INFORMATION

DESIGN

Course Reader

PWR 2 SLA, sec-1 & 2




by

Sohui Lee, Ph.D..

Stanford University

2013-2014

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1. Visual Design Principles


Chapter 2. Logos of Visualizations


Chapter 3. PowerPoint Rhetoric


Chapter 4. Rhetorical Devices


Chapter 5. Public Speaking Guidelines and Tips

2-12
13-18
19-34
35-39
40-48

Chapter 1

Visual Design Principles

Information Graphics & PowerPoint

Learning to build your own Web site . . . or publish your own book
makes you more critical of the media you see and read each day.

Ellen Lupton, author of D.I.Y.: Design It Yourself

VISUAL DESIGN

What is visual design? While visual design is defined in numerous ways depending on
discipline and profession, this course emphasizes an approach toward visual design as rhetoric.
Web design scholars Patrick J. Lynch and Sarah Horton, for instance, see the primary purpose of
visual design in creating visual logic such as clear visual hierarchy and defining functional
sections of the web page. Visual logic is also critical in other types of visualizations of
information as presented in advertising, infographics, websites, or slideshow presentations.
We are interested in exploring how strategies of adopting a particular logic in design will
shape the message and its persuasive appeal to the audience. Visual design is rhetorical for
us in that we reflect on how different audiences may read and respond to design choices in
response to varying contexts of time, media, situations, and purposes. Visual design, then, is
the rhetorical combination of art elements (such as color, line, scale, and texture) producing an
overall effect, which we call principles, in unity, balance, repetition, and focalization. While
the effects vary depending on the kind of audience response we wish to elicit, design elements
and principles contribute to the clarity and persuasive quality of the visual argument. There are
many art elements and design principles, but the eight selected here will help you reflect on the
rhetorical component of design in range of visual genre and media.

FOUR ELEMENTS OF ART

Color: Although this is not an art class, it is important that you
know some practical and rhetorical effect of color on your
audience. The careful selection of complementary colors allows
for easier viewing; colors can highlight specific areas of the ad
page, visualization, or PowerPoint screen. Colors also help lend
continuity, direct the gaze, provide balance, and give focus.

For instance, a popular strategy in advertising is to use the
company colors in the logo or in the product design throughout
the advertisement to subtly reinforce the connection between
idea in the ad and the product brand/company name (see
Symantic ad in Fig. 1). Colors are also a useful strategy in
guiding the viewers attention through the maze of the ad and

Fig. 1. Symantec
Advertisement, Newsweek, 14
Feb 2005.

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toward the company logo or product (usually at the lower left or lower right hand corner).

In the infographic (fig. 2) called The Great
Pacific Garbage Patch, the designer uses
three main colors to relay information more
clearly and quickly, telling us whats most
important and whats related. The following
three colors support focalization, balance,
and unity of information:

Blue (primary color)

Sienna (tertiary color: orange-red)

Fig. 2. The Great Pacific Garbage Patch.
Aqua (tertiary color: blue-green)
Visualization. 45 Useful and Effective Infographics.

Online. www.2expertsdesign.com.
The primary color (blue) highlights the place
we look first, and the most critical spot for our gaze called the focal hook (refer to focalization
for details). Blue is placed near the center of the page and takes up a large portion of the
pages real estate. Blue also guides our eyes left to righttaking us from the globe to the
graphic of the boat in the ocean. The two tertiary colors provide balance and unity. Sienna
anchors the infographic by the corners (upper left, upper right, lower left and lower right)
while the tertiary color Aqua connects the globe and the graphic of the ship to the information
content provided in the left information box and in the graphic symbols in the lower right.

Line (Vector): The line directs the flow or the movement
of the gaze across visual space. Sometimes the line is
called a vector. The line can be literal or it can be
inferred in the arrangement of pictures and images as
well as in the creation of shadows, light, and colors.
Lines or vectors are critical in the arrangement of
visualization in particular as it tells the reading audience
where to look first and last within a few seconds. This is
true in ads, PowerPoint presentations, or visualizations
like infographics. Lets take a simple example of vectors.
The Symantec ad from figure 1 has vectors moving in an
unusual direction. While most ad vectors move from
upper left corner to the lower right corner, youll notice
that the vectors in this ad move in the opposite
direction. The posted ad on the corkboard is slightly
tilted so that the angle of the ad directs the viewer to
the Symantec box at the lower left corner. The angle of the open laptop computer also creates
lines toward the lower left. The glasses on the laptop further point our gaze downward toward
the Symantec box below.

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In the infographic Carland (fig. 3), the viewer
is drawn to the vectors created by the road of
boxes dating the history of the car, which
curves around the infographic space. The
vectors tell us where to begin: we read from
the upper left corner and find ourselves at the
lower right (standard trajectory for reading
although the route is twisty!).


Fig. 3. Carland. Visualization. 45 Useful and
Effective Infographics. Online.

www.2expertsdesign.com.


Texture: Texture refers to the appearance or feel of the surface
quality of an object such as glossy or flat paint, smooth or rough
surfaces. How does this lend toward visual rhetoric in
visualizations? In advertisement, it lends a subtle sense of
authenticity. While the primary sense in visual arguments is ocular,
our seeing of roughness or smoothness also lends to imagining how
it feels, our tactile impression of the object. Ads might use note
like paper with rough edges to suggest that it was quickly sketched.
Car and cosmetic ads often use texture to suggest the smoothness
and shininess of its showcased vehicles or lipstick (so shiny you can
almost feel it). Sometimes innovative ads actually add texture to
the ad page using thick or glossy paper in order to encourage
interaction and make the product or ad memorable to the audience.
In infographics, the choices of texture add another communicative
layer that enhances the way the designer speaks to and connects
with the audience. In the infographic from usabilitycounts.com (see
left), texture adds to vertical presentation of an argument that
presents a visual metaphor for human computer interaction
(starting from the top: product, UX, UI, server,
datacenter). What do the choices of the wood table, the bowl or
even the arrangement of cereals say about the type of user?
Consider how the effect might differ if the photo include a linoleum
table and a plastic spoon.
Fig. 4. Ed Lea. User

Experience vs. User Interface.
Infographic as Cereal.

Visualization.

Usabilitycounts.com. 31 July

2012.

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Scale: Scale refers to the size of the text or image in
relation to its surrounding. This is particularly
important in visuals as scale helps the viewer to
quickly prioritize the information and focus on an
area/idea on the page. Returning to the Garbage
Patch Infographic, we can see that image of the globe
and the garbage patch are both large, but the globe is
more than triple the size of the patch. The larger
scale of the globe (in relation to the other images)
tells viewers to prioritize this image first. The
designer probably chose to do this because the representation of the garbage patchs actual
surface area on the planet produces the greatest emotional response.

In this course, well also discuss scale in terms of the image/text ratio. The scale of the visual to
the text clearly indicates that the visual carries the main message (rather than just providing
setting or decoration). The visuals are meant to shock the audience who are unaware of the
size of trash in the ocean or how it was created.

FOUR KEY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Now that weve been introduced to some basic art elements, well turn to key design principles.
For this course, well focus on unity, balance, focalization, and repetition. These principles help
viewers organize the various art elements, bringing them together to tell a story or send a
focused and persuasive message.

Unity: Unity is about the overall style of your visual
presentation; it suggests that the various parts of the
composition (whether it is written, visual, or oral) seem to
fit together. In written composition, unity is provided
when you argued clearly for a thesis and its components
and then remind readers how your various points of
evidence support that thesis. Unity is also created with
you provide adequate transitions between that help
readers understand the connections between ideas
(whether it was a recent idea in the last paragraph or the
overarching thesis). In visual composition, unity is created
through consistency in theme or a complementary visual
scheme. In PowerPoint, for instance, unity might be
provided by a consistent background or a consistent use of
font type. Other ways to create unity is to use repetition
(or variation of an idea), colors, and vectors to hold
everything together. Unity through repetition and color is
illustrated in Fig. 5 (Milk advertisement): if you notice,
Fig. 5. Milk Advertisement, 1996,
Print.

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both 1996 Democratic and Republican Presidential candidates (Bill Clinton and Bob Dole) are
balanced in the portrait. They both wear black jackets, brown ties; both have the same
charcoal background for the portrait and both have the milk moustache. This unity works to
not only tie the visuals together for the ad but also to symbolically communicate the core
message: both Republican and Democratic candidate are part of the same political system in
Americain voting (as in drinking milk) one continues to nourish the backbone of American
democracy.

Unity is particularly important for visualizations
that present dense amount of information.
Looking at the Carland infographic, the
visualization is unified through a car game
metaphor. Color, in particular, is helpful in
visually signaling that all the parts of the
infographic relate to each other. The different
parts of road repeat a pattern of colors (blue,
green, red)this helps to unify the road even
as the information may be different. Also the
colors categorize the information (based on period), making it easier and more fun to read.
Other effects of unity are the various icons along the road, which are the same shape/color
(serving both content and design function).

As in the infographic, PowerPoint or Prezi slideshows apply unity through thematic consistency
and color consistency/coordination. One must remember, however, that unity does not mean
unimaginative repetition or slide monotony. Visual unity, moreover, does not make the
audience work hard to understand what you are communicating. Effective PowerPoint or
infographics incorporate creative ways to make your visual design decisions serve a specific
purpose in clarifying and conveying information in a consistent style.

Balance: The look of balance is created if one imagines a fulcrum through which an axis
(horizontal, vertical, diagonal) runs through the page. The look of visual symmetry is created
when the designer provides mirrors images and colors on either side of the axis. There are
various types of symmetrical balance. With the Milk ad, there was vertical symmetrical balance,
a mirror image on the left and right representing Clinton and Dole. Others include:
horizontal symmetry (balance in top & bottom) and diagonal symmetry (diagonal balance from
corner to corner).

Fig. 6. Visualizing the US/China Trade

Relationship Across the Globe, Infographic,
45 Useful and Effective Infographics. Online.
www.2expertsdesign.com.

