Geosynthetics

| August September 2009 |
Volume 27 Number 4
Geosynthetics in biofilter
ensure water quality
Landfill cover + solar strips
= new energy source
Researchers examine
seismic performance
Geosynthetics in ChinaPart I
Subscribe at www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com
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| August September 2009 |

Volume 27 Number 4
8|
36 |
| On Site |
Project Showcase
8 Landfill cover helps promote new energy source
16 Erosion-control mix rebuilds Clydes creekbed
24 Geosynthetics in the construction
of a Southern California subsurface
biofilter cell system

By Ronald S. Johnson, Sang-Sik Yeo, and Randy Sundberg
The benefits of geosynthetic materials are perfectly

matched for this project.
36 History, development, and future

prospects for geosynthetics
industries in China
Part 1 of 2

By Jingkui Chi
An introduction to Chinas geosynthetics

production, applications, research, and market
supply and demand.
46 Seismic performance of various

geocell earth-retention systems

By Dov Leshchinsky
Research and innovation:

A guide for product development
24 | On the cover
This subsurface biofilter cell system in Southern California was designed
and built using a host of geosynthetic materials.
www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com | Geosynthetics
58 |
60 |
| In Situ |
| Final Inspection |
64 Administering a certified welding

technician course, Romanian style
6 Editorial
Go to this website every day
56 Panorama
By Ian Peggs
Geo news and notes from around the world
57 Letters to the editor
Comments and a question for the

GMA Techline doctor
58 Geosynthetic Institute
30-year anniversary for the first hardcover

book on geosynthetics
By Bob Koerner
60 Geosynthetic Materials Association
GMA helps organize pre-Expo green roof

workshop in San Diego
By Andrew Aho
61 Calendar
63 Ad Index
Geosynthetics ISSN #0882 4983, Vol. 27, Number 4 is published bimonthly by Industrial Fabrics Association
International, 1801 County Road B W, Roseville, MN 55113-4061. Periodicals Postage Paid at Minneapolis,
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6J5. Orders and changes contact: A Lo, Circulation Coordinator, Geosynthetics , 1801 County Road B W, Roseville,
MN 55113-4061 Phone 800 225 4324 or +1 651 222 2508, fax +1 651 631 9334 e-mail: subscriptions@ifai.com.
1-year USA $59, Canada and Mexico $69, all other countries $99, payable in U.S. funds (includes air mail postage).
Reprints: call 800 385 9402, hehanson@ifai.com. Back Issues: call 800 225 4324, www.ifaibookstore.com.
Coming Next Issue | Geotextiles in pavements | Bioreactor cover | Focus on History | China
Geosynthetics | August September 2009
64 |
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| Editorial |
EDITORIAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE*
Get to this website now

and every day !
Melody A. Adams
Vista Consultants LLC, USA
Andrew Aho
GMA, USA
| Ron Bygness, Editor

+1 651 225 6988
rwbygness@ifai.com
www.geosyntheticsmagazine.comthe brand new

website for Geosynthetics magazine!
Search current and back issues, and find information, projects, and other
news not found in the magazine. Source products, applications, services, and
markets for your business. Link to advertisers to get what you need now
information, materials, specs, you name it. Content is updated weekly.
And last, but not least, you can read The Ron & Andrew Blog featuring
far-and-wide commentary from the editor of Geosynthetics magazine and the
managing director of the Geosynthetic Materials Association (GMA).
Be Prepared:
The 2010 Specifiers Guide forms are coming to you in September
Who is the person responsible for updating your companys information in the
annual Specifiers Guide? Let us know, especially if this person has changed, and
these electronic forms will land in their e-mail the week after Labor Day due
back by the end of September.
Dont miss your appearance in the 2010 Specifiers Guide.
Save this date for this event: GeoFrontiers2011

March 1316, 2011, at the Sheraton Hotel in downtown Dallas, Texas
GeoFrontiers returns to Texas, as the Industrial Fabrics Association International

(IFAI) and GMA team with the GEO-Institute of ASCE and the North American
Geosynthetics Society (NAGS) for the best show of the year. The Geosynthetics
Research Institutes annual conference, GRI24/2011, will also be held at the GeoFrontiers event in Dallas.
See you there!
Sam R. Allen
TRI/Environmental, USA
Richard J. Bathurst
Royal Military College, Canada
Witty Bindra
Permathene Pty. Ltd., Australia
David A. Carson
U.S. EPA, USA
Daniele A. Cazzuffi
CESI S.p.A., Italy
Oscar R. Couttolenc
GMA, Mexico
Ronald K. Frobel
R.K. Frobel & Associates, USA
Stephan M. Gale
Gale-Tec Engineering Inc., USA
Han-Yong Jeon
INHA University, Korea
Robert M. Koerner
The Geosynthetic Institute, USA
Robert E. Mackey
S2L Inc., USA
Kent von Maubeuge
NAUE GmbH, Germany
Jacek Mlynarek
SAGEOS, Canada
Dhani Narejo
Caro Engineering LLC, USA
Roy J. Nelsen
ErosionControlBlanket.com Inc., USA
Jim Olsta
CETCO, USA
Ian D. Peggs
I-Corp International, USA
Greg N. Richardson
RSG & Associates Inc., USA
Marco A. Snchez
ML Ingeniera, Mexico
Ron Bygness
Editor, Geosynthetics magazine
Mark E. Smith
Vector Engineering, Peru
L. David Suits
NAGS, USA
Gary L. Willibey
ESP/SKAPS Industries, USA
Aigen Zhao
Tenax Corp., USA
Geosynthetics is an international, bimonthly publication for civil engineers,

contractors and government agencies in need of expert information on
geosynthetic engineering solutions. Geosynthetics presents articles from field
professionals for innovative, exemplary practice.
*The Editorial Advisory Committee reviews selected papers, case

histories, and technical editorial copy in its areas of expertise. Individual
advisors do not review every submission. Statements of fact and opinion
are the authors responsibility alone, and do not imply the viewpoints of
Geosynthetics, its Editorial Advisory Committee, editors, or the association.
| Geosynthetics encourages your contributions of case histories, photos, and field tips. For submittal guidelines,
contact Ron Bygness at 800 225 4324 or +1 651 225 6988; e-mail: rwbygness@ifai.com; www.geosyntheticsmagazine.com
PUBLISHER
Mary Hennessy
mjhennessy@ifai.com
EDITORIAL DIRECTOR
Susan R. Niemi
srniemi@ifai.com
EDITOR
Ron Bygness
rwbygness@ifai.com
ART DIRECTOR
Marti Naughton
GRAPHIC DESIGNER
Heidi Hanson
New Business Development
Sarah Hyland
schyland@ifai.com
800 319 3349
ADVERTISING SALES
Jane Anthone, Terry Brodsky,
Vivian Cowan, Julia Heath,
Katie Lang, Mary Mullowney,
Sandy Tapp, Elizabeth Welsh
ADVERTISING
ACCOUNT COORDINATOR
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searman@ifai.com
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CIRCULATION Coordinator
A Lo
subscriptions@ifai.com
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2009 Industrial Fabrics Association International all rights reserved
The official publication

of the Geosynthetic
Materials Association
The official publication
of the North American
Geosynthetics Society
Project Showcase
Landfill cover promotes

new energy source
Photo pp 89 couresy of CPS Energy. All other photos courtesy of Republic Services Inc.
Project Highlights
Tessman Road Landfill Energy Park Project
Location: San Antonio, Texas, USA
Owner: Republic Services Inc., Phoenix
Geomembrane cap: Firestone Specialty Products, Indianapolis
Solar strips: United Solar Ovonic LLC, Rochester Hills, Mich.
Photo 1| In San Antonio, Republic Services Inc. is taking energy re-
covery to a new level, installing a geomembrane landfill cover with

flexible solar technology that will help power a sustainable energy
park at the Tessman Road Landfill. Flexible, laminate-type photovoltaic solar collection strips are configured on the geomembrane cap
to maximize hours of sunlight throughout the year.
nergy and waste-disposal companies today recognize that

landfills arent just burial sites for garbage, but reactors
where gases produced by decomposing waste can be used for
energy production.
A great example of this technology is at the Tessman Road
Landfill in San Antonio, Texas, where Republic Services Inc. is
incorporating a biogas-to-energy recovery system into one of
its 213 landfills. But the Tessman Road project is taking energy
recovery to a new level, including installation of a geomembrane landfill cover that includes flexible solar technology that
will help power a sustainable energy park.
By combining a first-of-its-kind solar technology with an
existing biogas-to-energy system, the company is turning its
Tessman Road Landfill into a sustainable energy park. This
green energy venture covers portions of the closed areas of
active landfills with flexible, laminate-type photovoltaic (PV)
solar collection strips (Photo 1).
New energy source
Photo 2 | The flexible solar laminates are adhered directly to the geomembrane.
The flexible solar laminates, which capture the suns rays for
conversion into electricity, are adhered directly to the synthetic,
green-colored geomembrane (Photo 2) used to cover and close
landfill cells as they reach capacity. Unlike traditional rigid solar
panels, which are bulky and frequently cost-prohibitive to install, this system uses flexible, nonreflective collection strips less
than 0.25in. thick. The flexible solar strips can be configured to
maximize the hours of sunlight exposure throughout the year,
depending upon a landfills design and site contours.
For its demonstration project at the Tessman Road Landfill,
Republic Services is partnering with CPS Energy, Greater San
10
Antonios electric and natural gas provider, to deploy 5.6 acres

