person (Argument Ad Hominem)...8
Abusive8
The Untold PDAF Story That People Should Know: Privilege Speech of Sen.
Jinggoy Estrada (September 25, 2013)
Circumstantial.9
The Untold PDAF Story That People Should Know: Privilege Speech of Sen.
Jinggoy Estrada (September 25, 2013)
Irrelevant Conclusion (Ignoratio Elenchi)...10
Navigating the Crimes of the Plunder Mastermind: Privilege Speech of Senator Miriam
Defensor Santiago (December 4, 2013)

Fallacies of Defective Induction

Argument from Ignorance (Ad Ignorantiam).11
Linking Roxas to PDAF scam malicious Lacierda by Madel Sabater (September
5, 2013)
The Appeal to Inappropriate Authority (Ad Verecundiam)...12
Erap: Jinggoy careless but innocent in PDAF scam, Interview by Karen Davila (June
19, 2014)

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False Cause 12
Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago addressing some 2,000 students of the Lyceum of the
Philippines University (LPU) in Batangas City
Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc13
Salamat, Kaibigan: Senator Ramon Bong Revilla Jr.s Privilege Speech (June 9, 2014)
Hasty Generalization.14
Salamat, Kaibigan: Senator Ramon Bong Revilla Jr.s Privilege Speech (June 9, 2014)

Fallacies of Presumption
Fallacy of Accident15
Farce by Conrado de Quiros (March 17, 2014)
Complex Question.16
Miriam Santiago on Napoles, Senate Hearing on Pork Barrel Scam
(November 7, 2013)
Begging the Question.16
Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago addressing some 2,000 students of the Lyceum of the
Philippines University (LPU) in Batangas City

Fallacies of Ambiguity
Fallacy of Equivocation..18
Miriam Santiago Speech Banat Laban Sa Pork Barrel at Kapwa Pulitiko
(August 28, 2013)
Fallacy of Amphiboly.19
Navigating the Crimes of the Plunder Mastermind: Privilege Speech of Senator Miriam
Defensor Santiago (December 4, 2013)
Fallacy of Accent20
Body Language by Conrado de Quiros (February 16, 2014)
Fallacy of Composition..20
Inconvenient Truths by Conrado de Quiros (March 20, 2014)
Fallacy of Division..21
Is Miriam the only real senator left? by Rigoberto Tiglao (November 26, 2014)
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Fallacies of Relevance
Fallacies of Relevance are those fallacies in which the premises are
irrelevant to the conclusion.
I. Appeal to Emotion (Argumentum Ad Populum)
A fallacy in which the argument relies on emotion rather than reason
A. Example 1
Salamat Kaibigan: Privilege Speech of Senator Ramon Bong Revilla,
Jr. (June 9, 2014)
Lead this country not with hatred but with love. Lead the country towards unity
and not partisanship. Push our nations interest and not political agenda.
Bibihira ang nabibigyan ng pagkakataon na maging pangulo. At mapalad ka
Pangulong Aquino1
B. Explanation
The premise is directed to the President: [l]ead this country not with hatred
but with love. Lead the country towards unity and not partisanship. Push our
nations interest and not political agenda. Bibihira ang nabibigyan ng
pagkakataon na maging pangulo, while the conclusion is [a]t mapalad ka
Pangulong Aquino.
The speaker tries to support his conclusion that Aquino is lucky for being the
President elect since only few men one every six years do get the
Malacanang seat. However, with the use of expressive language, the speaker
takes the reader away from the reality of how one wins the Presidency. Far from
luck, winning an election comes down to ones resources, hard work, and
popularity among many others.

Full text of Senator Revillas privilege speech Salamat, Kaibigan accessed at http://
www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/364925/news/nation/full-text-of-senator-revilla-sprivilege-speech-salamat-kaibigan.
1

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C. Example 2
Senator Miriam Defensor Santiagos speech on the pork barrel scam
before the PH Psychiatric Association (January 21, 2014)
The public has already accepted that if there is pork barrel given to the
Congressmen and Senators, they will surely steal the 10 percent. Thats why, if
you are called ten percent-er, its really embarrassing but the public has
accepted it anyways. After all, everyone [politicians] receives the 10 percent!
D. Explanation
The premise of the argument is [t]he public has already accepted that if there
is pork barrel given to the Congressmen and Senators, they will surely steal the
10 percent. Thats why, if you are called ten percent-er, its really embarrassing
but the public has accepted it anyways, while the conclusion is [a]fter all,
everyone receives the 10 percent!
The speaker, in the hopes of supporting her claim that all politicians receive a
ten percent kickback from their pork barrels, appeal to the multitude by making
it seem like it is an accepted fact just because a lot of people believe in it. This is
an example of appealing to the populace.

