Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Albertin - The Time For Depth Imaging
Albertin - The Time For Depth Imaging
Albertin - The Time For Depth Imaging
Uwe Albertin
Jerry Kapoor
Richard Randall
Mart Smith
Houston, Texas, USA
Gillian Brown
Chris Soufleris
Phil Whitfield
Gatwick, England
Fiona Dewey
Wintershall Noordzee BV
The Hague, The Netherlands
Jim Farnsworth
BP
Houston, Texas
Gary Grubitz
BHP Billiton
Houston, Texas
Mark Kemme
Clyde Petroleum Exploratie BV
The Hague, The Netherlands
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Ian Anstey,
Robert Bloor, George Jamieson, Patrick Ng and Erick Zubay,
Houston, Texas, USA; and Mark Egan, Gatwick, England.
1. Fold is the number of source-receiver pairs whose signals constitute a trace.
stacking, which markedly improved signal-tonoise ratio. In the 1960s, digital data acquisition
and processing were introduced, replacing earlier
analog and optical methods. This created major
improvements in the quality of seismic data and
led to many new discoveries worldwide.
Throughout the 1970s, digital data and twodimensional (2D) surveys became common.
Together, these technologies opened up the
North Sea and other challenging areas. Timebased processing was standard, but 2D poststack
depth migration was introduced and tested. The
first small three-dimensional (3D) surveys
were acquired over developed fields to improve
reservoir delineation. In the 1980s, 3D surveys
gained wide acceptance in the industry and
transformed the exploration business. Trace
attributes and bright spots were used as seismic
indicators of hydrocarbons.
By the 1990s, seismic contractors routinely
acquired 3D exploration data over vast portions of
the worlds continental shelves. Three-dimensional poststack time migration evolved to
become standard practice, reducing finding costs
to their current levels; and 3D prestack depth
migration was introduced for particular cases.
Today, many operators wont drill without 3D data
over their prospects, and in the areas of highest
risk, wont drill without prestack depth imaging.
Currently, depth imaging is creating exploration opportunities in regions that were considered too risky just a few years ago. This
technique is helping explorationists generate
new subsalt prospects in the deepwater Gulf of
Mexico and discover new reserves in the North
Sea that were unimaginable using conventional
time-processed data.
Oilfield Review
1920
Single-fold
analog shooting
1930
1940
1950
Multiple-fold common
depth-point stacking
Discoveries
around
salt domes
Digital data
acquisition
and processing
4
Hyperbolic
curve
Two-way time
+ Stacking
velocity
1960
2D surveys
1970
3D surveys
1980
Subsalt prestack
depth migration
1990
Multiclient 3D prestack depth imaging
2000
Spring 2002
Introduction to Imaging
Imaging is the process that brings seismic reflections into focus at their proper positions. It consists of two main elementsstacking and
migration. Stacking increases signal-to-noise
ratio by summing records obtained from several
seismic shots reflecting at the same point. The
simplest case to illustrate is a flat layer of uniform
velocity overlying the reflector. Traces from several source-receiver pairs, centered on the reflection point but separated by different distances, or
offsets, are gathered together (below). The variation in arrival time with offset is called moveout.
The shape of the arrival times plotted against offset defines a hyperbola. Before the gather can be
stacked, the traces must be shifted to align
arrivals. The offset-versus-time parameter that
describes the shifts defines the stacking velocity
of that layer. The result of stacking is a single
tracethe enhanced version of a signal that
would have been recorded for a normalincidence, or zero-offset, shot at the midpoint of
the source-receiver pairs.
The second ingredient in imagingmigrationuses a velocity model to redistribute
reflected seismic energy from its assumed position at the midpoint to its true position (next page,
top left). One of the several classes of migration
may be chosen depending on the complexities of
the target and overburden structures. Simple
Offset 4
Offset 3
Offset 2
Offset 1
Zero offset
Two-way time
Offset
2
3
Offset
4
Hyperbolic
curve
With
stacking
velocity
Stacked
CDP
> Stacking traces from a common depth-point (CDP) gather. Traces from several source-receiver pairs at different offsets from the common depth point are
collected to form a CDP gather (left). Gathered traces are displayed in coordinates of time versus offset (center), in which the shape of reflection arrivals
from a flat reflector defines a hyperbola. The arrivals are shifted into alignment using a stacking velocity, or offset-versus-time relationship, and stacked
(right), or summed, to create a single trace with higher signal-to-noise ratio than that of any of the original traces.