of the 680-acre landfill with the solar energy cover, attaching
more than 1,000 flexible solar strips to the landfills south-facing
sideslope. Republic and CPS Energy will study and document
the results of this solar demonstration project for use in the
deployment of solar energy covers on other landfills throughout
the country.
Construction on the Tessman Road project, approved by
the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ),
began in December 2008 and became fully operational in
March 2009.
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Think TenCate. TenCate Geosynthetics increases performance, reduces costs, and enables your company to achieve what was once unachievable.
For more information call 1-800-685-9990, or visit www.mira.com.
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New energy source
| Closed areas of the 680-acre Tessman Road Landfill are covered with
a geomembrane cap.
As the nations largest municipally-owned gas and electric company, were proud that our customers energy bills
are among the lowest in the country, said Milton Lee, CPSs
general manager and CEO. We are able to do this by providing a diverse mix of fuels and renewable energy sources that
combined offer reliable, cost-competitive electric service.
Working together with Republic and the Texas Commission of
Environmental Quality, we are at the forefront of yet another
useful way to tap the energy resources of landfills for the benefit
of our customers.
Republic says it will cover closed landfill cells with the solar
collection strips, adhered directly on the geomembrane cap. The
solar strips are configured to maximize hours of sunlight throughout the year. The new solar cover will complement the landfills
existing biogas-to-energy system, in operation since 2002.
The system collects and processes biogas, which is produced
naturally at the landfill through the decomposition of waste.
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New energy source
| Geomembrane covers are already in use across the country

but [we are] the first to integrate flexible solar cell technology to
create an energy-producing cover system.
The solar strips, which have flexible photovoltaic silicon cells

that convert sunlight directly into electricity, will complement
the amount of renewable energy provided by the landfill.
With more than 300 days of sunlight per year in San Antonio, Republic estimates that the energy produced by the two
fully-operational systems, will continuously create about nine
megawatts of powerenough to power 5,500 area homes.
As part of our commitment to creating cleaner, greener
communities, were continually researching, developing and
implementing innovative technologies to help us preserve
and conserve our natural resources, said Ted Neura, senior
director of sustainable business planning and development for
Republic Services.
The solar energy [geomembrane] cover is easier to inspect,
maintain, and repair than a traditional clay cap, and is technically
superior in terms of odor control and stormwater management,
said Tony Walker, project manager for Republic.
Geomembrane covers are already in use across the country,
but [we are] the first to integrate flexible solar cell technology
to create an energy-producing cover system. We look forward
14
| Seaming the landfill cover: Republics

research suggests that more than 2,000 closed
landfill acres could eventually be covered with
solar-energy geomembranes.
to working with state regulators across the country to capitalize

on the opportunities provided by landfills and, specifically, our
efforts to further the countrys energy independence movement through new sources of solar power, said Walker.
Republic has 213 operating landfills in 40 states. The companys research suggests that as much as 2,350 acres could be
covered with solar energy geomembrane covers, depending
on regulatory approvals. That could translate into enough
solar energy to power up to 47,000 homes per year. Combining that with existing biogas-to-energy technology, and there
is the potential to generate enough green electricity to power
300,000 homes.
Sources: Republic Services Inc., PRNewswire
For over 130 years, Maccaferri has been controlling

the forces of erosion and retaining the earths soil.
Weve learned a lot since 1879 and apply that
knowledge to every product and every project. Our
range of products for soil reinforcement, erosion
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Maccaferri strives to provide a cost eective and
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Design Support
From conceptual design to construction stage,

Maccaferris wealth of experience is available to its
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Customer Service
Our expert managers are available to provide useful

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Photos courtesy of McGill Associates P.A.
Project Showcase
Erosion-control mix rebuilds Clydes creekbank

| A North Carolina town used a portfolio of geosynthetic erosion-control and
reinforcement materials to restore a local streambank and relieve safety threats.
Photo 1 | This after photo shows the restored tributary winding through the small town of Clyde, N.C.
| Tom Wedegaertner contributed to this article. He is director of cottonseed research and marketing for Cotton Incorporated.
Wedegaertner can be reached at +1 919 678 2369 or by e-mail at twedegaertner@cottoninc.com.
16
Photo 2 | This before photo shows the artificially straightened

tributary with steep banks.
Introduction
uring two weeks in September 2004, the town of Clyde,

N.C., was pounded by hurricanes Ivan and Frances, both
delivering destructive amounts of rainfall. The small town
recovered, but four years later concerns were growing about
a badly eroded tributary that skirted through the Haywood
County community.
Located upstream of the Pigeon River, the narrow tributary
(see before Photos 2, 3 and after Photo 1) flows behind
the towns fire station, a local bank, and a Methodist church.
Historic farming practices had straightened more than 500ft of
the east and west banks of this creek, with streambank slopes
steeper than 1:1 and vertical bank heights of 11ft (Photo 2).
Destruction from the hurricanes allowed excessive amounts
of runoff to rush through this channel at a high velocity, causing
accelerated streambank erosion (Photo 3). If further disturbed
during other high-flow storm events, the exposed soil and steep
vertical slopes could further erode, threatening the stability of
its bordering buildings and pushing even more sediment into
the French Broad River Basin.
By 2008, the stream bank restoration project was urgent
and compelling work for the town of Clyde, located in far
western North Carolina. The fire station, bank, and church,
Photo 3 | Post-hurricane runoff accelerated creekbank erosion.
Project Highlights
Project/Location: Streambank restoration in Clyde, N.C.
Timeline: Construction, December 2008February 2009
Owner/Client: Town of Clyde, N.C.
Engineering/Landscaping: McGill Associates P.A., Asheville, N.C.
Geosynthetic Products: HydraCX2 Extreme Slope Matrix,
C125BN, SC150BN, coconut wattles
Product Developer: Mulch and Seed Innovations LLC, Centre, Ala.;
Cotton Incorporated; USDA
Distributor: North American Green, Poseyville, Ind.
agreed to the project and the town was awarded a state grant
appropriated from the Hurricane Recovery Act of 2005 (Senate Bill 7).
The proposed restoration plan called for constructing a
meandering stream channel at the existing bed elevation and
establishing a new flood plain. The addition of a mechanically
stabilized earth (MSE) retaining wall would add strength to
unstable slopes and native vegetation would create habitat, slow
water flow, and beautify the site (see Photos 48).
17
Clydes creekbank
The plan
Determined to adopt a low-impact solution, the town of Clyde hired stormwater specialists, McGill Associates, from
nearby Asheville, N.C.
The goal was to enhance the environmental habitat of the existing site,
said head project engineer J.P. Johns.
Town officials wanted to establish
a natural stream corridor and cause
minimal disturbance. This meant conservative soil displacement, avoiding
chemical-heavy remedies, and using
biodegradable materials to preserve the
natural landscape.
The plan for the 2-acre site was designed to both restore and provide a
natural stream setting to an urbanized
watershed. The new stream alignment
and bank stabilization plans would enhance the area by providing access to
the new floodplain and allow for natural stream functions consistent with
riffle/pool/run sequence throughout the
reach, said Johns.
Specifications and installation
In January 2009, Johns and his team

completed the planned restoration of
the site, including the relocation of the
stream channel, decreasing the stream
bank slopes and creating a stable, green
retaining wall (see Photos 48).
To leave the rejuvenation of the site
up to Mother Nature, Johns and his team
selected and applied a special mix of
sustainable erosion-control solutions,
each with its own complement to address
challenges posed by this project.
To manage soil stabilization, Johns
prescribed biodegradable/bionet erosion control blankets (ECBs), installed
under the mulch to protect the soil from
unwanted weeds, filter urban runoff, and
reduce erosion of volatile soil during the
stabilization process.
Both ECBs feature layers of coconut
fiber stitched with biodegradable thread
between biodegradable natural-fiber top
and bottom nets; one is constructed with
18
Photos 4 & 5 | The addition of an MSE retaining wall added strength to an unstable slope.
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EROSION CONTROL
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Clydes creekbank
a straw and coconut fiber mix and provides a strong double-net structure.
In addition, coconut wattles were
placed on the outer bends of the restored
channel reach to intercept and absorb
water flow and to collect sediment onsite. A classic degradable rolled erosioncontrol blanket containing 100% coconut fibers, the wattles would eventually
decompose into the landscaping.
True to Johns commitment to a
sustainable restoration plan, biodegradable eco-stakes were used to hold
both the blankets and wattles in place
rather than traditional metal stakes
that can remain present long after the
blankets and wattles have returned to
the earth.
Once erosion and sediment control
were addressed, the issue of establishing vegetation on the streambank remained. With proposed new side slopes
of 3:1, speedy vegetation was imperative because the stream would be quick
to swell after the first spring rains and
potentially wash away anything that
was not snug to the earth.
For quick vegetation establishment,
Johns selected a hydraulic erosioncontrol product that is made with
mechanically processed straw fibers,
reclaimed cotton plant material, and
performance-enhancing tackifiers that
form a protective layer that holds soil
in place. Mixed with a range of seven
different native grass seed varieties,
as dictated by the North Carolina Department of Environment and Natural
Resources, Division of Water Quality, it
was applied at a rate of 2,000 to 2,500
pounds per acre to the streambanks
and the MSE retaining walla living
wall constructed near the fire station
(Photos 6 & 7) to stabilize the bank and
designed to eventually blend into the
surrounding landscape.
One of the most important goals
of this project was to be sure the native
grasses and plants successfully germinated, said Johns. And even though we
20
Photos 6 & 7 | A geosynthetically-reinforced MSE slope stabilized the creekbank adjacent to the
Clyde Fire Station.
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Clydes creekbank
had taken additional precautions to prevent erosion, [this] was an added security
blanket because it also prevents erosion.
Results
The new floodplain, adjacent to the