II. Appeal to Pity (Argument Ad Misericordiam)

A fallacy in which the argument relies on generosity, altruism or mercy, rather than reason
A. Example 1
President Aquinos SONA (October 30, 2014)
Because these funds were abused in the past, people are saying that perhaps we
will abuse them todayeven if no one has accused us of stealing or using them
in the wrong manner. Some propose to remove them completely. Would this be
just? If only it were that simplebut what would we then do in case of natural
disasters? Even if we were lucky and Congress was in session, it would take at
least four months of debate before Congress can approve the funding we need.
If you are in Zamboanga, with a child crying from hunger, and government tells
you that it cannot help you just yet, it would need to haggle with Congress first

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how would you feel? We have the money, and we have the mechanisms that
will ensure this money goes where its needed most. Would it be right to deprive
our countrymen of the care they direly need?2
B. Explanation
The premise is because these funds were abused in the past, people are saying
that perhaps we will abuse them todayeven if no one has accused us of
stealing or using them in the wrong mannerEven if we were lucky and
Congress was in session, it would take at least four months of debate before
Congress can approve the funding we need. If you are in Zamboanga, with a
child crying from hunger, and government tells you that it cannot help you just
yet, it would need to haggle with Congress firsthow would you feelWould it
be right to deprive our countrymen of the care they direly need? while the
conclusion is, some propose to remove them completely. Would this be just? If
only it were that simple. We have the money, and we have the mechanisms that
will ensure this money goes where its needed most.
The speaker attempts to support his conclusion that the pork barrel system shall
subsist by making it seem like if the same shall be removed, this child from
Zamboanga will continue to suffer from hunger. Such argument commits the
fallacy of inappropriate appeal to pity by painting a sad picture when in reality,
the grants given under the pork barrel do not directly put food in the mouths of
the hungry, much less alleviate poverty.
C. Example 2
The privilege speech of Senator Jose Jinggoy Estrada (June 11, 2014)
Milyung-milyong Pilipino ang nagbigay sa akin ng tiwala kaya ako ay nasa
Senado. Hindi ako pinili at niluklok lamang ng iilan. Ang malaking bilang ng
aking mga kababayan ang patuloy kong magiging inspirasyon sa pakikipaglaban
hanggang sa dumating ang panahon na malinis kong muli ang aking pangalan

2 Aquino:

'I am the one now being called the 'Pork Barrel King'? accessed at http://
www.rappler.com/thought-leaders/42559-aquino-address-pork-barrel.
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na pinutikan ng mga taong mas unang dapat manalamin upang makita ang
mga dungis sa kanilang mukha. 3
D. Explanation
The premise is Milyung-milyong Pilipino ang nagbigay sa akin ng tiwala kaya
ako ay nasa Senado. Hindi ako pinili at niluklok lamang ng iilan. Ang
malaking bilang ng aking mga kababayan ang patuloy kong magiging
inspirasyon sa pakikipaglaban while the conclusion is Hanggang sa
dumating ang panahon na malinis kong muli ang aking pangalan na pinutikan
ng mga taong mas unang dapat manalamin upang makita ang mga dungis sa
kanilang mukha.
The speaker tries to evoke pity by using expressive words to make it seem like he
is in a miserable state. This is in support of his assertion that it is not him, rather,
his detractors that actually have dirt to hide. He also tries to appeal to the
populace by referencing to the number of voters that won him the Senatorial
bid.