Oilfield Review
Migrated
trace
Source
Midpoint
trace
Receiver
Simple velocities + simple structure = poststack
time migration
Original
data
Salt
Increasing velocity
MIG
> Simple and complex velocity models and structures treated by four migration classestime, depth,
prestack and poststack. Poststack models are on the left and prestack models are on the right. Models
appropriate for time-based migration are on the top, and depth-based models are on the bottom. For
time migration, the velocity model may have smooth variations, but only with depth, and only monotonicallyalways increasing with depth, never decreasing. Depth migration is required for more complex
velocity models, such as those with lateral variation or decreases of velocity with depth. Poststack
migration works with models of low structural complexity. Prestack migration can handle even the
most complex models.
layer-by-layer basis. An initial model is constructed from the most suitable data available,
then updated through several iterations of
prestack depth migration for each layer. The initial velocity model can be constructed using all
the available information, such as stacking velocities, time-interpreted horizons and velocities
from borehole data. Stacking and borehole velocities can show representative velocity trends,
which should be taken into account in the model.
When the structure is not too complex, the
entire velocity model can be updated and constructed layer by layer rather quickly. In more
complex cases, the velocity analyst defines
blocks or other volumes bounded by faults or
intrusions, then builds the model for each block
layer by layer.
In areas where geology is more continuous,
such as in the Gulf of Mexico, a continuous sediment-velocity model is defined using either
tomography or local velocity updating. Once the
sediment velocity is defined, salt bodies are
inserted after their positions are determined
using several iterations of depth migration.
In areas where anisotropy is an important factor, significant differences may appear between
borehole-based velocities, which typically represent velocities in the vertical direction, and
stacking velocities, which represent horizontal
velocities. These differences must be accounted
for by introducing anisotropy into the velocity
model. More discussion on depth migration
in anisotropic velocity fields appears later in
this article.
Collaboration between operator and service
company can facilitate successful velocity model
building. Operating company interpreters often
have better knowledge and expectations of the
subsurface, and can help interpret layer boundaries and salt features for the velocity model.
Service company staff, with their knowledge of
processing, incorporate these interpretations to
help create the model for depth migration.
Spring 2002
Cumulative discoveries
Barges
50
Jackups
Semisubmersibles
40
Hydrocarbon indicators
3D seismic, deepwater
30
Deepwater, subsalt
20
10
0
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
2010
Year
Prestack processing
Lake Charles
Analyze velocities
Houston
New Orleans
C
A
Discovery wells
Older wells
Salt
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Crazy Horse
Mars
Crazy Horse North
Ursa
Atlantis
Mad Dog
Mahogany
Llano
> Recent deepwater Gulf of Mexico discoveries, with many occurring near salt bodies. Large recent
discoveries have estimated reserves in the hundreds of millions of barrels. Several of these have been
discovered with the help of prestack depth imaging.
Update
velocity
model
Analyze
migration
velocities
Define salt
geometry
F
GULF OF MEXICO
3D prestack
migrate
on fine grid
3D prestack
migrate on
sparse grid or
depth window
3D prestack
depth migrate
entire volume
for final image
Oilfield Review
> Comparison of time migration and depth migration in the Green Canyon area of the Gulf of Mexico. The time migration (left) shows two
salt bodies, each uplifting and doming the overlying sediments. The salt body on the left has a domed top and a flat base, and
creates a shadow beneath. The one on the right seems to be in two pieces: a floating salt pillow has detached from the dome below.
Prestack depth imaging (right) retains the general shape of the body on the left, although its base is now sloping. However, the depth imaging reveals layers beneath, which were shadowed in the time migration. The salt intrusion on the right has a completely different shape
when depth migrated. Instead of rising in an anticlinal structure, sediments are truncated along the flanks of an hourglass-shaped salt body.
Spring 2002
salt to be smooth, or structurally simple, the velocities of the overburden can be used in a poststack
depth migration to obtain an image of the top of
salt. If the top of salt is rough, or structurally complex, prestack depth migration should be applied.
After the top of salt is imaged and interpreted, the velocity model is updated by filling
the volume below the salt top with a uniform salt
velocity. With this new velocity model, the
volume is again prestack depth migrated, and the
bottom of salt comes into focus.
Applying the correct migration technique can
bring surprising changes to the seismic image.
Interpretation of one time-migrated section from
the Green Canyon area of the Gulf of Mexico
shows two anticlinal structures created by salt
Oilfield Review
54
K10
K13
53
NORTH
SEA
Ijmuiden
The
Netherlands
52
South
North
South
North
Turning-ray reflection
Constant velocity
Varying velocity
Salt
Spring 2002
> Imaging under a Gulf of Mexico salt overhang with time and depth migration.
Poststack time migration (left) manages to image the north side of a salt diapir, but
the southern side is lost in a shadow created by an overhang. By including turning
rays (inset) and rays that pass through the salt, prestack depth migration (right)
images the steeply dipping layers and the overhang on the south side of the intrusion.
Rotliegend sandstone
> Comparison of depth migrations with simple and complex velocity models. Depth migration for an earlier
project used a simple velocity model, and produced an unclear image of the top of the Rotliegend sandstone under a complex fault (left). Depth migration with the newer, more detailed velocity model gives a
much clearer image of the potential reservoir interval (right).
10
Oilfield Review
Time Imaging
Depth Imaging
> Complex Rotliegend structure revealed by depth imaging. A disrupted interval in the time-migrated
section (left) is difficult to interpret. In the depth-migrated image (right), this becomes identifiable as a
pop-up of the Rotliegend formation.