stream channel, was graded as flat as possible to maximize flow dispersion during
high rain-event, bankfull flows.
The new stream channel was created
taking into account the higher volumetric flow rates, velocities, and shear forces
associated with an urban watershed, as
compared to an undeveloped watershed,
said Johns. It now allows flood flows to
reach the floodplain faster in order to reduce shear stress in the channel and slow
velocities throughout the reach.
The restoration project, with a blend
of native grasses and spot-on biodegradable erosion-control materials working
on its behalf, was regularly watered by
seasonal spring rainfall and began to germinate within two weeks. A month later,
a healthy stand was apparent, and two
months later, 18-24in. grasses covered
the Clyde streambank (Photos 1 & 8).
In February, not even a week after it
had been sprayed, we experienced significant snowfall, said Johns (Photo 9).
We wondered what effect the freezing
temperatures and snowmelt would have
on the newly applied product, but there
were no adverse effects, no loss of product, and the vegetation continued to grow
healthy and strong.
Johns insisted that installing this mix
of products, each with a specific purpose
for this project, created a system that provided excellent erosion prevention while
establishing a stand of native vegetation
at the same time.
Equally as important, he added, is
that none leaves a carbon footprintonly
a stable, functional, and safe environment
for the town of Clyde.
Photo 8 | The stabilized creekbank was designed to eventually blend into the
surrounding landscape.
Photo 9 | Even after a February snowfall, there were no adverse effects, no loss of product,
and the vegetation continued to grow healthy and strong (see page 16).
22
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Photos and figures courtesy of Geosyntec Consultants
Geosynthetics in the construction of a Southern

California subsurface biofilter cell system
By Ronald S. Johnson, Sang-Sik Yeo, and Randy Sundberg
Photo 1 | Construction procedure of the biofilter cell: geomembrane liner

installation for the bottom of the cell (inset photo). Startup placement of
geogrids and matrix tank modules (above).
| Ronald S. Johnson, P.E., G.E. (rjohnson@geosyntec.com) is a geotechnical engineer, and Sang Yeo, Ph.D.
(syeo@geosyntec.com) is a senior staff engineer, both with Geosyntec Consultants.
Randy Sundberg, P.E., is a project engineer with the Irvine Ranch Water District.
24
Project Highlights
Project: Demonstration of field-scale biofilter cell system
Location: Irvine, Calif.
Purpose: Verification and evaluation of field-scale effectiveness and
practicality of subsurface biofilter cell system for removal of selenium
and nitrate from dry weather flows in Peters Canyon Channel
Clients: Irvine Ranch Water District (www.irwd.com)
Engineer/Designer: Construction Quality Assurance (CQA):
Geosyntec Consultants (www.geosyntec.com)
Contractor: CDM Construction
Geosynthetics:
Geomembrane: GSE 40-mil smooth geomembrane and
60-mil textured geomembrane
Geotextile: Mirafi 1160N
Geogrids: Tensar biaxial geogrid BX1500
Geonet: GSE HyperNet
Geonet composite: GSE FabriNet
Geopipe: PVC perforated pipe
Photo 2 | Placement of granular media matrix inside of the cell.
Introduction
he primary benefits of geosynthetic materials are the flexibility to accommodate a variety of configurations and as a
nonreactive barrier for environmental isolation. These benefits
are perfectly matched for this project: construction of a subsurface biofilter cell system for the removal of selenium and nitrate
using many types of geosynthetic materials.
For the last 25 years, water quality in San Diego Creek in
Southern California has been affected by excessive sediments
and nutrient levels. The state of California and U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulations required the establishment of limits (i.e., total maximum daily loadsTMDL) on
the amount of pollutants that can be discharged into Newport
Bay. (San Diego Creek drains approximately 80% of the total
area tributary to Newport Bay.)
25
Subsurface biofilter
To meet this EPA requirement, the Irvine

Ranch Water District (IRWD) developed a
plan to address regional water quality treatment. The plan included the Cienega Filtration Facility adjacent to the Peters Canyon
Channel that is specifically for removing
selenium from dry weather low flows.
The selenium TMDL is based on meeting the chronic California Toxics Rule
(CTR) criterion of five parts per billion
(ppb) for protection of aquatic health in
dry weather flows. Selenium concentrations in dry weather flows in the Peters
Canyon Channel typically range from
about 3050 ppb, but can be much higher
at groundwater seeps and weep holes. The
current selenium concentration levels are
not harmful to humans but have potential
to bio-accumulate.
Concept of biofilter cell
The project was designed to pass dry

weather flows that are diverted from Peters
Canyon Channel through an organically
augmented biofilter cell, which was composed of a gravel matrix and constructed
using many categories of geosynthetics.
The flows are amended with a carbon
source to feed bacteria and create anoxic
(oxygen-deficient) conditions in the biofilter cell. Under these conditions, common
forms of selenium (i.e., selenate and selenite) are converted into elemental forms of
selenium, which have relatively low toxicity
and are encapsulated by bacteria growing
on the bed materials (e.g., gravel) in the
biofilter cell.
The subsurface natural treatment system consists of three major systems:
intake and pretreatment system.
biofilter cell.
finished water system.
The intake and pretreatment system
includes an intake wet well and pump,
self-cleaning strainer, bag filter, and electron donor tank. The biofilter cell was
created using geosynthetic materials and
granular media matrix. The finished water
system includes an oxygenation system
and finished water pump.
26
Photos 35 | TopConstruction of side walls with geogrid, matrix tank modules, and welded
wire form (WWF) and compaction of granular media matrix. CenterCompletion of side walls
and compaction. BottomEncapsulation using geomembrane.
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Cover soil
Geocomposite
Geonet
Granular media
Geopipe
Backfill
Geotextile
Geogrid
Geomembrane
Matrix Tank
Modules
Geotextile
Geomembrane
Subgrade
Not to scale
Geotextile
Figure 1 | Schematic cross section of biofilter cell
The biofilter cell is the primary treatment component of this project. As summarized in the Table 1, the biofilter cell
consists of a coarse inert aggregate bed
wrapped in an impermeable geosynthetic
system. Raw water is pumped from Peters
Canyon Channel, amended with electron
donor, and injected into the biofilter cell
through a piped header system.
Within the biofilter cell, an active
biofilm is grown, which attaches to the
aggregate. The biological activity helps
to create anoxic conditions that are favorable for the conversion of soluble selenium compounds to insoluble colloids
and precipitates. The insoluble selenium
precipitates are adsorbed to the biofilm
and sequestered within the biofilter cell.
Hydraulic retention time and electron
donor feed rate are the variables that
can be adjusted to maintain the desired
environmental conditions.
28
Summary of Biofilter Cell Characteristics

Characteristics
Summary
Dimensions
200ft (L) x 40ft (W) x 10ft (H)
Media
minus crushed aggregate
Total volume of biofilter cell
80,000ft3
Estimated effective porosity
23%
Estimated liquid capacity
18,400ft3 (~ 137,650 gallons)
Design flow
0.3cfs (~ 135 gallons per minute)
Table 1 |
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Summary of biofilter cell characteristics

Key geosynthetics
Construction activities consisted of installing an infiltration gallery in the Peters

Canyon Channel, the subsurface biofilter
cell, a process area (pump and equipment
housing), and a re-oxygenation system.
The biofilter cell was constructed using
geosynthetics and was covered with 3-4ft
of native soil to allow for the development of a future recreational field. A
geosynthetic liner system consists of:
an HDPE geomembrane, installed
to keep the biofilter cell isolated and
impermeable.
a nonwoven geotextile, used to provide
both separation and cushion for
protection of the geomembrane.
a geonet/geonet compositea biplanar
HDPE geonet and nonwoven geotextileused to collect gas generated by
bacteria from the biofilter cell.
a biaxial polypropylene geogrid, used
to allow for the perimeter 10-ft vertical
walls and for the biofilter cell to transition into future treatment biofilter cells.
The construction sequence is summarized as follows:
1. Subgrade preparation
2. Placement of 60-mil textured HDPE
geomembrane for the bottom of the
biofilter cell
3. Biofilter cell wall construction using
geogrid
4. Compaction of granular media matrix
5. Geotextile wrapping the biofilter cell
as the separation between granular
media matrix and geomembrane
6. Installation of smooth geomembrane to encapsulate the biofilter cell
7. Placement of geonet on top of the
biofilter cell
8. Placement of geotextile on the side
walls of the biofilter cell as the separation between geomembrane and
backfill soil
9. Placement of geonet composite on
top of the biofilter cell
10. Piping
11. Backfilling and covering
30
Photos 68 | TopInstallation of the geomembrane liner on side walls and corners.

