Human intelligence[edit]

Main article: Human intelligence

Human intelligence is the intellectual capacity of humans, which is characterized
by perception, consciousness, self-awareness, and volition. Intelligence enables humans to
remember descriptions of things and use those descriptions in future behaviors. It gives
humans the cognitive abilities to learn, form concepts, understand, and reason, including the
capacities to recognize patterns, comprehend ideas, plan, problem solve, and
use language to communicate. Intelligence enables humans to experience and think.
Note that much of the above definition applies also to the intelligence of non-human animals.

Twin studies
Numerous studies have used monozygotic (identical) twins and dizygotic
(fraternal) twins to get a sense of how strongly heredity affects IQ. Because
monozygotic twins begin as a single fertilized egg which then separates, they are
genetically equivalent human beings. In contrast, dizygotic twins are conceived
as two separate fertilized eggs. They share about 50 percent of their genetic
makeup, with the other 50 percent being unique to each twin. If identical twins
have more similar IQ scores than fraternal twins, we can reasonably conclude
that heredity influences intelligence.
Most twins are raised together by the same parent(s) and in the same home,
and so they share similar environments as well as similar genes. Yet even when
twins are raised separately (perhaps because they have been adopted and raised
by different parents), they typically have similar IQ scores (Bouchard & McGue,
1981; N. Brody, 1992; Mackintosh, 1998; Plomin & Petrill, 1997). In a review of
many twin studies, Bouchard and McGue (1981) found these average (median)
correlations:
Correlations of Twins
IQs:
Identical twins raised in the same
home
.86
Identical twins raised in different
homes

.72

Fraternal twins raised in the same .60

home

The correlation of .72 indicates that identical twins raised in different

environments tend to have very similar IQ scores. In fact, these twins are more
similar to each other than are fraternal twins raised in the same home. 4

How Does Heredity and Environment Influence

Intelligence?

There are many claims, opinions, and arguments about

where intelligence comes from - is it from our genetic
heritage, or is it a consequence of the environment and
our experiences? Below are some research findings and
compelling arguments about how our genes and our
society influence intelligence.
Genetic Influences on Intelligence
Research findings confirming that intelligence is a byproduct of our heredity revolves around finding specific
genetic markers and associating IQ levels of parents and
siblings.
Genetic markers on intelligence are believed to be found
in chromosomes 4, 6 and 22. The genetic marker in
chromosome 6 appears in 1/3 of children with high IQ,
and only 1/6 of children with average IQs.
Identical twins appear to possess more similar IQ levels
than fraternal twins. Arthur Jensen in 1969 reviewed
research studies about intelligence and found that the IQ
levels of identical twins are 32% more similar than the IQ
levels of fraternal twins. He also found that the IQ levels
of identical twins reared together are just 11% more
similar than the IQ levels of identical twins reared apart.
Thus, Jensen concludes that the environment plays very
minimal role in developing intelligence.

Apart from looking at the intelligence of twins, parents'

intelligence also contributes to the genetic debate.
Research shows that the IQ of biological parents are more
predictive of the child's IQ than the IQ of the adoptive
parents.
Environmental Influences on Intelligence
Environmental influences come in different packages family, ethnicity, socio-economic status, gender, and
education.
The family has a critical role in elevating IQ scores.
Communication received during the first 3 years of life is
the primary predictor of Stanford-Binet IQ score at age 3.
Moreover, simply moving or exposing children to families
with better environments increases their IQs by 12 points.

Ethnicity also plays an influential role. On average, African

American schoolchildren score 10-15 points lower on
standardized tests than White American schoolchildren.
Also, only 15-25% of African American schoolchildren
scored higher than 50% of White American
schoolchildren. Additionally, African Americans are prone
to stereotype threat. In one study, 50% of African
American and White American students at Stanford
University were told that the verbal part of the Graduate
Record Examination (GRE) will be used to assess their
intellectual abilities, whereas the other 50% were told
that the test will be simply administered to establish its
reliability and validity. Both groups of White American
students scored similarly on the two scenarios. However,
African Americans scored better on the second scenario
than the first. The first scenario triggered a stereotype
threat. The African American students were pressured on
the first scenario, that how they'd score in the test might
confirm a negative stereotype about their ethnicity. As a
result of their anxiety, they performed worse than they'd
normally do.
The notion of intelligence also differs across cultures.
Europeans place emphasis on thinking and reasoning
skills; Kenyans on participation in family and community
activities; Ugandas on planning and execution; Iatmul
tribe in Papua New Guinea on remembering the names of
10-20,000 clan members; and tribes at the Caroline
Islands in the Pacific Ocean near eastern Philippines
cherish the ability to navigate land and sea by reading the
stars.

Socio-economic status is also very important. Having the

means and the resources gives a sense of security and
access to stimulating environments. Within a certain
ethnicity, those in the low SES scored significantly lower
than those in the middle and higher SES.
One's gender can also influence intelligence. On average,
males and females have similar IQ levels. However, males'
scores are more variable. Males specifically perform better
in spatial and abstract reasoning, while females tend to be
better at finding synonyms.
Lastly, and perhaps the most important of all, is
education. Intervention day care increases IQ score by 17
points at age 3, and 5 points by age 15. South African
Indian children lost 5 IQ points per year of schooling
delayed due to the unavailability of teachers. The gap
between African and White Americans on standardized
test scores is narrowing, especially in college, most likely
because of having similar educational environments. In
1999, James Flynn also discovered that the human race is
becoming more and more intelligent (also called the Flynn
Effect). In the ancient times, only adult priests can read;
nowadays, 7-year old children must already know how to
read.