Fig. 7. The Global Resource Squeeze, Infographic

in Justin Lahart, Patrick Barta, and Andrew Batsons
New Limits to Growth Revive Malthusian Fears,
The Wall Street Journal, 24 March 2008, Online, 10
June 2013.

The infographic on the US/China Trade Relationship (Fig. 6) provides horizontal symmetry,
although a flipped version of a mirror image. The infographic on global resources (Fig. 7)
provides diagonal symmetry (with a clear line provided by the chart): the weight of the text,
images, and white space in the upper left is balanced against the text and chart on the lower
right.

In contrast, visual asymmetry provides balance by
countering the weight of one visual object against a
different visual feature. The two-page Lexis Great
Equalizer ad from April 2005 is an example of
vertical asymmetrical balance. Unlike symmetrical
balance, asymmetrical balance uses contrasting
color, forms, and textures or the absence of
symmetry to attract our gaze to both sides of a page.
In the Lexis ad, half the car (first page) is frozen in a
giant ice cube; the other half (2nd page) is not
Fig. 8. Lexis Advertisement, New Yorker 4
illustrating the air conditioning technology in the car. April 2005.

Asymmetry still provides balance by even distribution of weight in text, white space, color,
and/or other graphic components. In the case of the Lexis ad, the weight of the white space
and the text box on the second page offsets the full image of ice on the first page.

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Focalization: Focalization refers to visual features on the ad page or infographic that are
designed to be the main foci of the viewers eyes. These points of interest are called focal
points. The primary focal point of an ad or infographic is considered the hook (or I call focal
hook): it grabs the attention of the passing viewer and then directs them to explore the page
through vectors and other visual strategies such as grouping and white space.

Focalization by vectors. One way to create focalization is to place the visual features along
vectors because the eye is usually forced along straight or curved lines. Straight lines create
strong focalization and curved lines create softer focalization. Soft focalization might be
desired when the features and the message are meant to be more subtle and less direct.
For example, compare the strategy of using strong and soft focalization in the following two
fashion ads by Ferragamo and Burberry, which appeared in the February 2005 issue of The New
Yorker:

Focal hooks:
focal points
hooking the
audience.

Fig. 9 & 10. Ferragamo Advertisement and Burberry advertisement, New Yorker 14-21, February, 2005.

The focus in both ads is the bag. We are lead to focus on the bags through visual design. The
Ferragamo ad is an example of strong focalization because of sharper color contrasts and
straight lines. In the Ferragamo ad, color frames the desired image (browns, white, grays,
metallic gold, olive colors outside the car vs. black color inside the car). Diagonal vectors from
the upper right corner also frame the woman and her bag. Sharp straight angle of her leg also
quickly forces the viewer to look at the focal point, the bag. Finally, the photograph gives the
impression that object of the viewers voyeuristic interest is the bag: the models face is only
half-shown so that the focus is the bag, not the model. Infographics work in
similar ways. In the Carland infographic, there are lots of lines that could
potentially be distracting. The title of the infographic (Carland) is placed
along the start of the road so that readers see it early. It is also framed with
strong lines (denoting a freeway sign) to ensure readers get to see the title.
8

The Burberry ad, in contrast, is an example of soft

focalization where the models famous face competes
equally with the bag (to focal points are the face and the
bag). Burberrys visual strategy is to reveal the bag
through exploration of the photograph, hooking the
audience with a celebrity face first. First, unlike the
Ferragamo ad, the entire page is black and white so that
the bag does not jump out of the page. The balance
here is horizontal, the face of British model Kate Moss,
set against horizontal branches of trees, is aligned with
the Burberry bag at the bottom of the page, set against
horizontal shadows on the grass. The vectors here are
generally softer but still direct us to the focal point, the
Burberry bag. We follow the healthy tone of her bare
skin, from her face (focal hook) down the curve of her
neck and breasts to the bag; we also follow the curve of
her crossed leg to her bag. In the Burberry photograph
(in the fashion of portrait shots of Herb Ritts), the bag is
a prominent but implicit visual object of focus: it shares
visual space with Kate Moss, a complement to a glamorous lifestyle.


Focalization by groupings: Another way to
create focalization is through groupings. One
might group smaller objects to identify their
relationship to each other; grouping, however,
has an important visual effect. By clustering the
small visual data, the designer calls attention to
the collective visual feature by magnifying the
scale of the objects. This visual technique is
commonly used in visualizations and
infographics.

Fig. 11. How come cheap airlines are so cheap.

Visualization. 45 Useful and Effective Infographics.
Focal hooks
Online. www.2expertsdesign.com.

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Fig. 12. Google home page. Google, 10 June 2013.

Online. 10 June 2013.

Focalization by white space: Finally, you

can create focalization through the use of
white space. Googles home page is an
example of how white space is used
strategically to draw attention and create
salience (visual hierarchy). Without
distracting links or other detail on the page,
the eye focuses on Googles name and the
search box at the top of the page.

Repetition: Repetition of form, color, image,
and lines is often used in ads and PowerPoint
to lend balance, focalization, and unity in
visual design. It can also contribute to
focalization. For example, the Burberry ad
includes repetition of curved lines (the strong
lines in the ad are curved such as the branches
of the tree, the shadow on the grass, her
posture). Strategic repetition supporting
focalization (focal hooks are the red
mountains) can be seen in the use of color in
this Salt Mountains infographics (see Fig.
Fig 13. Anne Collins, Salt Mountains,
Visualization, Nextgenerationfood.com. 13 April
13). Colors are also used for grouping data,
which identifies types of food (Red = fast food; 2010, Online, 23 July 2012.
Pink = soups; Brown = sauces; Green = cereals,
etc.).

To summarize, this chapter is an introduction to four art elements and four design principles
that are used to inform the design of information graphics and other visualizations like
advertisements. Table 1 (shown left)
illustrates how each art element can
contribute to design goals that
further develop the ad message or
story. For instance, color might be
used to support unity but also
balance, focalization, and/or
repetition. The same could be done
for line, texture, or scale.

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QUIZ

Advertisements use design strategically to associate visuals with a message. A good example of
this in action is the Skyy Vodka ad from 2005. Identify one of the four key visual design
strategies of unity, balance, focalization, and repetition and one of four art elements color,
vectors/lines, scale, texture. Please provide a brief rationale.

Example 1. Skyy Vodka advertisement. June 2005. GQ

Visual design:









Elements of art:

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Exam ple 2. Infographic: All about Stem Cells. Infographics also use design
to choreograph dense information and give you a clear message about what the
visualization(s) are about. Identify one of the four key visual design strategies of unity,

balance, focalization, and repetition and one of four art elements color, vectors/lines, scale,
texture. Please provide a brief rationale
Visual design:

Elements of art:

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Section 2

LOGOS OF VISUALIZATIONS

A guide to analyzing information design

When thinking about visual design in visualizations such
as print advertisement or infographics, we have
previously discussed art elements. In addition, we need
to consider the advertisers careful attention to the ads
arrangement or logos rhetoric aimed to appeal to its
target audience. Logos rhetoric of infographics might
be best examined in terms of the three Ls:

1) language (selection of visual and textual language);
2) lexis (creation of thematic style: the use of cultural
symbols and references to convey the central theme or
idea of the infographic); and
3) layout (graphic arrangement of visual elements,
including text, images, font style, and color).

I. LANGUAGE: In order to discuss the use images in
visualizations, we need to understand some basic
concepts of textual and visual language.

Linguistic Concepts

A. Signifier and signified
To understand the function of symbols in visualizations,
youll need to understand basic linguistic theory. In
linguistic theory developed by Ferdinand de Saussure at
the turn of the twentieth century, the sign is what we
commonly understand as language, and language is a
communication system that assigns an arbitrary text
(called the signifier) to a concept (the signified). For
instance, there is the word dog and then the idea of
dog. The idea of dog isnt grounded to the English word
dog or chien (as it is in French) or gey (in Korean). This
communication system works because a community
agrees to the symbolic activity that assigns certain
signifiers to certain signifieds.

Fig. 1. Enjoy Advertising, Advertisement,

Prepared Foods, 2004.

Fig. 2. DDB Auto Dealer

Advertisement for Mercedes-Benz.
<www.mercedes.szczecinl.pl>

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B. Product logo and abstract symbols
In advertising, this language concept (signifier and signified) is often represented in the
relationship between the product and the product logo. For instance, Mercedes Benzs famous
logo as shown in figure 2 is the visual signifier for the car company Mercedes-Benz and its cars.
While the Mercedes Benz logo hasnt changed much since its inception, most major companies,
on average, keep product logos for 20 years like the Rainbow Apple logo (see figure 3 below).









Fig. 3. Apple Logos: Newton Apple logo (1976); Rainbow Apple logo (1977-1999); Chrome Apple logo (2009).

Fig. 4. Detail from The Big Food Wasters,

Visualization, The Impact of Domestic Food Waste
on Climate Change, Nextgenerationfood.com, 4
March 2010.

In infographics, the language concept of

signifier and signified is represented in some
of the assumptions we make in the meaning
of our abstract symbols. The take-away here
is that the signifier (image of the water drop
or the Apple logo) is a culturally-defined
imagethat is, one that a community creates
and assigns to a concept. This means that we
shouldnt forget that the symbol is a cultural
construct of a particular communityand
that certain images might reverberate more
deeply with some audience than with others.

High and low fidelity graphics: Go low. As you might notice with the Apple logo, the logo
moved from high-fidelity graphics (picture of Newton under the tree by the ocean, the details
of the Apple banner rippling in a breeze) to low-fidelity graphics of a monochrome apple
with a bite taken out. Cognitive theorists argue that low-fidelity graphics (such as the one used
in Fig 4) is much more memorable to viewing audiences than high-fidelity graphics because
information or data is minimized and low fidelity graphics requires less information to process it
into long-term memory.