CenterInstallation of vertical monitoring pipe penetration and CQA testing using spark testing.
BottomInstallation of sidewall pipe penetrations.
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Photo 9 | Geomembrane installation on the biofilter cell.
Geosynthetics installation significance
1. A total of 30 PVC piping penetrations

through the liner system of the biofilter
cell were constructed: 18 monitoring
ports on top of the biofilter cell (i.e., vertical pipes) and 12 perforated pipes for
inflow, outflow, and gas collection onto
the side walls (i.e., horizontal pipes).
Prefabricated HDPE geomembrane
boots were fitted over the PVC perforated
pipes and extruded to the geomembrane
liner. After the extrusion welding, copper
wire spark tests were performed for non32
destructive seam testing. A probe with a

current was passed above the seam with
25mm (1in.) distance between the probe
and the seam, and any sparks indicated
that a hole was present.
A neoprene gasket and caulking was
inserted between the geomembrane
boot and PVC pipe annular space and
supported in place with two stainless
steel band clamps. The caulking was
cured for two to three days after which
the stainless steel band clamp was secured to the pipe. After the comple-
tion of pipe installation, geotextile was

wrapped onto the boot as a cushion
material during the backfilling of soil.
2. Geomembrane liner on the side
walls was protected by an inside and outside geotextile layer from granular media
matrix and backfill.
The double-track fusion welding was
mainly performed for the side wall seaming.
The double-track fusion seams were nondestructively tested using the air pressure
test as performed on the top and bottom
geomembrane liner systems. At the corners
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of the biofilter cell, the geomembrane liner

was folded and extrusion welded.
3. Two different types of HDPE
geomembrane (i.e., 40-mil smooth
geomembrane and 60-mil textured
geomembrane) were welded together
using extrusion welding techniques.
Prior to the welding, asperity of
the 60-mil textured geomembrane was
grinded and removed. The extrusion
welds were tested with the vacuum test
method. The test results indicated that
these two products could be satisfactorily
welded using this technique.
Conclusions
Design and construction of the biofilter

cell were successfully implemented using
major categories of geosynthetic materials due to the flexibility of geosynthetic
materials to accommodate a variety of
design configurations. Geosynthetics
provided a nonreactive barrier for environmental isolation of the biofilter cell.
Perhaps the greatest challenges with
this application of geomembrane were
the vertical welding and the abundance
of pipe penetrations. To the extent possible, vertical welding should be limited
by prefabricating larger portions horizontally and assembling them in a manner that requires little vertical welding.
The abundance and variety of specialized
geosynthetics provided the designers with
a toolbox of materials and, thus, the flexibility to develop creative solutions to this
challenging environmental issue.
Acknowledgements
This project was funded by the Irvine Ranch
Water District.
Photos 10a & 10b | Backfill and cover after completion of the biofilter cell construction.
34
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Photos courtesy of the author
| Part 1 of 2
History, development, and future prospects

for geosynthetics industries in China
By Jingkui Chi
| The Hengshan Dam and Reservoir is located in the northernmost part of Shanxi Province
in north-central China. It was the first double-curvature arch dam in China.
| The author is vice president of the Chinese Chapter of IGS and an advisor to the Chinese Technical Association
on Geosynthetics. He is president and general manager of Shanghai Hejie Tech & Trading Co. Ltd.
36
| LeftThe Xinanjiang Dam, Hydropower Station, and Reservoir is located on the Xinanjiang River in a subtropical
area of Zhejiang Province in southern China. The reservoir, one of the largest in Asia, contains 21.6 billion m3 of water.
RightThe Baiyunyuan Hydropower Station is located in Tonglu County, Zhejiang Province, in southern China.
Abstract
his article presents an introduction to the development

of Chinas geosynthetics production, applications, testing,
and research, and discusses the market supply and demand as
well as development trends.
1. Introduction
1.1 Development of geosynthetics in China
The production and application of geosynthetics in China
started in the late 1970s. Those materials used in some small
hydraulic engineering projects were mostly made through
braiding techniques with narrow widths.
Development was slow through the 1980s. Geosynthetics
then were mainly woven fabrics with poor quality and few
were considered for engineering applications. By the 1990s,
under the development and requirement of national economic
construction, geosynthetics witnessed a burgeoning growth.
Some advanced equipment and assemblies were imported from
Germany, Italy, France, Japan, and Switzerland.
Meanwhile, homemade equipment appeared in the market,
which increased product variety, improved product quality,
and changed product structure. Braided, woven, nonwoven,
synthetic, and composite products appeared and were used in
thousands of projects, with an accumulated usage of more than
0.5 billion m.
China suffered severe flooding disasters in 1998, but the
adoption of geosynthetics in flood control, dam repair, and
other hydraulic engineering projects moved forward.
In 1999, the Ministry of Water Resources selected 50 hydraulic projects using geosynthetics as models, thus further
pushing forward the application and development of geosynthetics in China. Moreover, with the improvement and
modification of geosynthetic equipment, designs, processes,
measurement, regulations, and theoretical research, Chinas
geosynthetic materials entered a new era in the past decade.
A geo-textile collaboration network had been established in
1984 and grew into the Chinese Technical Association/Geosynthetics by 1995. As a first-class national academic organization,
this group attracted more than 600 members. After entering the
International Geosynthetics Society in 1990, China established
its Chinese Chapter (CCIGS) with more than 100 individual
members and four group members. CCIGS has organized and
participated in international and regional symposiums and exhibitions in the United States, Austria, France, Singapore, South
Korea, Japan, and other countries. This participation worldwide
enhanced the academic communication and market education
between China and the rest of the world.
1.2 Classification of geosynthetics
Currently, there are no unified classification rules and there is
no significant difference in the existing classification methods.
According to manufacturing methods, geosynthetics can be
classified into four categories:
Textiles
Wovens: braided (plane-braided and round-braided methods),

woven (plain and twill woven), knitted (warp knitted and
stitch-bonded).
Nonwovens: mechanical reinforcement (needlepunched), chemical bonded (adhesive spraying), thermal bonded (hot rolling).
37
Geosynthetics in China
| Demand for geomembranes is particularly strong for hydraulic engineering

and environmental protection projects.
Geomembranes (calendering, blow molding)
Polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chloride (PVC),

chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE).
Geosynthetics
Composite geomembranes, composite

geotextiles, plastic drainage belts and
drainage pipe, prefabricated drainage.
Other
Geotextile bags, geogrids, geocells, geotechnical bands and tubes, geonets, geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs), extruded polystyrene (EPS), drainage and waterproofing.
1.3 Application of geosynthetics
Woven textile products
Braiding and knitting products are

widely used in engineering products. In
China, braided products have occupied
a large proportion, especially in the
application of flood control and rush
emergency. The use of large sandbags
in the construction of embankments,
dams, and marine reclamation land is
also considerable.
Woven products are used in mattresses
as bottom protection, slope protection,
geomembrane bags, and other projects
that require a relatively high intensity.
As newly developed products, knitting
products (mainly made of PET filaments
and glass fibers) are of good quality that
can be used for reinforcement.
The application of braiding products
is mainly in the area of hydraulic engi38
neering projects, such as the Shanghai

Chen-Hang Reservoir (above, right),
deep-water channel regulation projects
in Changjiang Estuary, the Shanghai Pudong international airport project, the
Shanghai Waigaoqiao power plant, the
Shidongkou ash dam, Tianjin harbor
construction, as well as for marine reclamation land and uses for flood control
and flood prevention.
Nonwoven products
In China, needlepunched PET staple
fiber products are common, with dozens
of large-scale manufacturers. Yet there
are more than 10 spunbond PET filament
manufacturers, some with imported
equipment, others using domestic equipment. Therefore, Chinese nonwoven
products are mainly of needlepunched
staple fibers, with a width of 4m6m and
mass of 300g/m2 to 400g/m2. The applications for nonwovens grows every year,
especially in hydraulic engineering, but
also in highway, railway, environmental
protection, airport, coastline, and other
engineering projects.
Application of synthetic products
In China, the manufacturing of synthetic

products started relatively late. Until the
1980s, Britain-imported Netlon equipment was used to produce geogrids.
At that time, geomembranes were
only used in agriculture greenhouse
films and had few applications in en-
| Shanghai Chen-Hang Reservoir
gineering products. In the late 1990s,

the development of products such as
geogrids and geomembranes had been
promoted to meet the demand of engineering construction. Today, with
a significant improvement in quality
and variety, geogrids are manufactured both uniaxial and biaxial.
For geomembranes, the diameter
and thickness of blow molding types has
increased, and plastic extrusion and calendering products have been launched.
Other synthetic products such as geocells and three-dimensional vegetative
netting have also been developed.
The major applications for these
synthetic products includes seepagecontrol materials used in hydraulic
engineering and environmental protection, reinforcement of soft slab
foundations and retaining walls, and
three-dimensional netting for seeding
slope stabilization.
Major projects include anti-seepage
for the hydro-junction retaining dike in
Wangfuzhou, Han River (1.1 million m2
of geomembrane); Shenzhen River harnessing project (216,000m2 of geomembrane); dam reinforcement in the Three
Gorges project with a geogrid usage of
530,000m2; geocell reinforcement from
Lanzhou Airport to Yinjiazhuang Road
(58,000m 2 ). Further, geomembranes
are widely used in the landfills of large
cities such as Beijing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Hangzhou. In short, synthetic
Fabricators of top quality Pond,

Pit & lake Liners nationwide
products have an extensive application

range and a large development potential in China.
Application of composite products
Composite products are processed by combining two or more geosynthetic products.