III. The Appeal to Force (Argument Ad Baculum)

A fallacy in which the argument relies on the threat of force; the threat may be veiled
A. Example
Luy tells court: Napoles brother threatened to kill him by Jamie
Elona (October 25, 2013)
Hayop ka traydor ka. Alam mo Benhur convicted criminal na ako, wala nang
saysay buhay ko, papatayin kita para lang sa ate ko (I am already a convicted
criminal. My life is meaningless already. I will kill you just for my sister), Luy
quoted Napoles brother, Reynald Jojo Lim as saying last December 19, 2012,
minutes after Napoles scanned Luys cellphone and saw messages from one
Flor and Maya 4
Senate Press Release, Privilege Speech of Senator Jinggoy Estrada (Jun. 11, 2014) accessed at
https://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2014/0611_estradaj1.asp.
3

Jamie Elona, Luy tells court: Napoles brother threatened to kill him (Oct. 25, 2013)
accessed at
http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/514029/luy-tells-court-napoles-brother-threatened-to-kill-him.
4

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B. Explanation
The premise, Hayop ka traydor ka. Alam mo Benhur convicted criminal na
ako, is concluded by: Wala nang saysay buhay ko, papatayin kita para lang sa
ate ko.
This is an example of argumentum ad baculum. Jojo Lim argues that since he is
already a convicted criminal, he can do almost anything, with nothing to lose-even if this means, one day he decides to kill Luy. A fallacy of ad baculum is
committed when threat of force is relied upon to win consent.

IV. The Argument against the Person (Argument Ad Hominem)

A fallacy in which the argument relies on an attack against the person taking a position; an ad
hominem attack can be abusive or circumstantial
ABUSIVE
A. Example
The Untold PDAF Story That People Should Know: Privilege Speech
of Sen. Jinggoy Estrada (September 25, 2013)

Nakalimutan na yata ni coa chairwoman Grace Pulido-Tan ang
resolution na ito because it was before the media that she dramatically presented
the special audit report. Inilako at inilibot pa ni chairwoman Grace Pulido-Tan
ang audit report sa iba't ibang tv stations. Emosyonal at ma-drama pa nga
niyang sinabi na napahagulgol siya dahil sa kahindik-hindik na nakita nya sa
coa report. Aba'y kahit ako o kayo ay mapapa-hagulgol kung ang isang report
na ibinigay ay hindi kumpleto, walang ni-piso man lang na disallowance and
even violative of coa resolution as to the way it was disseminated!

Despite having taken nearly three (3) years to conduct, the special audit
report was still incomplete in coverage. Chairwoman Pulido-Tan said that the
audit covered only 58 percent of the total pdaf releases in the years covered
(2007 to 2009) and only 32 percent of total vilp or releases to DPWH.
Chairwoman Pulido-Tan atttributed this crudely done piece-meal report to
DBM's failure to render the complete schedule of releases under the 2007-2009
PDAF and the infrastructure projects under the vilp of DPWHEither
chairman Pulido-Tan is too lazy to do her job or she is ignorant of the main
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function of COA or just plainly clueless as to what are being done by her
resident auditors.5
B. Explanation
Sen. Jinggoy Estrada is questioning the integrity of the Special Audit Report
prepared by the Commission on Audit (COA) for being incomplete in coverage
and violative of a COA Resolution. He results to inflicting personal damage by
attacking the character of the COA Chairwoman as a way of refuting the
credibility of the Report.
CIRCUMSTANTIAL
A. Example
The Untold PDAF Story That People Should Know: Privilege Speech
of Sen. Jinggoy Estrada (September 25, 2013)

Very clearly, Chairwoman Pulido-Tan failed to obey the constitutional
mandate reposed on COA and that is, compliance audit focused on public
accountability that disallow irregular, unnecessary, excessive and extravagant or
unconscionable expenditures or uses of government funds. Add also the fact
that she violated, and continues to do soChairman Grace, gumising ka na!
Mukha yatang lagi kayong naje-jet-lag sa kaka-biyahe nyo sa ibang bansa. Lagi
po siyang wala rito sa ating bansa, ginoong pangulo.

Noong 2010, limang beses siyang umalis ng ating bansa. Noong 2011,
siyam na beses. At noong nakaraang taon lamang 2012, sampung beses. Halos
buwan-buwan ay umaalis siya. At ito lang taon na ito, hindi pa natatapos ang
taon, siyam na beses siyang umalis ng ating bansa. Kahindik-hindik, di po ba?
At mukhang mapapahagulgol din tayo dito.

