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Research
Research
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3. Style 3
*The usual contents of Chapter 1 are presented.
*Chapter 2 consists of the relate literature and the theoretical framework is labelled at the end of chapter 2.
RESEARCH METHODS
Basic or Pure research conducted primarily to test or arrive at theory.
- its main objective is to establish general principles without known or intended practical
application of the findings.
- It is in search of knowledge for knowledges sake.
Applied research refers to the application of theory to the solution of problems.
- it is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory, and evaluating its usefulness.
Action research involves discovering an identifying a problem in the local setting, in the classroom for
example, and solving it in the same setting but without intention of generalizing its results.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH
History an integrated narrative of past events which aims at the critical search for the whole truth
- both science and art in that it involves research which is science and it employs a cohesive, masterful style of
narration is art.
- regarded as much more than just a chronicle of the impressive events of the past
- its data find applicable to contemporary issues and problems.
Values of Historical Research
1. Historical investigation help broaden our experiences and make us more understanding and appreciative
of our human nature and uniqueness.
2. History can assist us to determine possibly better ways of deciding and doing things.
Characteristics of Contemporary Historical Research.
1. Present historical investigations primarily aim for critical search for truth. (the actual events and the
conditions of the time are not violated, exaggerated, or distorted.
2. Contemporary researches in history are eclectic and pluralistics in approach. (reflect the view that there is
no single cause which can adequately explain a particular period or development)
3. Modern historical studies are aided by the use of a greater number of auxiliary sciences which expedite
the work of making external criticism of the sources. (stand a better chance of checking the authenticity
of their sources.)
Methods of Historical Research
1. Formulating problem
2. Gathering source materials
a. Classification of historical sources
Primary regarded as the source of the best evidence
Secondary information supplied by a person who was not a direct observer or participant of the
event, object, or condition.
b. Places where the sources are located.
c. Systematizing your note-taking
3. Criticizing your source materials
a. External Criticism involves finding out if the source material is genuine and if it possesses
textual integrity
b. Internal Criticism check the meaning of the words and statements made by the author and the
credibility of his statement.
1. Literal versus the real meaning of the authors statement
2. Competence of the author or observer
3. Testing for truthfulness and honesty
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4. Follow-up studies employed when you intend to investigate the subsequent development of
participants after a specified treatment or condition
5. Documentary Analyses involves gathering information by examining records and documents
6. Trend Analyses for study which seeks future status.
- employed in studies which aim to project the demand or needs of the people in the future.
7. Correlational Studies designed to help determine the extent to which different variables are related to
each other in population of interest.
Advantages of Descriptive Method
1. The logical use in studies aim towards information dissemination or in creating good public relations.
2. Lends itself appropriately to investigate which provide normative standards based on what is prevalent.
Disadvantages of Descriptive Method
1. it provide only limited information about the effects of the variables under study.
2. delicate and inconsistent actuation of the participants in the study.
Cautions
1. When describing a particular group of individuals in the population, include not only the characteristics
which are common to the group but also their unique traits as well.
2. The primary objective of descriptive method is to make use of the results to facilitate predictions or
control of some behaviors
3. Demands the use of statistical procedure =s to assure a level of confidence that the results are trustworthy.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
Experimental Method the only method of research which can truly test hypotheses concerning cause-andeffect relationship. (Gay 1976)
- represents the most valid approach to the solution of problems, both practical and theoretical.
Method of Difference the effect of a single variable applied to one situation can be assessed and the
difference determined (Mills canon or principle of research)
Steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
*Experimental study is guided by at least one hypothesis which states an expected causal relationship between
two variables.
*The researcher is in on the action from the very beginning
*The researcher forms or selects the group, decides what is going to happen to each group, tries to control all
other relevant factors besides the changes which he has introduced, and observes or measures the effect on the
groups at the end of the study.
*Typically involves two groups, an experimental group and a control group.
*Experimental group typically receives a new or novel, treatment under investigation, while the control group
either receives a different treatment, or is treated as usual..
*The two groups are to receive different treatments are equated all other variables which might be related to
performance on the dependent variable.
*After the groups have been exposed to the treatment for some period of time, the researcher administer a test of
the dependent variable and then determines whether there is a significant difference between the groups.
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4. The multi-testing prevents the incidence of maturation, testing and regression as threats to internal
validity.
5. If a group scores essentially the same on a number of pretests and then significantly improves following a
treatment, you have more confidence in the effectiveness of the treatment than if just one pretest is
administered.
6. History is still a problem, however, since something might happen between the last pretest and the first
post test, the effect of which might be confused with the treatment.
7. Determining the effectiveness of the treatment basically involves analysis of the pattern of the test scores.
8. A variation of the time-series design, which is referred to as the multiple time-series design. Involves the
addition of a control group to the basic design. This variation eliminates history and instrumentation as
threats to validity, and thus represent a design with no probable sources of internal invalidity.