Q4
Q5
in
as
Coastline
Q8
sB
Q7
en
rte
ou
dF
oa
Br
54
No inversion
Low reservoir risk
Basin margin terrace
Low reservoir risk
Inverted terrace
Moderate reservoir risk
Deeply inverted terrace
High reservoir risk
Basin axis, maximum
burial and inversion
Very high reservoir risk
Gas
53
NORTH
SEA
52
Q4 Q5
Q7 Q8
Ijmuiden
The
Netherlands
Spring 2002
11
In-line
3600
0
3800
4000
4200
4400
4600
4800
5000
5200
5400
5600
5800
6000
6200
SW
6400
NE
500
1000
1500
Zone
1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 4
Zone 5
Depth, m
2000
2500
3000
3500
Tertiary
4000
Chalk
Lower Cretaceous
4500
Upper Jurassic
Lower Jurassic
5000
Triassic
Permian
to interpret the target horizon in depth, for inclusion in the velocity model.
This procedure was iterated layer by layer
within each fault block until the base horizon had
been inserted into the velocity model. Then, the
final velocity model was used to generate a full
3D prestack depth-migrated volume on a 25-m by
25-m [82-ft by 82-ft] grid. Residual moveout
correction was performed, the data were
stacked, and appropriate poststack processing
was applied.
The new depth data showed notable improvements over the time-migrated data, and
increased the interpreters understanding of the
structural model and confidence in the fault positioning (next page, top). The prestack depth
migration enabled targeting of the second exploration well near a major fault without risk of
encountering a reduced reservoir section, and
revealed that the position of the fault was farther
to the west, increasing the reservoir volume. This
improved imaging also had a significant impact
on the interpretation of the eastern bounding
fault. Because of poor imaging of the traditionally migrated seismic data, this fault had been
imaged as an easterly dipping normal fault.
However, the superior resolution of the new
images shows that the reservoir-bounding fault
is actually a westerly dipping reverse fault,
adding an extra fault block of gas-bearing reservoir.
The updated structural interpretation resulted
in an increase of almost 50% in gas initially in
place (next page, bottom). Additionally, better
seismic definition decreased uncertainty in the
reserves estimate and allowed for detailed interpretation of faults within the reservoir, reducing
the risk of leaving compartments undrained.
The robust methodology followed throughout
the project allowed the construction of an accurate velocity model for this complex area. The
subsequent 3D prestack depth-migrated volume
provided a significant improvement in the quality
and confidence of the seismic image. As a result
of the improved seismic quality, not only did the
apparent volume of the structure increase significantly, but also the better data quality resulted
in a much more detailed interpretation of
intrareservoir faults. This allowed for more reliable planning for three to five future development wells. The Q4-A field came on-stream in
December 2000, only 212 years after the first
exploration well was drilled.
Pre-Permian flood
> Velocity model for the Q4 reservoir blocks. Steeply dipping faults laterally juxtapose contrasting velocities and place high-velocity layers on top of lower velocity layers. The red box
delineates the area of interest.
12
Oilfield Review
GWC
> Comparison of interpreted time- and depth-migrated seismic lines over the reservoir in the Q4 block. Interpretation of the time-migrated image (left)
shows a block of reservoir bounded on the west by a thrust fault (yellow), and on the east by an easterly dipping normal fault (black). Interpretation of the
depth-migrated image (right) changes the picture. The new interpretation raises the thrust fault (white line), adding volume to the reservoir on the west. The
normal fault on the east is no longer considered a bounding fault. The reevaluated reservoir boundary is a westerly dipping reverse fault (red), previously
not recognized. The approximate gas-water contact (GWC) is indicated.
Spring 2002
feet
6560
meters
2000
Q4-A
Q4-B
13
Time Imaging
Depth Imaging
10,000
2.2
Depth, ft
Time, msec
2.4
12,000
2.6
14,000
2.8
> A time-migrated (left) and depth-migrated section (right) from south Texas. In the time-migrated image, velocity complexities cause a false anticline
immediately to the left of the fault plane denoted by arrows. Also, the reflections on the left side of the fault appear to be broken and have less continuity than reflections on the right side of the fault. The depth-migrated section shows gently dipping and continuous structures in the fault shadow.
The false structural high seen in the time-migrated data has become smoother, and reflection continuity is improved.
14
Oilfield Review
10,736
10,000
Offset
12,000
Two-way time
12,464
Depth, ft
11,000
11,696
13,000
13,232
Anisotropic
Isotropic
14,000
14,000
> Depth-migration velocity model for south Texas survey, showing the fault
interpreted on seismic data.
Well top
Well top
> Prestack depth imaging in the North Sea with an isotropic (left) and an anisotropic (right) velocity model. Including 10% anisotropy in the velocity of the
overburden helps to produce a clearer image of the layers that are truncated against a salt intrusion and produces a better depth match to well data.
Spring 2002
15