Chairwoman Grace, gawin nyo po muna nang maayos ang inyong
trabaho at hanapin ang p69.2 billion pesos unaudited releases noong taong
2007, 2008 at 2009. At tapusin nyo na rin po muna ang pag-audit ng mga
pondong nailaan noong 2010, 2011 at 2012. Huwag muna po ang pag-biyahe
sa ibang bansa ang inyong atupagin.6
Senate Press Release, Privilege Speech of Senator Jinggoy Estrada The Untold PDAF
Story That The People Should Know (Sept. 25, 2013) accessed at https://www.senate.gov.ph/
press_release/2013/0926_estradaj1.asp.
5

Id.

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B. Explanation
Sen. Jinggoy Estrada obliges that COA Resolution 97-006 has been violated;
and calls to attention the fact that COA Chairwoman Grace Pulido-Tan has
been out of the country a number of times in the past years. This is fallacious
because an attack against Pulido-Tan and her trips abroad, is generally not
relevant to the objective merits of Estradas arguments re: violation of a COA
Resolution.

V. Irrelevant Conclusion (Ignoratio Elenchi)

A type of fallacy in which the premises support a different conclusion than the one that is
proposed.
A. Example
Navigating the Crimes of the Plunder Mastermind: Privilege Speech
of Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago (December 4, 2013)
Enrile tried to portray me in the blackest terms. He pointedly ignored the fact
that I am a laureate of the Asian Nobel Prize, the 1988 Magsaysay Award for
government service. According to the official citation, the Award recognizes her
bold and moral leadership in cleaning up a graft-ridden government agency.
Media has noted that I am reportedly the most awarded Filipino public
official, because I won such awards as TOYM, TOWNS, and U.P.s most
outstanding law alumnus.7
B. Explanation
Enriles allegations against Miriam, by correct reasoning, cannot be disproved
by such awards. Its tantamount to manipulating the character of the argument
to deliberately mislead and hinder rational inference.

7 Senate

Press Release, Privilege Speech of Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago Navigating

The Crimes of the Plunder Mastermind (Dec. 4, 2013) accessed at https://
www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/1204_santiago2.asp.
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Fallacies of Defective Induction

Fallacies where some common mistakes in argument arise because the
premises, although they may not be totally irrelevant, are adequate to
warrant the conclusion
I. Argument from Ignorance (Ad Ignorantiam)
An informal fallacy in which a conclusion is supported by an illegitimate appeal to ignorance,
as when it is supposed that something is likely to be true because we cannot prove that it is false
A. Example
Linking Roxas to PDAF scam malicious Lacierda by Madel
Sabater (September 5, 2013)
Any suggestion that Secretary Mar Roxas is involved in any scam is malicious, I
dont know why this is being made an issue. In his years of public service,
Secretary Mar Roxas has never been tainted with any allegation of anomaly. So,
if youre asking Secretary Mar Roxas if he is willing to provide documents, yes,
he is willing to provide documents and all these can be found in the audit report
of COA, Presidential spokesperson Edwin Lacierda said in a press briefing.8
B. Explanation
Even though Mar Roxas has never been involved in any scams, this does not
constitute a permanent bar to any future scams.

8 Madel

Sabater, Linking Roxas to PDAF scam malicious Lacierda (Sept. 5, 2013)

accessed at http://www.mb.com.ph/linking-roxas-to-pdaf-scam-malicious-lacierda/
#VOz3ZA0x4osbOlgK.99.
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II. The Appeal to Inappropriate Authority (Ad Verecundiam)

An informal fallacy in which the appeal to authority is illegitimate because the authority
appealed to has no special claim to expertise on the matter in question
A. Example
ANC Headstart Interview of Karen Davila with ERAP (June 19, 2014)
Karen: As a father and as a former president whos faced the same issues...do
you believe that he misused his PDAF and placed it in Janet Lim-Napoless fake
NGOs?
Erap: No, Ive been a senator, you just leave it, they ask for your pork barrel and
just leave it to your secretary9
B. Explanation
This argument is fallacious because Erap invoked his prior experience as a
Senator in order to further his assertion that his son is not guilty, even though
the fact remains that being a Senator has nothing to do with knowing whether
or not a person has been guilty of such a crime in the pork barrel scam.