Familiar products include composite geomembranes (one textile with one
membrane, two textiles with one membrane, and three textiles with two membranes) used in anti-seepage projects,
and in drainage belts used in reinforcement applications. When combined with
vacuum pressure to accelerate foundation consolidation, construction time is
shortened.
Drainage hoses, which have been
widely applied in environmental engineering and municipal construction, are
also common in hydraulic projects to
solve the problems of interior drainage.
GCLs are primarily used as anti-seepage
materials in waste-disposal parks. Composite geomembranes are widely used in
hydraulic engineering, such as the antiseepage and bank protection projects on
the Yangtze River.
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Conclusion
After some years of stagnation, the Chinese geosynthetics industry has recently
gained impressive improvements. Development direction of products turns
to series type, synthetic type, and composite type. Geosynthetic materials enjoy
a promising future, with their contributions in geotechnical engineering growing into a new era.
2. Application prospects of geosynthetics

in key construction projects
2.1 Hydropower construction
According to Chinas 11th five-year plan
(20062010), the investment in hydraulic
engineering could reach 400 billion yuan
($58.6 billion U.S.).
The basic principle is to vigorously
develop hydropower, optimize thermal
power, appropriately develop nuclear
39
| The Mianhuatan Hydropower Station is located on the Tingjiang River in Yongding County,
Fujian Province, in southeastern China.
power plants, and actively develop new

energy sources. Hydropower is regarded
as a top priority. The Jinsha River, Yalong River, and Upper Yellow River hydropower bases, as well as the Puluo
Ferry and Xiangjia Dam hydropower
stations, are scheduled for construction.
If necessary, pumped storage power stations will also be built.
As the largest hydraulic project in
the world, Chinas south-to-north water
diversion project has an investment of
535.1 billion yuan ($78.4 billion U.S.),
in which 63.4 billion yuan ($9.3 billion
U.S.) is designated for the eastern line,
40
167.7 billion yuan ($24.6 billion U.S.) for

the midline and 304 billion yuan ($44.5
billion U.S.) for the western line.
For the eastern line project, the length
of the main water conveyance trunk
is 1,156km (717mi). At the bottom of
the Yellow River, there are two circular
tunnels with inside diameters of 9.3m
(10.2yd), and the whole length of the
tunnel reaches 634m (694yd).
The pollution control project of the
eastern line has been divided into two
phases. The first phase of the project
was recently completed, with the second
phase under construction from 2009
2013. By that time, the number of sewage

treatment plants could total 135.
For the midline project, the length of
main water conveyance trunk is 1,267km
(786mi). Two circular tunnels 7.2km
(4.5mi) long with an inside diameter of
8.5m (7.8yd) have 20m (18.3yd) between
the two circle centers.
For the western line project, the length
of main water conveyance trunk reaches
289km (179mi), with much of this trunk
in tunnels. Three import water projects
are involved: the Yalong River line, with
a length of 131km (81mi); the Tongtian River line, with a length of 289km
PARKER
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(179mi); and the Dadu River line, with
a length of 30km (18.6mi), all of which
are tunnels. This project is scheduled to
start in 2010.
Pumping stations use electric power
to pump water from downstream to upstream as storage for the peak periods of
electricity consumption. Since the loss
of pumped water and anti-seepage concrete previously used needed frequent
repair, the results were relatively poor.
Currently, 2mm geomembranes are used
to prevent seepage.
Geomembranes indispensable
In the construction of some hydraulic projects, cofferdams are built
for water closure.
In the past, cofferdam core walls
were made of clay. However, some loca-
tions have few clay resources and the

selection and processing method of
clay core walls needs to be strict, which
inevitably stalled construction timelines. Therefore, geomembranes have
been used as substitutes. With the use
of geomembranes in the Three Gorges
cofferdam, the Fujian Shuikou power
station cofferdam, and in other hydropower stations in China, demand for
geomembranes has increased.
China has a large number of conveyance channels, but there are various
problems such as weather aging and poor
anti-seepage treatments (e.g., 50% of the
transported water lost en route). Recently,
geomembranes have been used as antiseepage materials to solve these issues.
In conclusion, Chinese investment
in hydropower construction ranks first
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| According to the 11th five-year plan, China will direct $190 billion into environmental
engineering projects.
in the world. Besides major hydropower

projects programmed by the central
government, local governments also are
investing large sums of money in hydropower construction. Hydropower
projects remain the biggest market for
geosynthetic products, from small, rural
plants and reservoirs to large, world-class
hydraulic and hydropower projects.
2.2 Applications in environmental engineering
According to the 11th five-year plan,
China will direct 1,300 billion yuan ($190
billion U.S.) into environmental engineering projects.
Along with the rapid development
of urban construction, serious problems
have been caused by the lack of environmental protection infrastructures.
For instance, garbage has been stacked
in open areas or simply buried, while
sewage was often discharged directly
into urban water systems, causing water
quality deterioration and contamination
of rivers, lakes, and groundwater. Not
solving this problem as soon as possible
threatens our living environment.
Geosynthetics have a long history in
environmental construction, especially
for landfill projects where an anti-seepage structure has been formed with a
variety of geosynthetic products.
Currently, China has more than 800
cities with an urban population total42
ing 450 million, and the number of

landfills has exceeded 800. With the
fast progress of urbanization, by 2010
there will be 1,200 cities with an urban
population totaling 630 million. By that
time, every city should have a landfill,
which indicates that the use of geosynthetics would be considerable. The
2010 ExpoShanghai (May 1Oct. 31,
2010) should further boost investments
in environmental protection.
The largest waste and anaerobic
treatment plant has been built in Shanghai with a total investment of 300 million yuan ($44 billion U.S.). Covering an
area of 66mu (10.9 acres), the plant has
an annual garbage treatment capacity
of 280,000 tonnes (308,560 tons) and a
daily capacity of 800 tonnes (882 tons),
including 680 tonnes (750 tons) of domestic waste and 120 tonnes (132 tons)
of organic waste. Furthermore, through
the process of anaerobic fermentation,
4.1 million degrees of electricity could
be provided to the east China power
grid. The plant was built in 2007 and
started trial operation in April 2008.
Formal operation began in 2009.
The application of geosynthetics in
environmental engineering is comparatively strict and complicated. Poisonous solids, liquids, and gases must be
regulated. The durability of geosynthetics must be considered, including
salinization control, anti-corrosion,

anti-microorganism, anti-aging, and
other special properties.
In environmental engineering in
China, the geosynthetic products are primarily geomembranes, geogrids, geotextiles, and some GCLs and drainage pipes.
For big projects, HDPE geomembranes
with a width of more than 4m (4.4yd)and
thickness from 24mm are generally used.
For smaller projects, materials could be
designed under the requirement of specific conditions, yet thickness is usually
less than 0.5mm. One-sided or doublesided composite geomembranes are used
to protect membranes from damage during the construction process.
2.3 Applications in railway construction
Under the 11th five-year plan, total investment in railway construction will
reach 1,250 billion yuan ($182.8 billion
U.S.), with 17,000km (10,540mi) of new
railway lines constructed, including
7,000km (4,340mi) of passenger transportation lines. By 2010, national railway transportation operations will total
90,000km (55,800mi).
The main functions of geosynthetics in railway engineering includes antifiltration, anti-seepage, drainage, protection, and reinforcement. In early stages,
needlepunched staple fiber nonwovens
were used as filtration for subgrades to
solve the frost boiling and mud pumping

problems. As techniques and products
improved, there has been an increasing
amount of geosynthetics in railway projects,
which have effectively conquered many
technical problems in railway subgrades.
Besides the application of filtration and
drainage for soft subgrades, drainage belts
can be inserted as reinforcement, geogrids
can be used for reinforcement of subgrades
and embankments, and vegetative nets
can be used for grass seeding and slope
protection. Geomembranes and composite
geomembranes are used for anti-seepage
applications on embankments, retaining
walls, and tunnels. Composite geomembranes not only control seepage, but also
drain water through the composited nonwovens on the membranes.
Currently, railway construction is

mainly occurring in the northwest and
southwest areas of China, where applications of anti-seepage materials are
used. For this application, geomembranes help produce favorable results.
And since it is required that grass be
planted on both sides of railway embankments, the application of threedimensional vegetative nets have also
expanded in recent years.
2.4 Applications in road construction
China has invested 1 billion yuan ($146
million U.S.) in the comprehensive reconstruction of Qinghai-Tibet Highway,
and ll provinces and most cities have also
invested large sums of money in highway
construction. Both the scale of highway
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| Geosynthetic materials are necessary for everything from reclamation of land from the sea to
actual port construction.
construction and the amount invested

are unprecedented.
The applications of geosynthetics in
highway engineering is wide. Some applications are similar to railway engineering, but there are also some differences.
Generally, geotextiles fit into highway
construction for reversed filtration layers, drainage, and to solve the problems
of mud and soil pumping and the reflection cracking of asphalt pavements.
Geogrids and geocells are often
used in reinforced subgrades and reinforced retaining walls. Geomembranes
and composite geomembranes are
mainly used in seepage prevention in
tunnels and retaining walls. Bridges,
culverts, and retaining walls are the
main highway structures and proper
geosynthetics selection are required
for specific projects.
2.5 Applications at seaports and airports
Port construction includes wharves, port
roads, container yards, revetment engineering, and some comprehensive engineering
construction such as breakwaters.
If a project is located on soft coastal
foundations, reinforcement using geosynthetic products is needed. Geotextiles are used for filtration layers, geotextile bags for slope protection, and
geogrids for foundation reinforcement,
44
while a geotextile sucking sand pipe bag

is used to reclaim land from the sea. A
drainage belt is used to drain water and
reinforce foundations, and geomembranes are used as anti-seepage material
in buildings and for vacuum preloading
sealing material. In short, geosynthetics
are absolutely necessary for everything
from reclamation of land from the sea
to actual port construction.
Airport construction mainly includes
aprons, runways, taxiways, buildings
in airport terminal areas, and ancillary buildings. Most of the airports in
southeast China are built on the coast.
Some runways can be built only after
reclaiming land from the sea. Therefore, airports can involve comprehensive
construction requiring the use of many
geosynthetic products.
2.6 Applications in mine construction
Mine construction requires the building
of tailings reservoirs, used to pile waste
excreted sand aggregate.
It is necessary to solve any anti-filtration and anti-seepage problems to guarantee the security and the stability of the tailings dam. For this reason, the selection of
geotextilesinstead of sand and stoneas
the filtration layer and the use of geomembranes and composite geomembranes for
the anti-seepage material is preferred.
Currently, of the thousands of mines in