It is no coincidence that most logos are designed in low-fidelity graphics. Take the example of
the concept of water, stripped down to its essence in logos created for the EPA, SmartWater,
Department of Water, and the Kansas City Water Services: the concept of water is stripped
down to a primitive form of a drop (or line drawing that suggest the drop).


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Exercise 1. Identify some popular products and draw its logo. Is the original logo in high or low
fidelity?



Product #1___________Logo: Product #2_____________ Logo:


Anatomy of an Infographic
Effective infographics tell a story visually through the data but also through layout. Layout
often reinforce the story of the informationwhere is the beginning, middle (data), and the
end of the data story below?

Headline/Tagline and Copy. The

persuasive power of an ad or an infographic,

like any rhetorical form of communication,
relies on the clarity of the argument and the
persuasive appeal to the audience.
Although not as large as the image or
visualization of information, the headline or
tagline is the beginning of the data story,
introducing us to the thesis or point of the
infographic. It should verbally hook the
audience much like ad taglines. The headline
clarifies our initial bottom up processing of
the graphic (see below). The copy is the
body of descriptive text that explains the
purpose of the infographic and what it
communicates.

Graphic diagram, chart, or other data

visualization(s).
Fig. 5. Matthew Ericson, Joe Burgess, and Bill Marsh, Some Places
Are Riskier Than Others, Visualization, New York Times, 01 May
2011.

Legend

The legend is usually found in maps, graphs, and

other charts. The legend explains signs in the
visualization. The legend is particularly helpful if the
signs are not obvious (such as the meaning of colors;
weights of dashes and lines; interpreting scale and
other m arkers.)

Source

Although not visible here, most infographics

published in journals include references to statistical
data sources at the bottom of the page.

Designers maximize clarity and appeal of a

message by anticipating bottom up visual
processingour ability to distinguish
meaningful patterns of data in a glance
through shapes, colors, groupings, proximity,
line, or motion.

Take away or summary data.

Some infographics include key information

resulting from the analysis of all the data. Here, it
is the top 8 list of the lowest and highest risk
cities (which viewers need not to look through
the map to process themselves). It is located at
the lower right hand corner of the visualization
and will be possibly the last important
information viewers read. This m ight represent
the conclusion of the data story.

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II. INDEX AND LEXIS: CULTURAL SYMBOLS AND THEMES

A. Index
An index is a cataloging strategy. In this course, index refers to a
catalog of symbolic cultural references about a particular a lifestyle
or worldview, which appeals to a specific target audience. For
instance, the 2006 Louis Vuitton ad featured actress/model Uma
Thurman (Fig. 6). This ads index consisting of three key visual items:
fur (on the bag), satin evening gown, and even orchids. The index
point to a lexis of luxury appealing to Western women. The visual
index in Children & Nature, an infographic created for the National
Fig. 6. Vuitton
Environmental Education Foundation (NEEF) consists of an
advertisement,
assortment of nature symbols: green hills, blue sky, pond, and trees Fanpop.com, Web. 2 Dec
2010.
(see Fig. 7). NEEF is targeting urban parents who worry (or should be
worried) about their kids health,
particularly obesity. These symbols point to
a kind of safe and urbanized activity in
nature that reassures parents. Other
symbols such as the jump rope, kite, swing,
bicycle, birds, walking paths, and fishing
pole represent the kinds of activities that
children can enjoy with parents outside.
The point of the infographic is to illustrate
the range of outdoor activities that they can
do with their children, which is healthy,
free, and easy to do.

Lexis is a visual theme of the visualization,
working closely with the index. In
advertising, thematic concepts tie ad
campaigns together with basic ideas such as
wealth, youth, beauty, or cool.
Although these lexi appear general, they are
tailored to a specific audience. The lexis for
the Children & Nature infographic might
be seen as outdoor fun (for young kids).
However, a travel infographic targeting
teens and young adults with a lexis of fun
might include an index consisting of rock
climbing and nightclubs. Another travel ad
targeting older upper-class couples with a
Fig. 7. Geoill, Children & Nature, Visualization
similar lexis of fun, however, would
for National Environmental Educational
Foundation. http://geoill.com/children-natureinclude a different index that appeals to this
infographic/.
demographic group (ballroom dancing, fine

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dining, and quiet moments). While infographics usually have more serious themes to convey,
they will aim to evoke an emotional response from the audience.

By identifying and analyzing how symbolic elements in images/words are built together for a
cumulative effect, we can understand the rhetorical strategy behind the index.

III. LAYOUT

Layout is about the strategic arrangement or positioning of images and textual elements in
advertisements so that it can 1) direct the viewers gaze (salience; hierarchy), 2) maintain
visual coherence (unity), and 3) keep the viewer involved and interested. Here, I will focus
primarily on visual/textual arrangements and vectors.

A. Visual and Textual Arrangements

Most scholars of visual media point to how the human eye does not capture every detail
immediately. Instead it needs to be guided to move from one visual or textual element to
another. One way in which the eye is guided is by the various visual tricks used to prioritize
text or images. The prioritization of viewing may be directed by size of font (text) or image,
color, placement on the page, spacing, or other sensory strategies (smell, touch, etc. in cases
of innovative ads).

Exercise 2. Examine the logos of the text in Figure 1 (Enjoy Advertising). How does the
language arrangement in this ad contribute to your response to the advertisement? How
would a different font change your response?




In some graphics, visuals are dominant and texts are
supplementary. In others, texts are dominant and visuals are
supplementary. Neither is necessarily more effective; the
prioritization strategy of image or text depends on the
advertisers overall message and audience.

B. Vectors

Vectors or lines is a visual feature representing the
convergence of points, which help to provide visual coherence
to images and the text. For instance, in the Got Milk
advertisement featuring Kim Cattrall the actress of cable
series Sex In the City is at a bar with a martini glass of milk. In
figure 8, the contrasts of color (light versus dark) provide the

Fig. 8. Got Milk 2002 Milk

Mustache Print Advertisements,
Milkdelivers.org, Web.

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vectors for the eyes: the V neck dress points our eyes down her chest as does her bare
shoulders. The vector created by actresss bent elbow frames the milk martini. The shape the
martini parallels the deep cut of the V neck dress, suggesting the strategic choice of the dress
and positioning of the martini to emphasize the content of both. The product message got
milk? (white against a black background)
stands out in the bottom as a thematic
signifier that unifies the actress, the martini,
and setting.

For the water conversation campaign
commissioned for NEEF (Fig 9), the graphic
design company Geoill used simple and
clear line vectors to draw eyes between
space--bathroom, kitchen, lawn--and
savings.
Fig. 9. Geoill, Save 30 Gallons, Visualization for NEEF.

http://geoill.com/water-conservation/


C. The Camera Eye

Arranged gaze: The arranged gaze is an arrangement of the
image or graphic with particular attention of the viewers
perspective. Often called the camera eye, this attention to
the viewers perspective improves information delivery or
provides new insight. For example, the Miller Beer ad in figure
10 uses the camera eye to influence your interaction with the
ad (and worldview of the quintessential Miller drinker).


Fig. 10. Miller Beer,

advertisement, Maxim Magazine.

(Jul. 2003): 45.


In visualizations, a chart or image might be
represented from an unusual perspective or
angle to help give insight to the information
or make the information more vivid and
memorable. Here, millions of gallons of oil
spilled are represented in a curve echoing the
Fig. 11. T Farrant. Detail from Worlds Worst Oil Spill,
shape of the globe.
Visualization.

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Section 3

PowerPoint Rhetoric

Composing a dynamic visual argument

Outline

I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.

Introduction to Power Point rhetoric

Logistics
Slides as critical visual arguments
Using animation
Using visuals
Using audio
Practicing slideshow delivery
Common problems of PowerPoint usage
PowerPoint checklist

I. INTRODUCTION TO POWERPOINT RHETORIC

As the worlds most popular slideshow presentation software, Microsofts PowerPoint is
ubiquitous in the business board room as well as the classroom. Many of you have already
seen it used in your college or university lectures, and some of you may have employed it
already.

The original name for the slide presentation program was The Presenter and it is well worth
remembering that PowerPoint was first created help academics more easily present their
research findings to their colleagues at conferences. Hence, PowerPoint is rooted in the
academic oral presentation. Although you may think of PowerPoint as just a visual
communication tool (your digital slides appearing on plasma/computer screens, and
projectors), its real persuasive power emerges when speakers understand and use PowerPoint
for its rhetorical potential in the presentation of dynamic multimedia arguments. The
fundamental differences between an essay & PPT-based oral presentation are not so much the
aims of the speaker and the content (in both cases, content and form are important), but rather
that in a PowerPoint presentation:

1) the speaker is a live, dynamic presence and can have dramatic impact;

2) the speaker doesnt just communicate information. The aim of the presentation may be
various, from informing and convincing to ethos-building and morale-boosting. In other words,
quantity and quality of information (that Edward Tufte often cites) might not even be the
primary aim of some PPT presentations.

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In this tutorial, I will provide some explanations about the rhetorical role of visuals in your
presentation and give suggestions on making your visualsin conjunction with your verbal
argumentmore comprehensible, persuasive, and memorable. I hope to persuade you that
the rhetorical design of PowerPoint slides is more than minimizing the amount of text on the
screen; it is about taking advantage of the visual tools available in PowerPoint to maximize
engagement and persuasion.

WHAT ARE THE VISUALS IN POWERPOINT?

To know how we use visuals we must start with a definition of what visuals are.

Images: These visuals include realistic pictures and photographs as well as abstract/symbolic
illustrations created from PowerPoints collection of Autoshapes and your own drawings in
Photoshop. They include conceptual graphs and flowcharts and organizational symbols like
arrows and bullet points.

Animation: These visuals may be pictorial or textual; the key difference between images and
the animation, however, is in the dynamic nature of computer graphics. Animation works to:

1) represent or demonstrate a concept or process;
2) memorably draw the attention of the audience;
3) manage the salience of the page (control/organize how viewers see the slide page by
ordering the sequence/location/and gaze).