III. False Cause

An informal fallacy in which mistake arises from accepting as the cause of something that is
not really its cause
A. Example
Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago addressing some 2,000 students of
the Lyceum of the Philippines University (LPU) in Batangas City
The first time I challenged Enrile to a debate, he declined and instead called
on Lacson to shower me with near-illiterate insults, including an oxymoron. If
this second time Enrile again evades debate, that will be an admission that he is
the mastermind of the plunder of some P10 billion of the taxpayers money;

ANC Headstart Interview of Karen Davila with Former President and now Manila Mayor
Joseph Estrada (Jun. 19, 2014) accessed at http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/06/19/14/
erap-jinggoy-careless-innocent-pdaf-scam.
9

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and that he is insulting me on a personal level, as a diversionary tactic, and as a

smokescreen for his criminality.10
B. Explanation
Senator Santiago asserts that if Enrile does not agree to participate in a debate
with her again, then he is admitting that he is the mastermind of the pork barrel
scam. On its face, the argument is obviously fallacious due to the fact that Enrile
could easily have other valid reasons why he could not agree to the debate.
POST HOC ERGO PROPTER HOC
A. Example
Salamat Kaibigan: The privilege speech of Senator Ramon Bong
Revilla, Jr.
(June 9, 2014)

Mr. President, napakarami na pong mga tao ang nababanggit sa usaping
PDAF. Napakarami na pong nasasaktan. Napakarami nang nasira ang buong
pagkatao dahil sa pagbato ng putik na parang alkitran nakumakapit sa balat at
tumatagos na hanggang kaluluwa. Pag nabanggit ka, tapos ka. Hanggang sa
kaapo-apuhan mo, wasak na. Buhay ka pa, ibinurol ka na para panooring ng
buong mundo, at pagkatapos, inilibing kapa.
B. Explanation
Senator Revillas argument is that once a person is implicated in the pork barrel
scam, that persons life, family, and reputation comes to an end. This is fallacious
because it implies that being mentioned in the pork barrel scam is what leads to
the detriment of ones life and reputation. However, the fact remains that Bong
Revillas situation came about not because he was mentioned in the scandal, but
because he was allegedly involved in the illegal acts pertinent to the issue at
hand.

10 Senate

Press Release, Miriam to College Students: Dont Vote For Pork Barrel Scam
Politicians in 2016 (Mar. 7, 2014) accessed at https://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/
2014/0307_santiago1.asp.
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IV. Hasty Generalization

An informal fallacy in which a principle that is true of a particular case is applied, carelessly
or deliberately, to the great run of cases.
A. Example
Salamat, Kaibigan: The privilege speech of Senator Ramon Bong
Revilla, Jr. (June 9, 2014)

Panguluhan mo ang bansa sa kaunlaran at progreso para huwag
masayang ang 6 na taon na ipinagkatiwala sa iyo. Napakasaklap na
mahusgahan ka ng kasaysayan bilang isang tinimbang ngunit nagkulang. You
still have 2 remaining years. Hindi tama at hindi maganda na maaalala ka at
ang iyong administrasyon sa pagpapakulong lamang ng mga hindi mo kaalyado.
Jailing your oppositors should not be the only achievement and legacy you will
be leaving behind.
B. Explanation
This statement of Senator Bong Revilla implies that the President and his
administration will be remembered solely for realizing the imprisonment of his
political enemies. A hasty generalization is made because such assertion is
derived from isolating President Aquinos jailing of his opponents to his other
achievements. It presumes that this is the only legacy that President Aquino will
be leaving be behind, based only upon the fact that there has been some arrests
made upon his political enemies during his term.

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Fallacies of Presumption
Fallacies in which the conclusion depends on a tacit assumption that is
dubious, unwarranted, or false
I. Fallacy of Accident
A fallacy in which a generalization is wrongly applied to a particular case.
A. Example
Farce by Conrado de Quiros (March 17, 2014)

If Luy and Tuason and Cunanan have been forced or threatened into
testifying, then surely it would be the easiest thing to show them up. Fearful
people tend to be tremendously anxious and nervous and trip on their
answers.11
B. Explanation
In this example Luy and Tuason were improperly generalized as fearful people
because the fact that they gave in to the threat of prosecution and chose to
testify to avoid does not necessarily imply that the are fearful people. Moreover,
being anxious and nervous when testifying under oath is normal especially given
the circumstances of their case wherein theres is a dilemma between ratting out
powerful individuals and facing serious criminal charges.