China, it is estimated that more than 30%
use some kind of geosynthetic material.
2.7 Applications in urban construction
Urban construction focuses on traffic and
housing construction.
Of course, these projects need to address
anti-seepage, especially on the southeast
China coast. There the water level is high
and the rainy season is long, so the seepage
problem becomes even more crucial.
Geomembranes are used to solve the
anti-seepage problems for subway tunnels, underground stations, basements,
and underground garages.
It is also a good option to use geomembrane in city roof greening and tridimensional forestation.
2.8 Application in western
development construction
China currently has a strategic decision to
make concerning western development.
It is not only an opportunity for the
western part of the country, but also an
opportunity for further development
of the eastern part. Strengthening the
cooperation between the two parts of
the country is bound to push common
development forward.
The total area of the western region of China is about 6,850,000km 2
(2,644,785mi), making up 71.4% of the

total land area of China, including 12
provinces, municipalities, and autonomous regions such as Shaanxi, Gansu,
Qinghai, Ningxia, Xinjiang, Sichuan,
Chongqing, Yunnan, Guizhou, Tibet,
Guangxi, and Inner Mongolia. Every
area has its own development advantages and development emphasis areas.
The emphasis of the current infrastructure construction is on water conservancy, railways, highways, airports,
and urban construction, as well as preserving the ecological environment. All
of these require the use of new materials,
new processes, and new technologies to
ensure the engineering construction
quality, increase the construction pace,
and reduce project costs.
Currently, China is in the midst
of western development and the implementation of infrastructure construction, with geosynthetics and its
application technology the effective
and necessary geotechnical engineering material. Geosynthetic materials
have been used in tens of thousands of
large and small engineering projects in
China for many years. They can fully
display their excellent characteristics
in many applications, such as flood
control and emergency, water-saving
irrigation by catchment, and environmental protection. This geotechnical
engineering material and its application technologies will play a greater
role in the western development.
2.9 Major projects
Current projects include: South-toNorth Water Diversion Project, WestEast Gas Transmission, West-to-East
Electricity Transmission, and QinghaiTibet Railwayfour major projects in
the 11th five-year plan, all focusing on
western development.
China has published the Implementation Opinion of Policies and Measures
about Western Development to guarantee it in policy and law.
Water is the lifeline of economic and

social development of Chinas western
region. There is no shortage of electricity
and gas, but the lack of water directly affects peoples lives, industrial and agricultural production, as well as the need for
drinking water for people and animals.
There are solutions to the water problem. One is water diversion and conveyance. Another is water catchment and
storage. Third is water conservation.
It is of utmost importance to solve
seepage problems in all construction to
ensure that there is no water loss. Using
geomembranes is the most economic and
effective way, and this has been proven by
innumerable construction projects.
Currently, the development of water
conservancy construction in western
China focuses on water-saving projects in

irrigation districts, water-storage projects
in the field, drought resistance and water
conservation projects, supplementary irrigation, and water supplement projects.
All of these projects have to solve the
problem of anti-seepage, so the western
development needs plenty of geosynthetic materials, especially geomembranes. There is a great market potential
here. Other kinds of products should be
developed according to the characteristics of the western region, as well.
Geosynthetics in ChinaPart 2: October/
November issue of Geosynthetics
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All photos and figures courtesy of the author
Research and innovation: Seismic performance

of various geocell earth-retention systems
By Dov Leshchinsky
Recorded Peak
Ground Acceleration
(PGA) in the Field
Test
Number
Horizontal: 059g
Vertical: 0.34g
Applied Peak Acceleration at Base of Shake Table

Horizontal
Vertical
Loading Stage:
Loading Stage:
2
3
1
2
0.46g
0.92g
NA
0.21g
0.42g
NA
0.48g
0.94g
NA
0.20g
0.39g
NA
0.47g
0.95g
1.22g
0.20g
0.37g
0.48g
0.41g
0.87g
1.21g
0.18g
0.34g
0.50g
Table 1 |
Introduction
nnovation has always required thinking out of the box. The

development of various applications-oriented geosynthetic
products demonstrates this hypothesis. For example, consider
geomembranes, geogrids, and geotextiles, and think of landfills,
MSE walls, and filters. While geotechnical structures become
more cost-effective and have better performance, researchers
are rewarded for positively impacting the profession.
An established player in the geocells arena, PRS-Mediterranean, envisioned a modification of its standard product to
enable new, critical applications. The idea was to develop a new
polymeric alloy that combines the desired properties of polyethylene and polyester, thus enabling an effective use of geocells
as reinforcement for earth retention, load support in pavements
and railroads, and more. While exploring the production of
such an alloy (called Neoloy), PRS commissioned research to
develop design methodologies. Such research should also imply
the desired properties of the new product.
This article provides an overview of the research where the

use of geocells as an earth-retention structure was explored. The
geocell used in the tests was standard, commonly used HDPE and,
as such, was not appropriate for long-term reinforcement applications; that is, it was not stiff enough. However, it was adequate for
Editors note: Feature articles in Geosynthetics magazine focus on

projects and how geosynthetic materials are used in a variety of
applications. Very rarely is the focus solely on a specific product,
company, or individual. Professor Leshchinsky and I note that this
articleparticularly the Introduction and Conclusionsdeparts from
this policy in an effort to offer a guideline, an example, of how product
development for the geosynthetics industry can be done effectively.
We hope these lessons can further advance the geosynthetics industry
into the 21st century with much success.RB
| Dov Leshchinsky, Ph.D., is a professor of civil and environmental engineering at the University of Delaware and is a regular
contributor to Geosynthetics magazine. His last article, The case of the percolating water, appeared in the April/May 2008 issue.
46
investigation of short-term performance,

thus implying the desired long-term properties of a polymer to be used as well as
producing the basis for design, especially
under severe seismic loading.
The research team included Professor Hoe Ling of Columbia University,
Dr. Mohri of the National Research Institute of Rural Engineering in Tsukuba
City, Japan, and the author. Detailed results were reported by Leshchinsky, et al.
(2009) and Ling, et al. (2009).
Ideally, the design of any structure subjected to earthquakes should
be based on tolerable recoverable and/
or permanent displacements. This approach is difficult to implement for reasons such as a lack of acceptable criteria
for tolerable displacements, highly random future seismic record, inaccurate
identification of in situ soil constitutive
behavior, and numerical difficulties in
predicting displacements within the matrix soil-geosynthetic. The state-of-theart in seismic slope stability analysis is
not yet sufficiently developed to entirely
replace the current design practice.
Design of slopes is typically based on
limit equilibrium (LE) stability analysis.
Pseudostatic slope stability analysis assumes an equivalent seismic coefficient,
typically in the horizontal direction, which
results in additional force components in
the limit equilibrium equations, all proportional to gravity. Specifying the seismic
coefficient as peak ground acceleration
(PGA) is likely overly conservative as it
considers the maximum seismic forces
permanent rather than momentary.
The objective of this study was to
quantify a reasonable reduction factor
(RF) on the PGA for geocell retention
structures. Reduced factors can then be
integrated with well-established LE analysis to conduct seismic and static design.
Figure 1a | Test 1: gravity wall with gravel infilled geocell
Figure 1b | Test 2: gravity wall with sand infilled geocell
Shake table testing program
This shake table is located at the Japan

National Research Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Tsukuba City, and it
Figure 1c | Test 3: geocell reinforcement infilled with sand

47
Seismic performance
Test Number
Maximum Settlement
Horizontal Permanent
Displacement of Face [mm]
Maximum Settlement
of Crest
31
27
47
40
150
150
95
85
Table 2 |
can excite gross maximum payload of