Text: It may seem odd that text (words) are
categorized as visuals, but remember that your
audiences are reading your words if you put it on the
slide screen. In reading the words, they are taking it
through their eyes and processing it visually. In
advertising, the visual aspect of the text is often
exploited ingeniously. For instance, cursive
computer-generated print is used to infer a message
that is more personal. A relatively recent ad by U.S.
Trust includes an entire page which reads like an
intimate note written by U.S. Trust representative and
the potential customer (see Fig. 1).
As in advertising, the slide screen forces the attention
on the visual aspect of the text. This is because the
slide screen is usually much bigger and everything
placed on the slide screen is magnified.
Consequently, your typographic decisions become
Fig. 1. U.S. Trust advertisement,
rhetorical decisions of persuasion. In using text on
New Yorker. 14-23 Feb 2005.

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PowerPoint screens, you must consider how it looks visually to your audience and the purpose
behind your decisions in font, size and color of the text as well as other visual effects such as
underline, italics, bold, boxes, and shadow style.

Screen Layout: While image, animation, and text will be the focus on this handout, screen
layout should be remembered as a persuasive visual in and of itself. Screen layout plays a
crucial rhetorical role in organizing how we see and receive information. The logos of the
screen is represented in the arrangement of graphics, images, and texts on the page and how
they work together to show their relationships or appeal to reason. The pathos of the screen is
elicited through various types of emotionally powerful visuals (see below) applied and
incorporated in your PowerPoint presentation. Finally the ethos of the screen is projected in
the professional quality of its design and the academic credibility of claims and evidence
presented.

WHAT ARE THE FUNCTIONS OF VISUALS IN POWERPOINT?

Scholars of visual rhetoric have pointed four types of image functions that can also be applied
to most visuals in PowerPoint:

Decorative visuals
Representative visuals
Organizational visuals
Interpretative visuals.

Each of these types can play an important rhetorical function in PowerPoint if they are carefully
used in terms of relevantly engaging the audience.

Decorative visuals are selected for their aesthetic contribution to the slideshow and their
ability to elicit an emotional response on the viewer. For instance, a student whose
presentation focused on revitalizing Oregons tourism campaign pointed to a stereotype
associated with Oregon: the lumberjack. She incorporated a generic cartoon image of a
lumberjack to reinforce her point on the slide screen. While this image drew the audiences
attention, the image of the lumberjack itself did not contribute significantly to the argument
about revitalizing Oregons tourism campaign (while it could, perhaps, represent the stereotype
of Oregon as a place with a lot of trees, the lumberjack image was primarily decorating the
page while she relayed more factual information of how little people knew about Oregon).
Because decorative visuals tend to draw the viewers eyes away from your talk and the salient
points you are making on the slide screen, you should try to minimize your use of these types of
visuals.

Decorative visuals, like all visuals in PowerPoint, need to be relevant to your presentation. It
can be useful if your strategy is to initially attract attentionfor instance, in the introductory
slide screen when it functions as a visual hook. As a hook, the decorative visual can play an
important role if the purpose on its slide is to fully rally the audiences attention and interest so

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that that the speaker can present a related argument (the proper subject of the presentation).
But remember, decorative visuals, in themselves, dont sustain attention and may actually
distract your audience from your argument if they are not well contextualized, explained, and
made relevant to your presentation argument.

Application strategy #1: Take the quiz of relevance.
PowerPoint is often mistakenly used as giant cue cards for the speaker. While PowerPoint
slides help the presenter remember, they are more effective if they are designed to persuade
the viewing audience! Consequently, fun visualsthat might be personally interesting or
amusing to the speakermay not serve to persuade the audience. Before you use a visual,
first identify the type (decorative, representative, organizational, interpretative). Then take this
quick quiz:

Is there a possibility that the visual competes with your talk or distracts your audience?
Does the visual appear to have no (or very little) relevance to your presentation at first
glance?
Does the visual appear without any explanations of its presence or reference?

If you replied yes to any of these questions, then you may have a visual that is a candidate for
elimination. If you have a good reason for keeping it, be sure to make it appear relevant to your
audience by 1) integrating it better in your slideshow (for instance, consider alternate timing,
size of visual, and display) and/or 2) articulating it fully in your oral argument.

Representative visuals are chosen in order to effectively represent or symbolize a concept or
idea. Think of representative visuals as metaphors, such as logos in advertisements or
infographics that represent the company or brand of a product. Rather than typing out
dollars for instance, you might use the symbol of the dollar sign. In a presentation in which a
student discussed a female target audience over 50 for her advertisement product, she
included a pictorial image of a baby boomer to represent the group she was targeting. Thus,
representative visuals are often used to help audience members comprehend your concepts or
ideas clearly and quickly. Because they are visual, well-selected illustrated representations also
can make key concepts or ideas more memorable.

Application strategy #2: Sharpen argument through visual re-drafts. After youve created a
draft of your PowerPoint, review your slides and consider one or two additional ways you might
sharpen the arguments by clarifying ideas or making them more graphically memorable. After
examining the alternative slide arguments, select the one that works best.

Organizational visuals are selected because they help to manage the way the slide screen is
seen by the audience. The most common organizational visual is the bullet point. You should,
however, carefully consider why you use bullet points. Bullet points are useful if you are listing
components or ingredients that have no other relationships with each other except that they
comprise a larger network, system, or concept. Bullet points, generally speaking, have their
own inherent rules: listed from top to bottom, usually they suggest a time line (this is most
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common in the bullet points of an outline) or a hierarchy of importance (the most important
item at the top and least at the bottom). But these suggestions are not obvious and the
speaker must vocalize these relationships clearly in a presentation.

Most novice PowerPoint presenters use bullets
points by default; that is, they use it automatically
without considering other more effective and
persuasive ways of organizing their points. The
points that one makes, for instance, might explain an
organization of a company or a sequence in a
development process: the argument would be more
visually persuasive if he/she created a tree chart or
a Venn diagram to illustrate
Fig . 2. B asic V enn Diagr am . The
relationships/developments. In addition, some
Venn diagrams help readers and
scholars assert that bullet points actually hide the
audiences to visualize logical
logic/reason behind these points: bullet point
organization allows speakers to present the points of relationships between groups that
share common properties.
the arguments as if they were facts rather than
explain why the points are presented and how the
points relate to each other.


Application strategy #3: Reflect on all available means of persuasion. Bullet points tend to be
a default organization of ideas in slides, but list of points are hard for audiences to remember.
Moreover, they often poorly illustrate concepts or components that are often related to each
other, whether by sequence, association, or topological connections.

Avoid the impulse to bullet point your ideas at the very beginning. Ask yourself what these
points have in common and whether you can visually represent them in a diagram or other
form of visual representations. What is your objective in representing the information? For
instance, you might represent the points in a Network diagram, Venn diagram, flowchart,
graph, etc. See Table 2, Types of Information Display (next page). You should use of bullet
points only after you thought through your purpose and considered other strategies in visual
organization.

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Table 2. Types of Information Display and Motivation


Motivation (Goals)
Hierarchy (org chart; classifications; file systems, databases).
Branching processes (genealogy and lineages; patterns of evolution
Tree/Diagram
phylogenetic trees).
Decision processes (search trees; decision trees; tournaments; code).
Chronology (time, history).
Flow Chart Narrative (story).
Teleology (development).
Charts (Bar, Bar, Line, Area Charts: Comparison (of one or more element with another)
Line, Pie,
over time, correlations, frequency.
Timeline,
Pie: Comparison (parts to a whole).
Area)
Graphical comparison of information on a table (data could be numeric data,
Table
verbal concepts or other kinds of qualitative information)
Venn
Graphical reasoning to draw attention (of two or more elements) of
Diagram
overlap/shared elements and elements that are not shared.
Maps
Represent spatial relationships, geographic/spatial locations.
Photo
Evidence in image or patterns.
Illustrations
and Data
visualizations
Chronology (time, history).
Narrative (story).
Teleology (development).
Storyboard

Like a flow chart, but illustrated with segmented visual/graphic scenes with
framing shots, perspective shots, reaction shots.

Interpretative visuals are chosen because they help to clarify complex ideas, systems, and
processes for the audience. Unlike representative visuals, interpretative visuals cannot be
understood at one glance: they usually require more elaborate explanations from the speaker
and require additional visual signs (such as arrows, text labels) that help emphasize important
features, relationships, and or movements. These interpretative visuals might be graphs,
flowcharts, maps, pie charts, schematic models, and diagrams.

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Application strategy #4: Explain your interpretative visual. Interpretative visuals are often
treated as representative visuals: presenters assume that the argument presented in the
visual is obvious and understandable at first glance. Remember that audience members dont
have the time to read or revisit the visuals at their leisure; moreover, some audience members
may not be able to see all the graphic details because they are either too far away or they may
be visually impaired, have obstructions in front of them, etc. Because of their complexity,
interpretative visuals need to be described, analyzed, and/or explained concisely and clearly.

WHAT ARE THE GOALS OF VISUALS IN POWERPOINT?

One piece of advice that I will remember is to always keep the audience in mind by making sure the
presentation promotes CPR. One of the best ways I have learned of promoting CPR is via effective
PowerPoint rhetoric that shows the audience instead of simply telling the audience. Examples of
effective rhetoric I have employed in my PowerPoint presentations include: the use of arrows and boxes
to highlight text, the use of rhetorical animation to make main points more memorable, and the power of
clean lines and simple layouts. I had never utilized arrows, boxes, or motion paths before this class.






KC Ongaigui, Student, Winter 2008

How the audience sees the slide screen is critical in an oral multimedia presentation because it
is controlled by TIME (you have to talk within the rules of temporal sequence); it is arranged by
SPACE of the screen; and it is experienced (for most people) as a LIVE, oral/aural presentation.
Having the visual power of PowerPoint and the verbal power of a live orator, you must consider
how you will best maximize the advantages of both verbal and visual systems so that you
persuade an intelligent, skeptical audienceaudience members who demand academic rigor in
evidence.