Counterbalanced Designs
1. Another group of quasi-experimental designs, these refer to those that allow the subjects to try out all the
experimental treatments but in a different sequence.
2. They are sometimes called rotation experiments, cross-over designs, switch-over designs or Latin-square
designs.
3. Counterbalanced designs use only posttests.
4. They make use of three classifications: groups, time and treatments.
The Non-Equivalent Control Group Design
1. It is considered as one of the most widely used designs in educational research.
2. It consists of two groups, both pretested and post-tested but only one is given treatment.
3. It is commonly used in groups with participants naturally assembled such as those in classrooms. Two
classes are picked as the two groups.
Factorial Designs
1. Basically, these designs are extensions of the true experimental designs.
2. The term factorial means that two or more independent variables are being investigated, each variable
having two or more levels.
3. The purpose of a factorial design is to evaluate whether the effects of an experimental variable are
generalizable across all levels of a control variable or whether or not the effects are specific to specific
levels of the control variable. Moreover, the factorial design can tell if there is an interaction among
variables which a single-variable experiment cannot.
4. The 2 x 2 is the simplest factorial design.
5. Scores generated in the factorial designs of experiments are analyzed using the analysis of variance.
Analysis centers on the main and interaction effects of the variables.
EX POST FACTO RESEARCH OR CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE METHOD
Ex post facto means from after the fact (Gay 1976)
- the researcher investigates a problem by studying the variables in retrospect.
- It is a research in which the dependent variable is immediately observable and now your main
concern is to find out the antecedent that gave rise to this consequence.
- Systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent
variables because they are inherently not manipulable (Kerlinger 1973).
ALTERNATIVE RESEARCH METHOD
The methods considered here are the following:
1. Participatory Research Method
2. Indigenous Research Method
3. Ethnographic Research Method
Participatory Research Method (PR)
Segovia says that this method is difficult to define. In PR method, a problem is defined in terms of the people
who feel and think that it is a problem. It is the people themselves who develop their own theories and solutions to
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the problem. How they will go about solving the problem will depend on how they perceive it themselves and on
their resources which are available to enable them to solve it.
PR is people-oriented and focuses on the involvement of everyone touched by the problem from the planning
stage to the implementation and evaluation of the solutions.
Indigenous Research Method (IR)
This method questions the applicability and generalizability of western research methods. It recommends
instruments prepared in the country. Even response styles are locally oriented. Data gathering structures should be
consistent with Philippine reality. These structures should be consistent with Filipino psychology.
Ethnographic Research Method (ERM)
In a way ERM is related to indigenous research methods in the sense that local conditions are involved. But
ERM is a method that deeply concerns being very near the people being researched. The kind of information to
gather bears on the nature of information articulated by the subjects behavior.
This usually involves living in the place the research is going on. Jocano and his associates lived for 12 months
in an Ilocano village, Tagalog village, and in a Visayan village. They wanted to determine the ethnography of
rural life in those places. Other researchers have done the same method.
SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
1. Sampling is the process which involves taking part of a population, making observations on this
representative group, and then generalizing the findings to the bigger population.
2. Some minimum, acceptable sizes of a sample are as follows:
a. Descriptive research 10 percent of the population. For smaller populations, a minimum of 20 percent
may be required.
b.
Correlational research 30 subjects.
c.
Ex post facto or casual comparative research 15 subjects per group.
d. Experimental research 15 subjects per group. Some authorities believe that 30 per group should be
considered minimum.
3. Random sampling is a method of selecting a sample size from a universe such that each member of the
population has an equal chance of being included in the sample and all possible combinations of size have an
equal chance of being selected as the sample.
4. Two basic principles in random sampling are:
a. Equi-probability
b.
Independence
5. The table of random numbers is considered the most systematic technique for getting sample units at random.
6. The lottery fish bowl technique is another type of random sampling.
7. The lottery or fish bowl technique may use either sampling without replacement or sampling with replacement.
8. Systematic sampling is strategy for selecting the members of sample that allows only chance and a system to
determine membership in the sample.
9. Stratified sampling is a strategy for selecting samples in such a way that specific subgroups or strata will have
a sufficient number of representatives within the sample to provide ample numbers for subanalysis of the
members of these subgroups.
10. Cluster sampling refers to the selection of members of a sample rather than separate individuals. It is sampling
in which groups, not individuals, are randomly selected.
11. Non-random or judgment sampling is classified into: purposive sampling, quota sampling and convenience
sampling.
DATA COLLECTION METHOD
Preparing for data collection and outlining the various considerations we should make in choosing the methods
or types of data collection instrument.
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First, in determining what instrument to use for research, certain criteria are considered against which you
may judge its merit: reliability, validity, objectivity, sensitivity and feasibility.