500kN to vertical and/or horizontal acceleration of 1g; maximum accelerations
for lighter payloads can be larger than 1g.
The metal testing box containing the geocell retention systems was 2m wide, 6m
long, and 3m tall. To minimize reflection
of waves from the side and rear of the
metal box, expanded polystyrene (EPS)
boards, 5cm thick, were placed against
the testing box walls. To reduce friction
with the sidewalls, greased plastic sheeting was placed against the EPS.
In all tests, an amplified time record
of the 1995 Kobe earthquake was applied
to the shake table. The Kobe record used
had horizontal PGA of 0.59g and a vertical PGA of 0.34g. The peak horizontal
and vertical accelerations did not occur
simultaneously. Table 1 shows the applied peak accelerations in four different tests. There were either two or three
loading stages.
In the first loading stage, the Kobe record was attenuated in an attempt to verify
whether excessive movements occurred.
An hour later the second loading stage
was applied, amplifying the Kobe record.
In Tests 3 and 4, a third excitation was
48
Figure 1d | Test 4: 5cm-high geocell reinforcement infilled with sand
applied, this time reaching the capacity

of the shake table. The third stage nearly
doubled the Kobe recorded acceleration.
Stage 2 was aimed at developing an active
wedge; it was hoped that the third stage
would bring about collapse.
In Tests 1-3, the retention system was
2.8m high; in Test 4 it was 2.7m. All retention systems were constructed over a
0.2m-thick foundation soil. The geocells,
resembling a honeycomb structure, were
0.2m high with internal aperture of approximately 0.21m by 0.21m. The aver-
age face inclination of the systems was

2(v):1(h). The top geocell layer was 2.52m
long, much longer than all layers below.
This top layer was infilled with compacted
gravel. It was assumed that long top layer
made of geocell would inhibit crack or
even slip surface formation immediately
below this layer. Indeed, tests indicated
that while numerous small and shallow
tension cracks initiated at the crest, none
was observed immediately below the long
top geocell layer in any of the tests, thus
supporting the initial assumption.
Seismic performance
Figure 1 (ad) shows the geocell layout in each of the four tests. Tests 1-2
represented flexible gravity walls and Tests
3-4 utilized geocell as reinforcement and
facing. In terms of economics, the systems in Tests 3 and 4 are about the same.
In Test 4 the layout of geocell resembled
that of traditional geogrid reinforcement
while still acting as 3-D element. Generally, the polyethylene geocell used in the
tests cannot be used as reinforcement for
sizeable structures since it has low longterm tensile strength. As tested, only sufficient short-term properties were needed
to resist the seismic loading. However, the
lessons should indicate the needed product improvements in developing Neoweb,
which is made of Neoloy, as well as produce a simple design methodology.
Test Number
Seismic Reduction Factor

RFs=a/PGA
0.38
0.37
0.25
0.25
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49
Seismic performance
The backfill soil behind the facing

and in the 0.2m-thick foundation was
fine uniform sand (Median Grain Size =
0.27mm; 0.35% passing sieve #200; Uniformity Coefficient = 2). The backfill was
compacted to 90% of Standard Proctor at
a moisture content of 16% yielding a dry
unit weight of 13.5 kN/m3 or moist unit
weight of 15.6 kN/m3. Compaction was
done by a handheld vibratory compactor. Drained triaxial tests yielded peak
strength of =38 degrees. Unit weight of
the compacted gravel was 19.9 kN/m3.
Thin white seams of sand were placed
every about 0.4m within the backfill material. Upon completion of each test, the
backfill was carefully excavated to observe
dislocations of these seams so that traces
of slip surfaces could be identified. In addition, each test was comprehensively instrumented including pressure transducers,
laser displacement gages, accelerometers,
and strain gages (Ling et al, 2009).
Results and interpretation
Accelerometers embedded within the

backfill soil and facing, at several elevations, indicate that magnification of base
acceleration was negligibly small. This
may not be surprising with flexible retention systems as they deform during
shaking, dissipating energy and acting
as shock absorbers.
Table 2 shows the measured maximum displacements in each one of the
tests. Note that displacements were not
uniform and, therefore, the term maximum represents a rather narrow zone
where it occurs. Also note that for Tests 1
and 2, the maximum applied acceleration
was significantly lower than that for Tests
3 and 4 (see Table 1). Overall, considering
the severity of the applied seismic excitation, the recorded values do not imply a
catastrophic failure (e.g., see Figure 2 for
typical post-shaking appearance).
Generally, the displacements reflect
a well-developed active wedge where
the shear strength of the soil is mobilized. Sufficient strength and stiffness
50
Figure 2 | Test 2: Post-earthquake (159% of Kobes PGA) frontal viewsee excavated section of
same wall in Figure 3a (below).
Figure 3a | Test 2 (applied excitation was 159% of Kobes)
Seismic performance
Figures 3ac | Post-shaking exhumed sections through backfill and geocell (Note: Dislocations of white
sand seams indicate locations where slip surface developed and soil strength was fully mobilized).
Figure 3b | Test 3 (applied excitation was 205% of Kobes)
of a geocell will enable acceptable structural long-term performance with even

smaller displacements.
Post-test exhumation of the retention
systems while measuring dislocations of
the white sand seams helped in establishing the location of the active wedge
surface (e.g., see Figure 3, ac). This
enables complete limit equilibrium (LE)
stability analysis where the soil strength
is fully mobilized rendering an active
wedge, meaning the factor of safety on
soil strength, Fs, equals unity.
To find an equivalent seismic coefficient for design, it is convenient to
define seismic reduction factor, RFs=a/
PGA, where a is the equivalent pseudostatic seismic coefficient. RFs for each
test was determined using the recorded
PGA that caused an active wedge to
develop without rendering excessively
large displacement combined with an
adequate LE analysis.
The pseudostatic acceleration in the
LE analysis was adjusted to render Fs
of unity; i.e., to reflect the existence of
an active wedge. The locations of the
predicted and observed active wedges
were compared and used to assess the
predictive value of the analysis. It is
Figure 3b | Test 4 (applied excitation was 205% of Kobes; note the

sections through the 5cm-high geocell reinforcement.)
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Seismic performance
noted that in LE design, one would input

a(=RFs PGA) to obtain adequate seismic stability where the factor of safety,
Fs, under pseudostatic conditions is
typically about 1.1. In fact, if one had to
design the tested retention systems, use
of RF and Fs>1.1 would have produced
smaller displacements than those reported in Table 2.
LE stability analysis was performed
using program ReSSA (www.geoprograms.com; also see Leshchinsky and
Han, 2004). Rotational (Bishop) and
translational (Spencer) analyses were
conducted to determine the RFs. The
safety map feature (Baker and Leshchinsky, 2001) facilitated the process. (For
example, see Figure 4.) While the observed slip surface emerged between the
second and third geocell facing layer,
the numerically predicted surface (at a/
PGA=0.35) emerged along the interface
between the geocell and the foundation
soil. However, the safety map shows that
practically this is an insignificant difference, as the safety factors for any predicted slip surface emerging at the lower
geocell layers is within about 12%. Such
an observation affords confidence in the
predictions, especially when comparing
Figures 3a and 4; i.e., the observed and
predicted traces of slip surfaces, respectively. Figures 5a and 5b show the predicted active wedges and their respective
RFs values; they can be compared with
the observed wedges shown in Figures
3b and 3c, respectively.
Apropos Figures 3c and 5b: As can
be seen, contrary to a common legend,
these figures demonstrate that slip surfaces can develop through the reinforcement. Such internal global instability can occur when the reinforcement
is too soft or weak. Clearly, while the
HDPE geocell used was adequate to test
a design-oriented analysis, it lacks longterm strength to serve as reinforcement.
However, it enables one to establish the
desired properties in geocells so it can
serve as soil reinforcement.
52
Rotational (Bishop) and translational (Spencer) analyses

were conducted to determine the RFs. The safety map feature
(Baker and Leshchinsky, 2001) facilitated the process.
Figure 4 | Test 2: Safety map rendered by Program ReSSA (3.0) using Spencer Method and
pseudostatic analysis.
Figures 5a-b | Predicted critical slip surfaces in geocell-reinforced retention systems
Figure 5a | Test 3: predicted active wedge using Bishop Analysis
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Seismic performance
Table 3 (page 49) summarizes the reduction factors that are implied by the
testing program when a pseudostatic LE
is used. As can be seen, for geocell gravity
systems, RFs of about 0.4 are adequate.
For geocell-reinforced soil systems, RFs
of 0.3 are adequate.
Conclusions
Current practice of designing reinforced

or unreinforced slopes and walls is to
identify the local PGA and use a fraction of it in a pseudostatic analysis. This
fraction is the reduction factor for pseudostatic analysis.
The Kobe earthquake was used as
a reference for an excitation to identify
this coefficient. It is likely that if another
excitation was used, the reduction factor
would be different. However, the Kobe
earthquake was significant in terms of
damage to slopes and walls, thus qualifying it to serve as a good reference for
calibrating this reduction factor and the
associated seismic coefficient.
Tests results are compared with a
pseudostatic limit equilibrium analysis.
The predicted failure mechanisms are
similar to those observed in the tested
geocell retention systems. The seismic
coefficients required to produce failure in
the analysis were much smaller than the
actual peak value obtained in the tests.
For the geocell gravity wall, the seismic
reduction factor, RFs, needed to render
failure is about 0.4. For geocell reinforced
retention systems RFs is about 0.3.
The FHWA (2001) guidelines for
reinforced steep slopes allow for RFs of
0.5. Hence, compared with this work, the
FHWA recommendation is slightly conservative. The IITK (2005) recommendation for unreinforced slopes of one-third
of the Peak Ground Acceleration is amazingly close to the measured results.
Tests 1 and 2 show that gravity walls
made of geocell can perform well under
seismic loading. Such gravity systems
may be economical for walls up to
3-4m high. Tests 3 and 4 show that a
54
Figure 5b | Test 4: predicted active wedge using Bishop Analysis
reinforced system, made entirely of