Your goals in using visuals in the PowerPoint
in this course are the same as the goal of oral
presentations. This is to achieve CPR:

In having considered your visual design of
Comprehension
PowerPoint in light of the function and rhetorical
Persuasion
goals of the visuals, you are prepared to provide a
Retention.
visually rich slide presentation that refuses to be a

mere sidekick or completely overwhelm the oral

presentation. Rather, your PowerPoint carries a
muscular force of visual persuasion that is works in
Each of your various types of visuals should
tandem with your oral argument to present a
be able to contribute to one of these
balanced performance of visual and verbal delivery.
rhetorical goals: to further elucidate and
clarify, aiding in the audiences
comprehension of the idea/argument; to
persuade the audience of your argument
various emotional and logical appeals; to
interest the audience and help them

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remember the information that youve provided so that they might fully consider your
argument.

II. LOGISTICS: DETERMINE WHAT YOU NEED FOR YOUR PRESENTATION.

Some preliminary questions to reflect on before you give your presentation:

1. Do you have a memory stick or other efficient means of transporting your data? If you
are using PowerPoint with embedded video clips or audio (which take a lot of memory
space), it is probably not a good idea to upload and then download the presentation
onto an online discussion site (it will take too long). I recommend a memory stick (USB
Cruzer mini has 256 MB and it comes relatively cheap). Its also a great way of saving
work youve done in your classroom computer.

2. Will you be using props and other aids with your presentation? PowerPoint, of course,
is your visual aid, but you might consider other aids. Some students find the laser
pointer helpful, especially if they feel they need to point out something specific in the
visual that is displayed on the slide. Others bring in props for their audiences to
examine, feel, smell, etc. depending on what their subject is. Visual presentation is
great, but if you are working in a small roomprops that stimulate other senses could
also make a presentation effective. IMPORTANT: the props should not feel gratuitous.
They should play a critical function in your argument.

3. Have you prepared yourself for the worst case scenario? It may be your luck that your
slideshow doesnt download or that youve lost your memory stick. The computer in
the classroom may not be working. If these things happen, you should still be able to
continue with your presentation. I suggest that you always print out all your slides and
have a copy at handjust in case. If the worst case happens, you can, at the very least,
pass this out for people to look at. Also, it will help you keep your focus and your pace.
You could use a white board to illustrate points that you would have done with the slide
show. Look around your environment and check out what low-tech tools might be
available for use.

III. SLIDES AS CRITICAL VISUAL ARGUMENTS

In stand aside presentations, the slideshow can NOT present the argument by itself.
These interactive presentations require the visual-verbal team of the slideshow and the
speaker.

While maximizing the appeal of your physical presence in oral presentations, you will
also need to remember the virtues of CPR. Consider how the visual medium of
PowerPoint can function in:

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1) making your argument more comprehensible through outlines, signposts that keep
audience on track,
2) making your argument more persuasive in supporting and clarifying claims, and
3) helping your audience retain your argument (thus make it more memorable) through
repetition of key terms as well as vivid layout and dynamic animation strategies.

As the presenter speaking to a live audience, you are responsible for articulating the
argument, but PowerPoint slide show can work as a critical visual tool that draws
audience in, keeps their attention, and make the argument unforgettable as well as
persuasive. As you work on slide shows, youll find that it also keeps you keep your
focus, identify the pertinent claims of your argument, and organize your thoughts in a
logical order. However, remember that the primary purpose of PowerPoint is to appeal
to your audience.

1. REVIEW THESIS, OUTLINE, AND SUPPORTING EXAMPLES. Because your oral

presentations are limited by time, you ought to make sure that you outline your oral
argument carefully and select only two or three examples to explore and explain your
case. When creating outlines for your PowerPoint, work on your middle argument
first: be sure you have enough time to cover the heart of your presentation. Then use
the remainder of your time to cover your introduction/hook and the conclusion/rehook.
2. RESIST TELLING US EVERYTHING. Oral presentations are summaries. The nature of
most presentations is summative. This means that you will need to cull less important
information to highlight and explain the few that you can explain in 10 or 15 minutes.
Try to avoid giving needless information that doesnt contribute to your own argument
or providing too much information that distracts the audiences attention from you.
Your audience wont know how to absorb it all.
3. PROVIDE A CLEAR ARGUMENT EARLY ON. Help your audience follow your argument
so they wont be puzzled in the first few minutes. You should be able to summarize
your argument in one or two sentences.
4. START YOUR POWERPOINT SLIDE BY CREATING AN EMPTY TEMPLATE. Microsoft
PowerPoint usually comes with a default template for you to pick and choose, but this
strategy tends to support a one-size fits all approach. Or, to put it another way, why
choose ready-to-wear (which comes in only a range of factory-directed sizes) when you
can create COUTURE, designed to fit a very specific audience. It will take more take
more time to create couture slides through Slide Master than slide templates, but
the results will be much more innovative and engaging for the audience. Moreover, it
will force you to consider your own strategies in layout, salience (prioritization of visual
elements on slide), consistency, balance (vertical/horizontal alignment), and animation.

IV. USING ANIMATION

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Id been told in the past that Powerpoint animation was extremely distracting, and that I should
avoid entirely it. But our classs emphasis on rhetorical animation helped me to draw a
distinction between animation that was superfluous, and animation that truly contributes to the
points youre trying to make.

Marissa Miller, Spring 2008

Explore custom animation to enhance the visual design of slides: Animation helps display
your mastery of your slideshow as well as works to help your audience remember key points
and visual ideas. To use the animation tool effectively, the presenter should know the types of
animation available. PowerPoint 2003 and PowerPoint 2007 include custom animation in the
four categories: Entrance, Emphasis, Exit, and Motion Paths. These animation tools can
improve timing of your presentation, make your slides appear less cluttered, emphasize key
words or visual elements in your slide, and make your argument more memorable. Remember
that the goal in using animation is to enhance or emphasize and not to distract. Think of the
slide in PowerPoint as a canvas of an ad. Just like visual design in advertising, the layout of the
slide should attend to:

A) visual hierarchy: where and what do you want the viewer to look at first, second, etc.?
Where you want the viewer to not to look?
B) vectors: what is the path of the eye across your slide page? What should be the focal point?
C) timing and choreography: when do you want the viewer to look at the text/visual or the
slide? And when do you want the viewer to look at you?

Application strategy #5: Consider how you might include more rhetorical animation to
make your point more memorable. An effective way of using animation rhetorically is to
demonstrate or illustrate a concept or idea. For instance, you might have a graph of how many
women bought cell phones in 1980s (this is a static visual). But you can use rhetorical
animation to show the dramatic change in the number of women who now buy cell phones in
2008. The rhetorical animation comes into effect when the animation is used to show the
graph bar move up to illustrate the point (rather than having two graphs, showing sales in
1980 and sales in 2007). Rhetorical animation makes a difference between just presenting data
and making that data come alive.

When thinking about animation, you should be considering not only how you animate words
or pictures across the screen but also how you effect the transition from one slide to another.

V. USING VISUALS

In the section "What are the Functions of Visuals in PowerPoint," I elaborated on the types of
image and its function and goal in visual arguments such as those delivered through
PowerPoint. To most effectively use visuals in PowerPoint, you should always remember that
the choices you make in PowerPoint design are for your audience and not for yourself. In other
words, ask yourself what the visuals and animation can do to help your audience comprehend,
believe, or remember your argument.
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By aiming for CPR (comprehension, persuasion, retention), your visual choices in design,
images, and animation will appear to have purpose and make your slideshow more persuasive,
meaningful, and memorable.

1. INCLUDE PERSUASIVE AND RELEVANT VISUALS. This includes creating your own
graphs, charts (if you cant find any). You may want to include relevant pictures, images,
and other eye-catching (not eye-distracting) visuals that support your argument in the
presentation.

**If visuals are used, their relevance should be briefly explained to the audience.**
Like quotations, visuals cannot be merely dropped into your slide. If the visuals dont
ADD to the argument, they detract and its best to leave out.
2. SIZE MATTERS: When deciding the size of your font, you might want to think about
how you would feel about looking at it from the perspective of the audience (sitting at
the back of the room). Ask yourself the following questions: does the size of the font
force your readers to squint? If they cant read your text from the back, do you think
your audience members would be enthralled by your argument?
3. COLOR DECISIONS: Pay attention to the color of the background and the color of
your font. Certain color combinations make sentences hard to read for your audience.
Make sure the color combination isnt painful or distracting to the viewer.
4. TEXTQUANTITY OR QUALITY? Consider the amount of text you place on the page.
How much do you want the audience to read? Because face-to-face interactive
PowerPoint presentations emphasize your physical presence, people tend to want to
hear YOU tell them rather than read what is on the screen. Do what you can to
minimize the amount of text that is projected on the screen or slide. You should be able
to justify the presence of every word on the slide. Here are some questions to help you
determine whether you need all those words: Does the audience absolutely need to see
that word on the screen? Does its presence on the slide work to enhance your
argument or does it merely repeat what you said? If it is repeating, is it strategic verbal
redundancy or is it just repetitive? What is the critical function of the text on the slide?
(Does it reinforce key terms? Does it demonstrate a relationship between concepts?)

VI. USING AUDIO

Audio, like visuals and animation, must serve a rhetorical purpose. In other words, it shouldnt
be played simply because it sounds cool, but because it is helping you make your point or
because it is related to your argument (and that you will refer to it and explain its relevance).

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VII.

PRACTICING SLIDE SHOW DELIVERY

Live PowerPoint presentations, like all oral presentations, are ephemeral. You really

have one shot at presenting and making an impression. Once delivered, you can't
"undo" the presentation. That said, there's plenty of things that the speaker can do to
prepare for the final presentation and that is rehearsal and planning. In addition to
carefully designing and considering the visual effects of the slide to the audience, the
PowerPoint presenter should consider the overall effect of the presentation in light of
the immediate presentation space and make adjustments in oral strategies accordingly.