11 Conrado

de Quiros, Farce (Mar. 17, 2014) accessed at http://opinion.inquirer.net/72691/

farce#ixzz3UZ7eO5Kw.
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II. Complex Question

A fallacy in which a question is asked in way that presupposes the truth of some proposition
buried within the question.
A. Example
Miriam Santiago on Napoles, Senate Hearing on Pork Barrel Scam
(November 7, 2013)
Ngayon palang sabihin mo na, sa tingin mo, sino ang pinaka-guilty sa mga
nasangkot? 12
B. Explanation:
During the Senate Hearing on the Pork Barrel issue, Senator Miriam Defensor
Santiago asked Napoles this question. It is a complex question as it was asked in
a way wherein it assumes that those implicated in the scandal were already
guilty. Regardless of how Napoles responds to the question, it will be
presupposed that all of those implicated are guilty and the only question to
answer is the degree of guilt.

III. Begging the Question

A fallacy in which the conclusion is stated or assumed within one of the premises. Also known
as petition principia or as a circular argument.
A. Example
Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago addressing some 2,000 students of
the Lyceum of the Philippines University (LPU) in Batangas City
Politicians who purposely refrain from participating in the national debate on
the pork barrel scandal are politicians who are cowards, because they refuse to
take a position for fear of incurring the anger of the guilty ones. This kind of
cowardice is anathema to leadership, the feisty senator said.13
12 Senate

Blue Ribbon Committee Hearing (Nov. 7, 2013) accessed at https://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=c9ZTic0o_gA.
13 Senate

Press Release, Miriam to College Students: Dont Vote For Pork Barrel Scam
Politicians in 2016 (Mar. 7, 2014) accessed at https://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/
2014/0307_santiago1.asp.
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B. Explanation:
During this Address made by Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago in Lyceum
University in Batangas, she committed the fallacy of begging the question
wherein the conclusion that the politicians who did not participate on the debate
on the pork barrel issue are cowards is inferred and assumed immediately from
the premise.

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Fallacies of Ambiguity
Fallacies caused by a shift or confusion of meanings within an argument,
also known as sophisms
I. Fallacy of Equivocation
A fallacy in which two or more meanings of a word or phrase are used in different parts of an
argument.
A. Example
GMA News Coverage on Miriam Santiago Speech August 28, 2013
Banat Laban Sa Pork Barrel at Kapwa Pulitiko
The brain of a Filipino politician has two sides, the left has nothing right in it.
The right side has nothing left in it. 14
B. Explanation:
Senator Miriam Santiago in this speech took jabs at her fellow politicians. In her
usual humorous manner she referred to the left and right sides of the brain.
This statement is a fallacy of equivocation wherein the words left and right were
both used to express two different meanings respectively. (1) Left as in referring
to a side and direction and (2) left meaning to go away or abandon. (1) Right as
in referring to a side and direction and (2) right meaning correct or morally
good.

Saksi Newscast: Sen. Miriam, Santiago, bumanat laban sa pork barrel at mga kapwapulitiko (Aug. 28, 2013) accessed at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NKofqG8gRZs.
14

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II. Fallacy of Amphiboly

A fallacy in which a loose or awkward combination of words can be interpreted more than one
way; the argument contains a premise based on one interpretation while the conclusion relies on
a different interpretation.
A. Example
Navigating the Crimes of the Plunder Mastermind: Privilege Speech
of Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago (December 4, 2013)
Despite all his posturing, Enriles specialty is only tax law. Hence, all his
properties are either abroad, in the name of others, or in the name of
corporations. In 1975, during martial law, he built a residence in exclusive
Dasmarias Village. Two years later, he built a house in Valle Verde, registered
in the name of Jaka Investments Corp., his family firm. In 1985, he built a huge
beach house in his prime beachfront property in Natipuan, Nasugbu, Batangas.
But in his SAL-N 2012, belying his wanton lifestyle, including corrupt minions
and a private army on his payroll, he declared a net worth of only P118 million.
His legal expertise is obviously tax evasion. 15
B. Explanation
In essence, amphiboly deals with a premise based on one interpretation, while
its conclusion relies on a different interpretation. The example shows how
meaning can be changed with the use of words. Tax law can be twisted to
mean expertise in evasion of the same because Miriam Santiago uses the
meaning of tax law innocently at the start of the paragraph, while concludes
that it is malicious at the end.