Second, in test construction you should observe certain standards and procedure that will guide you in
developing effective instruments:
Step 1: Content Validation
Step 2: Face Validation
Step 3: First Trial Run
Step 4: Item Analysis
Step 5: Second Run or Final Test Administration
Step 6: Evaluation of the Test
Third, different data collection methods employ different standards and procedures so that it is highly
important for you to be familiar with the nature, usefulness and applicability of each of these methods.
1. The Observation Method. The use of observation guides increases reliability of data collected. These
come in the form of checklists, observational rating scale and the critical incident technique.
2. The Questioning Technique. Used most effectively in survey research, this makes use of objective tolls
such as the research interview, questionnaire, checklist/questionnaire, and also the critical incident
technique.
3. Objective Methods. These methods are supposed to have greater degree of objectivity in that scoring
items does not pose problems of consistency or homogeneity. These include the multiple-choice tests and
the scale type. Among the scale types are the rating scales, rank-order scales, Q-sort or Q-technique,
semantic differential, forced-choice technique and the paired-comparison scales.
Include also are the most frequently used attitude scales which are the Thurstone equal-appearing interval
scales, Likert type or summated rating scales and the Guttman Scales.
SELECTING APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
1. One of the more efficient and effective methods of analyzing your data in connection with your research
objectives is the use of statistical techniques.
2. In a study where a statistical approach is needed, the first requirement is that the statistical test you will
use is appropriate.
3. The choice of a statistical test is dictated by the questions, for which the research is designed, and the
level, distribution, and dispersion of data.
4. Secondary considerations are: the extent of your knowledge of statistics and the availability of resources
in connection with the computation and interpretation of data.
5. Three items in connection with the nature of raw data are: the level or scale of measurement under which
the raw data are classified, the distribution or shape of these data when organized as a group, and the
within scatter of the same data.
6. The data on both the dependent and independent variables may be classified under any one of the
following scales of measurement: nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio.
7. There are two general types of statistical tests: parametric and non-parametric.
8. The Z-test of one sample mean is used to determine if an obtained sample mean or average of scores or
values is but a random sample from a population with a given or hypothesized or expected population
mean.
9. The t-test for independent sample means is used to determine if an observed difference between the
averages of two independent groups is statistically significant.
10. The t-test for dependent sample means is used to determine if there is a significant difference between
two groups of correlated scores in terms of their means.
11. The one-way analysis of variance is used in order to determine if there are differences among means of
three or more groups.
12. The two-way analysis of variance, also called a factorial analysis of variance, is employed in order to
determine the main and interaction effects of two independent factors.
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13. When significant value yielded by the analysis of variance test (also called F-value) occurs, there is need
to do a posteriori tests in order to determine which means are different.
14. The Pearson Product Moment Correlation is employed when there are two sets of scores and you would
like to determine if the two sets are correlated.
15. The chi-square goodness-of-fit test tells if an observed frequency distribution on s variable differs
significantly from an expected or theoretical distribution of frequencies. The computation calls for data on
either the nominal or ordinal level.
16. The chi-square test of association is used to determine whether or not two variables are associated with
each other.
WRITING THE REPORT
1. Writing the thesis or dissertation will not be difficult if you had been making little notes in the form of a
log book about what happened from day to day in your study.
2. Moreover, you had written the proposal so that if you had really done a good job in writing it, the present
task will not be difficult.
3. You are advised not to stop writing after the investigation since if you do this you might not be able to
pick it up again.
4. The main purpose of the research report is to communicate to interested sectors the problem investigated,
the methods used, the findings generated, the interpretation of results, and the integration with theory.
5. Writing the introduction means going directly into what the problem is investigating.
6. The introduction may include conflicting findings of previous researchers from which you draw the
rationale for the study.
7. Some writers integrate the related literature with the introduction but most others prepare a separate
chapter for the related literature.
8. Questions are preferred to other styles of presenting the specific problems, although in a few theses or
dissertations, the hypotheses take the place of the specific questions.
9. Fox says that the earliest time that the hypothesis can be stated is towards the ends of the related
literature.
10. There are varying systems of writing the related literature which are presented below.
a. Using chronological presentation.
b. Doing a dichotomy of foreign and local literature.
c. Dividing the literature into conceptual and research.
PARTS OF A RESEARCH PAPER
Chapter I: THE RESEARCH AND ITS SETTING
Introduction
Research Locale
Theoretical Perspective
Conceptual Framework
Statement of Purpose
Hypothesis
Importance of the Study
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
Definition of Terms
Chapter II: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Chapter III: METHOD AND PROCEDURE
Research Design
Participants of the Study
Research Paradigm
Sampling Technique
Instruments of the Study
Data Gathering Procedure
Statistical Treatment of Data
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