Presentation Space impacts the degree of projection (depending on the size of

audience and room), where and when to move to move on the "stage," and even the
type of eye contact to provide. In a small classroom or boardroom, for instance, eye
contact is crucial because the speaker can see each member of the audience. On the
other hand, the speaker is not expected to provide direct eye contact in an auditorium.
In the latter case, "face" contact --just turning of the face to different parts of the
auditorium--is enough to indicate to the audience that the speaker is talking to them.
The following is not an exhaustive recommendation list on oral delivery, but it does
provide some key elements of oral delivery that should help presenters look prepared
and engaged.

1. STRATEGIZE INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION. Giving a presentation is like telling
a story: it should have a beginning, middle, and an end. In the introduction, present
your case clearly but also consider how you will interest your audience (the hook). You
may, for instance, refer to recent headlines, tell an anecdote, and ask leading questions.
In the conclusion, you should repeat your central point very clearly and summarize your
ideas. Finally, you shook re-hook your audience: how do you want them to remember
your argument? You might use similar strategies that youve employed in the hook
phasegiving visuals to discuss, interacting with the audience, or simply telling your
audience what you want them to do (to think, to feel about the subject).

2. USE RHETORICAL DEVICES: Consider using rhetorical devices so that your words
make your ideas memorable (anaphoras, epistrophes, for instance, are common
opening and closing features in great speeches.) Visit American Rhetoric: Rhetorical
Figures in Sound online for examples of rhetorical devices in speeches, sermons, and
lectures.

3. WATCH BODY LANGUAGE AND MAINTAIN EYE CONTACT. When you deliver an oral
presentation, it is a public performance. You are on a stage and everything you do is
magnified. As a result, your body language and gestures are part of oral delivery: it
should help enhance or emphasize points your make as you speak. Most presenters
make the mistake of turning to the slide screen and reading to the screen rather than
talking to the audience. Make sure that you tell your audience, by your body language,
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that your full attention is toward them. Persuasion in
oral delivery relies not only on your argument and
your slideshow of evidence, but also on HOW you
present your argument with the PowerPoint.

4. SPEAK CLEARLY. Consider your audience when you

speaksince the goal is that they listen and follow
what you say, you should be sure that your voice is
projected clearly and slowly (if you are a fast talker,
you might want to speak more slowly than you
normally talk).

5. USE LANGUAGE APPROPRIATE FOR YOUR

RHETORICAL SITUATION. The rhetorical situation
refers to the time and scene in which the argument
(your presentation) is taking place. Here too, you
need to consider the rhetorical situation and your
audience. In an academic performance, you are
expected to be more professional and formal (imagine
you are speaking to strangers or business men and
women). As a result, words like you know, like,
and other slang will sound too colloquial and
inappropriate. It may also contribute to an ethos that
you dont want to projecta presenter who hasnt control over his/her language and
doesnt respect the audience.

6. CONSIDER YOUR PLAN OF ENGAGEMENT. Presentations are collaborative. After all,
youre not talking to a brick wall, but to a living audience. You want your audience to
work with you. You may want to try to get them involved so that they can care about
your work: this might mean asking them questions or interacting with them (asking a
question, pointing out something about the audience, etc.).

7. BE PREPARED. On the day of the presentation, you should appear at the location
early (at least 5 minutes). Give yourself time to prepare your notes, run your
PowerPoint through one more time, and relax.

PowerPoint presentations with

video and audio files can
disappoint presenters who are
unprepared for complications.
Videos or audios that fail to play
can throw off the presenters
confidence and tarnish their ethos.
If presenters move the PowerPoint
file to another folder or a USB
memory stick, they should check
that the video and audio files are
moved and that their drive paths
are current. Always double check
to m ake sure that you moved all
linked files with your presentation.
Run your PowerPoint to see if it
works before a presentation and
that it is the correct version.

8. PLAN FOR NERVOUSNESS. If you know that your throat dries up when you speak,
bring a bottle of water. If your hands get sweaty, then bring a handkerchief and keep it
ready at hand.

9. MAKE CONTINGENCY PLANS. If the computer doesnt boot or your disk gets lost,
what will you do? Make plans ahead of time for potential problems.

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Common disasters and solutions:

Problem #1: File you downloaded from CourseWork doesnt seem to open/ is
corrupted/ or has mysteriously disappeared.

Solution: Save backups of your files on a USB key or disk and bring it with you on the day of the
presentation. Be sure to test them ahead of time to see that they work.

Problem #2: PowerPoint slideshow doesnt show the pictures that youve included.

Solution: Sometimes, the images you use are taken from Quicktime and other software. Be sure that you
are using .gif or .jpeg files, which are more universal and more likely to be in the computer that youre
opening your PowerPoint software.

Problem #3: PowerPoint slideshow doesnt show the fonts that youve used.

Solution: Remember that there are multiple versions of PowerPoint. Your version of PowerPoint is most
likely a more updated version than the one installed in the university computers (the universitys always
slower to upgrade than the consuming public!). Best solution is to use the standard fonts (such as
Garamond, Times Roman, Lucinda Sans, etc). rather than the fancy fonts that you might have in your
personal computer. If you really want to use the fancy fonts, then youll need to bring in your laptop and
plug it into the Webster or display screens available. Be sure to tell your instructor of your needs ahead of
your presentation date!

Problem #4: PowerPoint slideshow doesnt play the sounds/media file that youve
embedded.

Solution: There could be several reasons for this, but most likely, you didnt transfer the file with your
PowerPoint slideshow. If you have multiple media embedded into the PowerPoint slideshow, be sure you
have saved all of it into a USB key drive or CD as a folder for the slideshow and then transfer the folder to
the presentation computer. As in Problem #3, you might also give your presentation through your laptop,
but also be sure to notify your instructor of your intention as the adapters/extension cords, etc. might not
be available for you.

Problem #5: Mac users arrive in class and find out that they cant plug in their laptops
into the main presentation computer.

Solution: If you have a Mac, you should always bring your own adapter plugs (as this is a PC campus). You
will find this habit useful in the real world as most people use PCs and you cannot assume that they have
adapter plugs in the presentation rooms. For our class, you may either bring your own adapter plug or
tell the instructor ahead of time.

VIII. Common problems of PowerPoint usage (student comments)

BALANCING ORAL AND VISUAL ARGUMENT
I would say the most common problem with PowerPoint presentations was the overly scripted
moments.
I do think that mapping out the presentation is a problem for many powerpoint presenters. It
is hard to remember how important it is to reiterate your points over and over again.

The most common and also most annoying ppt problem is when people put large chunks of
text on slides and read directly off of them.

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[S]ome presenters change slides very quickly without giving the audience adequate time to
absorb all the visuals and synthesize the both the visual and auditory information.

The most common problem I see with PPT presentations is when the presenter is focused too
much on his slides and not enough on the audience. Other issues occur when the audience
cannot see the slides clearly, or when the audience is distracted by animations and excessive
pointer movement.

VISUAL DESIGN
I have seen many PPT that show the text of what the presenter is talking about, but have no
further insight into the presentation besides images.

The most common problem that I've seen is the lack of focus for slides. Too many slides have
multiple themes or ideas which can confuse the viewer.

The most common problem I see in powerpoint presentations is an uninspired format (hello,
template!) that is boring and does not convey anything extra.

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IX. POWERPOINT CHECKLIST

1. ____ Do you have effective means of transporting PowerPoint w/ backup?

2. ____ Have you paid attention to the size of font? (readability)

3. ____ Have you reviewed the color of your font?

4. ____ Can you explain the significance of the visuals as supporting evidence? (is it
explained in your performance?)

5. ____ Have you considered text size and whether it is clearly readable to the audience?

6. ____ Have you used animation and thought about how to effective use it for your
emphatic/timing points?

7. ____ Have you used audio files or other linked files (video)?

a. ____ Have you saved audio files in the same folder as your PowerPoint
presentation?
b. ____ Have you double-checked to see that all linked files work on your
PowerPoint?

8. ____ What is your presentation time? _________ Min ______ Sec

9. ____ Have you PRACTICED your speech with PowerPoint in front of a live audience?

10. ____ What are your back-up plans if your PowerPoint doesnt work?
___________________________________________________________

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Section 4

Rhetorical Devices in Advertising

RHETORICAL USE OF REPETITION, WORD ORDER,
WORD EFFECT, & AUDIENCE ADDRESS

Consider using these devices to enhance your oral
delivery.

REPETITION

Alliteration: the repetition of the same sound beginning several words in sequence.

Ex. 1. Sparrow Guitar.
2010 ad campaign.
Copy: Stop playing games. Start playing guitar.

Ex. 2. Altoids.
Background: 2004 ad campaign for Apple sours
Headline: Good Fruit Gone Bad.
Slogan: The Curiously Strong Sours.


Anadiplosis: the repetition of the last word (or phrase)
from the previous line, clause, or sentence at the
beginning of the next.

Ex. SpringHill Suites. Marriott hotels.
Background: 2004 ad campaign.

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Headline: Office Suite with bedroom? Or bedroom suite with office?

Anaphora: the repetition of a word or phrase at the
beginning of successive phrases, clauses or lines.


Headline: Get going. Get it scanned in. Get it printed. Get
everybody on the same page. Get it digitized. Get
connected. Get it done.
Slogan: Geststetner gets it done.
(notice alliteration and assonance in the slogan)



Antistrophe (also called epistrophe): the repetition of the
same word or phrase at the end of successive phrases,
clauses, or sentences.

Ex. 1. DHL: shipping company.
Background. 2004 ad campaign.

Headline: The Roman Empire. The British Empire. The Fedex Empire. Nothing lasts forever.
Slogan: We move the world.