15 Senate

Press Release, Privilege Speech of Senator Miriam Defensor Santiago Navigating

The Crimes of the Plunder Mastermind (Dec. 4, 2013) accessed at https://
www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/1204_santiago2.asp.
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III. Fallacy of Accent

A fallacy in which a phrase is used to convey two different meanings within an argument, and
the difference is based on changes in emphasis given to words within the phrase
A. Example
Body Language by Conrado de Quiros (February 16, 2014)
What made this hilariously ironic, or ironically hilarious, is that Jinggoy read this
from his own prepared written statement. If you cant trust yourself to say
exactly what you feel at this very moment, how can you trust yourself to say
exactly what you did years ago? Naturally you need to confer with others to
check your recollection of things.16
B. Explanation
The fallacy of accent basically requires that there be a different meaning to the
sentence should emphasis on some word/s be added. This example is a simple
case of sarcasm. The word naturally, if not emphasized, would affect the
meaning of the whole idea of the paragraph, that one actually needs to confer
with others to check his/her recollection of things. Emphasized, it would mean
that one should not need to confer with others to check his/her recollection of
things and to confer with others shows that ones recollection of facts is faulty.

IV. Fallacy of Composition

A fallacy in which an interference is mistakenly drawn from the attributes of the parts of a
whole, to the attributes of the whole.
A. Example
Inconvenient Truths by Conrado de Quiros (March 20, 2014)
Some 180 people are close to two-thirds the number of our congressmen. Even
assuming that not all of them are congressmen, and not all of them are guilty,

16 Conrado

de Quiros, Body language (Feb. 16, 2014) accessed at http://

opinion.inquirer.net/71645/body-language#ixzz3UZ9DHSE8.
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180-plus is still an eye-popping number. Little wonder a group of baboons has

also been called a congress.17
B. Explanation
Essential in the fallacy of composition is that the inference is mistakenly drawn
from attributes of the parts of a whole to the attributes of the whole. In this
example, the author mistakenly infers that because some of Congress is guilty,
the Congress as a whole is as stupid as a group of baboons (metaphorically, of
course).

V. Fallacy of Division
A fallacy in which a mistaken inference is drawn from the attributes of a whole to the attributes
of the parts of the whole.
A. Example
Is Miriam the only real senator left? by Rigoberto Tiglao (November
26, 2014)
History will condemn the 16th Congress as the worst ever Aquinos rubber
stamp, especially for the 2015 budget. But what happened to the senators we
would have thought had the brains, independence and courage to protest this
ignominy that is the 2015 budget the economist Ralph Recto, the level-headed
Sergio Osmena, the once swashbuckling Greg Honasan, the business-minded
Cynthia Villar and the mestiza Grace Poe? Nancy Binay should be told she is
not in the senate just to defend her father while Ferdinand Marcos Jr. should
remember his father was a studious, bold opposition leader at least for a time.
Are Loren Legarda and Pia Cayetano still senators? 18

Conrado de Quiros, Inconvenient truths (Mar. 20, 2104) accessed at http://

opinion.inquirer.net/72777/inconvenient-truths.
17

Rigoberto Tiglao, Is Miriam the only real senator left? (Nov. 26, 2014) accessed at http://
www.manilatimes.net/miriam-real-senator-left/144424/.
18

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B. Explanation
In the fallacy of division, an argument falsely assumes that what is true of a
whole must also be true of its parts. The example gives the premise that the 16th
Congress is a terrible one and concludes therefore that the individual
congressmen and congresswomen in the 16th Congress are terrible congressmen
and congresswomen. It is a fallacy of division because it is not necessarily true
that if the Congress as a collective is terrible that the individuals that make up
the Congress are each terrible at their jobs.

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