Ex. 2. UBS: Wealth Management Corporation.
Background: 2007 ad campaign.
Headline: You & Us. Where the global economy meets your economy.

Assonance: Repetition of similar vowel sounds preceded or followed by different consonants.
Ex. 1 Gap body.
Background: 2004 ad campaign.
Headline: Reveal how you feel.

Epanalepsis: Repetition at the end of line, phrase, clause of the word/text that began at the
beginning of the line, phrase, clause.

Ex. Mercedes Benz SLK 350.
Background: 2004 ad campaign.
Headline: 0 80. billion stars with a push of a button.
(notice in the second line the alliteration and consonancefinal consonants repeat.)

Homoioptoton: Repetition of similar case endings in adjacent words or words in parallel
position.

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Ex. 1. Charles Schwarz.
Background: 2007 ad campaign.
Headline: Big account. Small account. They all count.
(Note the difference between this figure of repetition and antistrophe, which requires the
repetition of the same word at the end of each clause).

WORD ORDER/SYNTAX

Antithesis: opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction.

Ex. 1. Acura cars.
Background: 2007 ad campaign.
Headline: Its an arrival. Its a departure.

Ex. 2. Jeep cars.
Background: 2004 ad campaign.
Headline: Equally capable on natural . . .or artificial turf. All new Jeep Grand Cherokee. The
off-road legend continues . . . on-road.

Asyndeton: lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases clauses, or words. [It looks like
commasplices].

Ex. Lancome products (personal care).
Background: 2004 ad campaign for Hair Sensation Force Densit
Headline: Thickens, revitalizes, a newfound youth for your hair.

Climax: cumulative arrangement of words, phrases or clauses in an order of ascending power.
Often the emphatic word in one phrase or clause is repeated as the first emphatic word of the
next.

Ex. 1. Citibank.
Background: 2007 ad campaign.
Headline: Dreams are good. Realities are better.

WORD EFFECT

Euphemism: substitution of an agreeable or at least non-offensive expression for one whose
plainer meaning might be harsh or unpleasant.

Ex. Midol pharmaceutical company.
Background: 2004 ad campaign for Midol Menstrual Complete.
Slogan: Get Midol. Get on with it.
(notice the anaphora)

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Homophone: Two or more words that are pronounced the same but have the different
meaning.

Ex. Best Western hotels.
Background: 2004 ad campaign.
Headlines: Peace of mind: Best Rates. Pice de rsistance: double miles or points.

Hyperbole: exaggeration for emphasis or for rhetorical effect.

Ex. 1 Avacor hair loss product.
Background: 2004 radio ad campaign.
Headline: Avacor is the product of the twenty-first century.

Litotes: understatement, for intensification, by denying the contrary of the thing being
affirmed.

Ex. Jeep Grand Cherokee.
Background: 2004 ad campaign.
Headline: Sometimes the road ahead is paved with anything but good intentions. [image of
car driving down a road with a row of yellow warning signs illustrating bumps, deer, rolling rock,
crosswalk, men at work, and swerving road]

Metaphor: implied comparison achieved through a figurative use of words; the word is used
not in its literal sense, but in one analogous to it.

Ex. 1. Starbucks coffee company.
Background: 2004 ad campaign.
Headline: Sometimes the coffee stirs you.

Ex. 2. Kiwi Shoe Polish.
Background: 2004 ad campaign.
Headline: Hey. A topical cream that really does
make you more attractive.
[the only topical cream that does this, of course,
is the shoe polish]

Simile: an explicit comparison using like or as.

Ex. Vault Energy Drink.
Background: 2006 ad campaign.
Slogan: Drinks like a soda. Kicks like an energy
drink.

Paraprosdokian: surprise or unexpected ending of a phrase or series.

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Ex. A.G. Edwards. Financial consultants.
Background: 2004 ad campaign.
Headline: When a financial consultant is free to commit fully to a clients happiness and
satisfaction, an interesting thing happens: Happiness and satisfaction.

Syllepsis: the repetitive use of a word with two others, with each of which it is understood
different.

Ex. Discovery Channel, The Greatest American broadcast. Headline: Walt Disney: Changed
the world with a mouse. Bill Gates: Changed the world with a mouse.

AUDIENCE ADDRESS

Aporia: expression of doubt (often feigned) by which a speaker appears uncertain as to what
he should think, say, or do. Also known as the rhetorical question.

Ex. Chrysler car company.
Background: 2004 ad campaign for Chrysler 300C.
Headline: Can inspiration lead to something totally unexpected? Yes. Can the American
sports sedan be reborn? Yes. And can HEMI power arrive with such style for under 33K?
Absolutely.

Apostrophe: a sudden turn from the general audience to address a specific group or person or
personified abstraction absent or present.

Ex. Diamond industry.
Background: 2004 ad campaign (A diamond is forever.)
Headline: This anniversary show her you actually do pay attention. Hey, were talking to
you.


A. Identify the following sentences with the proper names of the rhetorical devices in
each sentence:

1. Its not an SUV. Its an SUVW
--2012 VW Touareg ad campaign.
2. Love is blind. But lust is 20-20.
Cadillac CTS Coupe, 2012 campaign; headline in ad.
3. If a tender moment turns into the right moment . . . will you be ready?
Cialis prescription medicine; headline in ad.

B. Rhetorical Challenge: Incorporate at least THREE rhetorical devices in your next oral
presentation (not counting alliteration). Consider using rhetorical devices in your ad
campaign.
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Section 5

Public Speaking Guidelines and Tips

Art of Public Speaking

Public speaking is a skill that is learned. Moreover, it is an art that involves argumentative
strategy, thoughtful planning, and understanding of audience. This handout provides some
strategies for organizing and delivering persuasive public arguments.

Please read through the handout carefully, make annotations to highlight ideas or points that
might be valuable for you or questions that you might have for me in class.

OVERVIEW

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Types of speeches
Basic outline
Purpose of the Introduction in public speaking
Introduction and opening statements
Vocalize transitions
Citing material
Closing statement
Presentation ethos

I. TYPES OF SPEECHES

Judicial oratory (also called forensic oratory)Speeches which originally aimed to accuse or
defend based on evidence. Commonly used by lawyers in the courtroom in their opening or
closing statements.

Informative oratory is a sub-category under judicial oratory, providing information in order to
instruct, explain, define, clarify, demonstrate, or teach something to a given audience. This is
the most common type of oratory given by most academic, scientific, and technical
professionals. You can see it as a form of defensea defense for a certain way of thinking
about something; a defense of the way in which you reported the evidence. It includes various
formats (conference presentations, product updates, design reviews, procedural information,
lectures, and campaign speeches).

In this class, well be exploring various types of oratory, but you will be primarily practicing
informative oratory in your PWR assignments (analysis, proposal, and ad campaign
presentation).

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Deliberative oratory (also called legislative oratory)Speeches which aim to exhort or
dissuade audience in taking specific sort of (legislative) action based on evidence. Typically
used by politicians in the Senate for the passage of a bill; used by newspaper columnists and
other public speakers to opine on advantageousness or disadvantageousness of specific laws,
etc.

Epideictic oratory (also called ceremonial oratory)Speeches which aim to praise or blame
someone or something, usually in a ceremonial context. Memorial speeches, speeches at
weddings, political convention speeches all fit under this category. These speeches are more
formal as they mark an occasionbut it doesnt mean that it cant present an argument as
Frederick Douglass did in his famous speech, What to a Slave is the Fourth of July?

II. BASIC OUTLINE OF A PUBLIC SPEECH

INTRODUCTION
HOOK
TOPIC/CONTEXT
ARGUMENT
OUTLINE
*major transition to first point*

ARGUMENT POINT #1
1. Example/evidence A
*minor transition*
2. Example/evidence B
*major transition to second point*

ARGUMENT POINT #2
1. Example/evidence C
*minor transition*
2. Example/evidence D
*major transition to conclusion*

CONCLUSION
REVIEW argument by re-presenting major points
RE-HOOK: Closing statement for the audience (lasting sticky point to remember).
BIBLIOGRAPHY (optional as slide)

III. PURPOSE OF THE INTRODUCTION IN PUBLIC SPEAKING
The purpose of an introduction is twofold: first, to interest and engage your audience in your
topic and second to tell your reader what to expect in your argument. This is true regardless to
the medium, whether you are writing an academic essay, writing a piece of investigative
journalism, or giving a business presentation to an audience of prospective investors!

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In an academic paper, your introduction usually leads us to your focused thesis, unraveling the
logic of your argument. It may follow this sequence:
1) identify the topic,
2) establish discursive context (debates surrounding the issue),
3) make analytical observations and define an area of inquiry,
4) introduce the problem,
5) articulate a thesis.

An introduction given in a speech follows a similar pattern (context, observation, thesis)
although it will have different engagement strategies. This is primarily due to

1) the immediate feedback that rhetors can get when they give speeches. Speakers (rhetors)
take advantage of the fact that they have a living audience whom they can interact with,

2) the rhetorical situation (time, place, and types of people) which plays a critical role in the
tone and strategy of the opening.

III. INTRODUCTION AND OPENING STATEMENTS

Your introduction should consider the following four things:

1. HOOK: Get the audiences attention and engage them (the hook)
2. CONTEXT: Orientate the audience to your topic
3. THESIS/ARGUMENT: Concisely present your argument
4. MAP: Tell your audience how you will use their time and how youre thinking through
your argument during the presentation

HOOK: Get the audiences attention

STUDENT TIP:

How does one convey content and have it resonate with the audience? To begin, one of
the most used and abused ways that presenters engage the audience is through a
cheesy hook. That said, a good hook is an excellent tool to gain audience engagement.
I have learned a good hook must clearly be relevant to the argument and not only
pleases the audience visually or orally but also emotionally. The relevance of the hook is
critical. As we have learned by analyzing advertisements, a clear and succinct message
will drive a message home. Therefore, it is best to avoid non relevant components in your
presentation.

Student, PWR 2-06, Fall
2005

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A. Audience: The hook is whatever will draw your particular audience in to your
topic.

First, you will need to evaluate and determine how you want to address your
audience based on who they are (age, gender, ethnicity, religion, status, etc.).
Your appeals and strategies are determined by this audience.

Second, you will need to anticipate how they will feel toward your subject. Will
they agree, disagree, or not care? Structure your words and your introductory
style accordingly.

B. Engagement: The hook requires the engagement of the audiences attention.
Remember, the best hooks are ones which successfully build a common interest
between the speaker (rhetor) and the audience.

C. Relevance: The best hooks are well-integrated part of the argument. It may
feature or demonstrate the main argument or concept of your presentation.
Hooks, for instance, may reveal audience biass or common misperceptions in
order to guide them toward the speakers own position on the topic.

Based on what you know about your audience you might do the following at the
beginning of your presentation:

1) Poll your audience or a group of people with a question related to your topic.
This could be an effective way of finding out what your audience knows about
your topic already and also getting them interested in it.

2) Interview select members of the audience to gain insight into the views of the
group. This might mean that you call out specific people and ask them specific
questions. You might also call them out to demonstrate something with them in
front of the audience.

3) Tell a story, joke, anecdote related to your topic. A personal story might get
people interested in knowing how your got interested in the topic (thus gaining
their trust). A joke, perhaps about popular misconceptions, might familiarize the
audience to the topic and also reveal the fallacy in the misconception. A story
(real or fictional) might provide emotional appeal.

4) Present a visual illustrating something compelling that you might want to talk
about or that you might want the audience to react to and discuss.

5) Quiz your audience. You might pass out a sheet with questions which you will
then answer once you reviewed them. Usually, this is done when you anticipate
the your audience does not know much about a particular subject or when you

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wish to surprise your audience about the way the audience thinks.

6) Demonstrate your idea. One student distributed scent flaps used by perfume
ads to make the case about the lingering and memorable argument that
advertisers must make.

CONTEXT: Orientate your audience to your topic by relating significance

After your hook, you should provide your audience with the context of your
topic. Like the academic introduction, you will be providing your audience with a
way to approach (or think/feel about) your topic. By contextualizing your
argument briefly, you put your audience in the frame of mind to be more
susceptible to your argument.
Here are some approaches:

1) historical contextrelate the history of the topic or issue in order to help the
audience understand the rhetors argument.

2) factual contextrelate a list of pertinent and specific facts about the topic.
(Facts can be statistical, legislative, anecdotal etc.)

3) situational/phenomenal contextrelate phenomena related to the topic.

THESIS: Present your argument

Like your written thesis, your spoken thesis should succinctly tell the audience
your argumentative stance on the topic/issue.

MAP: Tell your audience how you will use their time (preview, overview)

When you communicate with your audience about the plan of argument, you are
doing more than laying out the schedule. Youre letting them know what they
can expect and giving them the opportunity to think with you about the issue
and engage with your ideas.

Prepare your audience for your argument by giving a brief outline of the high
points you will be making.

V. VOCALIZING TRANSITIONS

The listening audience has a shorter memory. This is why good speeches often have
repetitive phrases (anaphoras and antistrophes in particular) so that people can remember
the emphatic point.

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If you have more than one point to make about how you will prove your argument, you
should provide clear transitions between main points.

Major transitions between main points should give the audience clear signals of the
shift from topic to topic and may require an explanatory transitional sentence. Heres a
sample sentence: Now that youre familiar with the current state of technology and
privacy in the United States, lets look at examples of everyday interactions where your
privacy might be compromised (Gurak, 95). This transition summarizes (and reminds)
audience of what has just been argued and prepares the audience for what to expect
from the speaker in his next argumentative section.

Minor transitions between subpoints or evidence may require less dramatic transitions
and signal sequence (first, second, third, next, etc.).

V. CITING MATERIAL

Plagiarism in writing occurs when the rhetor uses words or ideas by another person and
does not give credit to the source. Plagiarism in oratory happens in the same way. Not
only is this a serious academic offense, it is unethical. As in writing, public speeches
(whether given to a small group or to a large audience) should include 1) proper citation
through in-text citations and 2) full bibliographic information.

1. In-text citation of ideas/words: In-text citations can be made when you verbalize
the source. For instance, you might say:

According to a poll monitored by AdCritic E-Mail, . . .
Several articles indicate . . .
To quote Albert Einstein, . . .
Newspaper responses to the advertisement suggests . . .

In-text citation of visuals work in the same way. You can say:

Appearing in Vogue magazines July issue of 2001, . . .

2. Bibliographic information: Your PPT slide can include a full citation reference to the
source, especially if it is a visual. The citation should be on the final slide of the
slideshow or in a citation handout.

VI. CLOSING STATEMENT

NEVER UNDERESTIMATE THE VALUE OF A MEMORABLE CLOSING STATEMENT.

The conclusion is as important as the introduction because they both frame the argument of

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the presentation with an overview. While in the introduction you provided a preview of the
argument, the conclusion provides a review of the argument. While the introduction provides
hook to capture the audiences attention, the conclusion attempts to re-hook the audience
to the importance of the message.

The conclusion gives the audience a reason to care about your message/argument/information
and to do something about it (accept the design, approve the report, vote for the bill, etc.). In
reference to the language of good political speeches, Jonathan Alter wrote that they
resemble closing arguments where the case builds slowly to a devastating conclusion (Alter,
27). It is a conclusion that makes the argument/case seem overwhelming logical and
reasonable, thus persuasive.

Conclusion strategy:

Review argument by re-presenting major points/ideas (looking back)
Re-hook the audience by giving the audience a lasting point to remember (looking forward)
Bibliography (optional)


Tip: In most student conclusions, the audience is provided with a one-sentence summary of
what was argued and then one sentence "pitch" that made the argument memorable. While
this is a good start, usually these endings are abrupt (too short) and doesn't allow for full
emotional impact. In the Proposal and Final presentation, you should think about making that
concluding argument much more substantial by elaborating and expanding on your "vision" or
the significance of the project. That is, provide a section that looks back (summary of
argument) and then looks forward (whats at stake, what would happen if your vision was
accepted). You can follow this section with a strong, memorable one-liner using rhetorical
devices.

WORKS CITED
Jonathan Alter, The Art of the Closing Argument, Newsweek 19 July 2004, 27.
Laura Gurak, Oral Presentations for Technical Communication Boston and London: Allyn and
Bacon, 2000.

VII. PRESENTATION ETHOS

One of the most influential (although often overlooked) component of oral presentation is
ethos. ETHOS is about how you project your knowledge of the material, your composure and
preparedness in the presentation, and your professionalism (the level of which depends on the
rhetorical situation). Ethos, thus, is effected by how you speak, how you dress, how you
present your stage self, your stage presence. Ethos influences not only your credibility as a
speaker but also how much your audience will take interest in your talk. Former PWR 2 student
Alex Selig has the following succinct suggestions for building ethos:

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A good hook is not enough. Once youve got your audience engaged, you must then rely
on the fundamentals of an argument. One of these fundamentals is ethos. Without
credibility on stage it is hard to get an audience to PAY attention to you. They do not
want to invest their time and effort into understanding what your saying if they think
you do not know what you are talking about. With strong ethos people will listen to
what you have to say and give you the attention you deserve.
After watching many presentations in this class, I realize that ethos can be built in many
ways. However, there appear to be three key fundamental ways to building ethos. The
first way it can be built is with strong factual evidence (it's hard to argue with the facts).
The second method one can use is stage presence (how you talk, project, dress, and
move). Finally one can build ethos by capitalizing on emotional appeal.

FINAL TIPS FOR DELIVERING EFFECTIVE PRESENTATIONS:

1. TRIM ARGUMENT TO FIT THE TIME LIMIT: Depending on your assignment, you have 5
or 10 minutes to give a presentation, so you will need to adjust the amount of material
in the introduction, body, and conclusion to fit the time frame. Pay attention to what
youre leaving in and what you are cutting out. Start with the body first and identify the
most crucial information/point first. You may need to cut out a piece of evidence in
order to spend more time on a crucial point. The remaining time should be spent on
introduction and conclusion. Be sure to practice the ENTIRE presentation several times
and watch your pacing (you should not be racing through the presentation).

2. MAP YOUR ARGUMENT BY EXPLAINING YOUR METHODOLOGY: As you develop your
introduction, be sure that you have a clear argument that stresses the methodology of
your approach: that is, you need to relate HOW you will prove that certain advertising
strategies are being applied to appeal to the audience. This is, after all, the crux of your
presentation, so you need to make sure that this point is central in your thesis (recall
the thesis you wrote for an essay). If you primarily focus on layout and color usage, then
your methodology will be an examination how layout and color strategies shape the
appeals that you are arguing.

3. SIGNAL TOPIC POINTS: When presenting your argumentative points it should be
articulated structurally like a paragraph. The major point that you make is like the topic
sentence--you will be stating that HOW you intent to prove something (for instance, you
might explain how "layout" strategies supports your thesis.) Once you articulate this
point, you can pinpoint various aspects of layout that does function to draw the
audience in, etc.

4. USE SIGNPOST LANGUAGE: Avoid just listing (or pointing to) evidence of various kinds -
- this will make it very difficult for the audience to follow. Remember that you need to
help the audience/listeners categorize their thoughts so that they will be convinced of
your argument. This means that you need to subordinate and prioritize information

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accordingly.

5. USE VISUAL LANGUAGE: Increase your ratio of images to words. Increase the amount
of images youll use to illustrate or demonstrate your oral point.

6. FOCUS ON SIMPLICITY. Some words by a student: Oral presentations need to
engage the audience from the get-go; there is often little to no room to warm the
audience up with an introduction, since this is at the expense of losing their interest.
Furthermore, oral presentations must be designed so that the audience can follow the
information piece by piece, here, even more so than the written medium, simplicity and
strong organization are a must.

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