geocell and soil, can be effective and
likely economical.
The tests reported herein are relevant to short-term performance when
considering the utilized HDPE geocell. However, without improvement,
HDPE geomembranes are not suitable
for long-term applications. Problems
of durability related to leaching of additives, oxidation, and to UV exposed
facing should be addressed. Large
thermal contraction and expansion of
outer cells due to daily and seasonal
temperature changes combined with
high intrinsic thermal coefficient of the
geocell material could lead to progressive failure initiating at the outer cells.
Stress cracking of exposed facing could
occur in low temperature. Low stiffness
and strength may lead to significant
creep having poor long-term dimensional stability.
Considering the objectives of this
research, PRS-Mediterranean received
guidelines for developing the new polymeric alloy, Neoloy, and thus improve
its Neoweb system, facilitating its use in
retention systems. It also obtained design
tools enabling utilization of the Neoweb

in demanding applications considering
long-term performance.
References
Baker, R., Leshchinsky, D., 2001. Spatial distributions
of safety factors, ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 127 (2), 135145.
FHWA, 2001. Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and
Reinforced Soil Slopes Design and Construction Guidelines,
Publication No. FHWA-NHI-00043. Elias, V., Christopher,
B.R., Berg, R.R.
IITK, 2005. IITK-GSDMA Guidelines for Seismic Design of
Earth Dams and Embankments, prepared by Roy, Dayal, Jain.
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur and Gujarat State
Disaster Mitigation Authority.
Leshchinsky, D., Han, J., 2004. Geosynthetic Reinforced
Multitiered Walls, ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 130 (12), 12251235.
Leshchinsky, D., Ling, H.I., Wang, J-P, Rosen, A., Mohri,
Y., Equivalent Seismic Coefficient in Geocell Retention
Systems, Geotextiles and Geomembranes, 27(1) 2009, pp.
9-18.
Ling, H. I., Leshchinsky, D., Wang, J.P., Mohri, Y., Rosen,
A., 2009. Seismic response of geocell retaining walls:
experimental studies, ASCE Journal of Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering, 135(4), 515-524.
2 years for
the price of 1
$ 99
$ 129
$ 179
59 /2 Years U.S.A.
$ 69 /2 Years Canada/Mexico (U.S. funds)
$ 99 /2 Years Other Int'l (U.S. funds)
$
They don't call us

Geosynthetics for nothing.
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Offer ends December 31, 2009. Please
allow 4-6 weeks for shipment of rst issue.
Offer valid for new subscribers only.
Geosynthetics provides you with expert industry

information that helps get the job done...
and done right!

Offering topics on:
Roads & bridges
Erosion control
Landscape architecture
Water management
Retaining walls
and much, much more!
| Panorama |
GEO news and notes from around the world

Abstracts invited for geosynthetic materials workshop
New Caltrans guide for geotextiles
A new design guide for using subgrade enhancement

geotextiles (SEG) in road construction has been
produced by the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans).
The 18-page document is intended to assist pavement design engineers in five areas:
1. What are SEGs and what functions do they serve.
2. How to determine if geotextile materials are
needed for a project.
3. How to determine the materials engineering
properties.
4. How to install and how to construct new pavement using geotextiles.
5. Calculating cost savings, in the amount of
aggregate, by using geotextiles.
For more information and to examine this guide:
www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/SubgradeEnhancement-Geotextile-Guide.pdf
Infiltrator acquires Ring Group
Infiltrator Systems has acquired Ring Industrial Group, manufacturer of the EZflow brand of geosynthetic aggregate drainfield systems.
EZflow products are established in the onsite industry with
15 years of installations in more than 30 states and Canadian
provinces. The EZflow geosynthetic expanded polystyrene system is engineered for optimal absorption efficiency. Modular
bundled configurations allow installations in septic drainfields
and drainage applications.
With the addition of the EZflow product line, Infiltrator,
based in Old Saybrook, Conn., is the largest septic products
company in the onsite industry with a combined 2.5 million
systems installed across North America (www.infiltratorsystems.com).
56
Abstracts are invited in support of the workshop Geosynthetic

Materials Durability: Field and Laboratory Experiences, scheduled for Jan. 29, 2010.
This workshop will focus on
all types of geosynthetic materials durability in both covered and
exposed applications. The fourpart workshop includes longterm field experiences under
various environment conditions:
accelerated weathering studies,
polymers, and additive packages
that constitute the final materials formulation. Part four is a
summary of workshop content by a panel of experts.
Sponsored by ASTM International Committee D35 on
Geosynthetics and the Geosynthetic Research Institute (GRI),
the workshop will be held in conjunction with the Jan. 27-29
standards development meetings of the ASTM committee.
The workshop will focus on all types of geosynthetic materials
durability in both covered and exposed applications.
Titles and abstracts for this workshop must be sent to both
workshop cochairs by Sept. 30, 2009. Based on their appropriateness and acceptance, the formal program will be developed.
Titles and extended summaries (2 to 5 pages) will then be
required by Nov. 30, 2009. The final abstracts will form the
information booklet that will be distributed to all participants
at the workshop. All oral presentations will be on PowerPoint
with a time allocation of 15-25 minutes, depending on the
response to this solicitation.
Additional information is available at www.astm.org/
d35work110.htm or by contacting workshop cochairs Sam
R. Allen, TRI/Environmental Inc., Austin, Texas (+1 512 263
2101, sallen@tri-env.com); or George R. Koerner, Geosynthetic
Institute, Folsom, Pa. (+1 610 522 8440, gkoerner@dca.net).
Thrace-Linq commissions nonwovens equipment
A new nonwoven production line has been commissioned at

the Summerville, S.C., facility of Thrace-Linq.
The companys advanced production line includes a fiberopening and blending system, oven and dryer, calender, winding and slitting system, and automated packaging.
For more information: www.thracelinq.com.
| Letters to the editor |
FGI offers
short course
The Fabricated
Geomembrane
Institute (FGI) will offer Constructing with
Fabricated Geo-membranesFlexibility,
Choices, and Superior Performance Oct.
23 in Denver.
This course is presented by Timothy
Stark, Stan Slifer, John Heap, Daren L.
Laine, Bill Shehane, Stuart Lange, Andrew
Mills, and Gary Kolbasuk, among others.
Course participants are eligible for 8 PDHs
from the University of Illinois.
Those involved with the design, construction, operation and closure of potable
water and irrigation ponds, floating covers, canals, landfills, waste water lagoons,
secondary containment, golf course ponds,
decorative applications, corrective action
activities at closed sites are encouraged to
attend this course.
The registration fee of $100 includes
one day of instruction, short course notes,
refreshments, and lunch. Government personnel and students are eligible for discounted admission. Advanced registration
is required and the registration deadline is
Oct. 14, 2009.
For more information: www.fabricatedgeomembrane.com, +1 217 333 7394.
TenCate introduces new

drainage geosynthetic
TenCate Geosynthetics has introduced

Mirafi MiraGreenD for site drainage applications for engineers and architects designing environmentally sound projects.
The product is a nonwoven drainage
geotextile composed of 30% (LEED calculated) recycled content and it can be used
in a wide variety of drainage applications.
Its manufacturing process is designed to
reduce dependence on virgin petroleumbased resins.
A product description sheet and technical data sheet can be viewed and downloaded at www.mirafi.com.
Comments and a question for the

GMA Techline doctor
| Red or white?
To the editor:
I am writing to respond to the April/May issue of Geosynthetics,
specifically to the GMA Techline Q & A (pp. 50-52). The GMA Techline
is a valuable element of the magazine, one that I read fervently.
I have several comments and a question for Dr. Koerner.
The question from Claudia (p. 50) on the comparison of standard
results from ASTM and ISO methods is a good discussion topic
possibly an article in Geosynthetics describing, in general, the salient
differences between the methods would be of assistance to those
wrestling with international specifications.
The question from Gabriela (p. 52) asking about references to work
done on pH and geogrids in masonry units is a recurring question
that both GSI and the FHWA have spent considerable time and effort
on. While many in the industry have seen the reports and research,
many in the general engineering community simply are not aware of
the work done to date on the FHWA guidelines.
Finally, however, I must take issue with the response Dr. Koerner
provided to the last question, from John (p. 52), relating to geocomposite drainage. Specifically, has the good doctor given due consideration to red wine as well as white? There are numerous blends and
many vintners who produce excellent reds, be they a cabernet, shiraz,
merlot, etc. While white wine may be the summer drink of choice for
many, nothing beats the delicious taste of a nice glass of chianti after
a hard day at the office.
Regards,
John Paulson, P.E.
REDI Engineering Inc.
Alpharetta, Ga.
57
| Geosynthetic Institute |
30-year anniversary for the first hardcover book on geosynthetics

By Bob Koerner, Geosynthetic Institute/Drexel University
n the late 1970s I was in the habit of regularly inviting

speakers to make presentations to my geotechnical classes
at Drexel University. Two were very memorable: Bill Ragen of
Mirafi and Bill Witherow of Carlisle. Their respective topics
were filter fabrics and pond liners and, in truth, I didnt
associate them with one another within the modern context of
geosynthetics that we do today.
Shortly thereafter, and following several small consulting
projects, two other events occurred that were meaningful. One
was the 1977 conference in Paris, France, entitled International
Conference on the Use of Fabrics
in Geotechnics, and the other was a
chance meeting between an editor of
the John Wiley & Sons book company
(by the name of Dan Morris) and a
good friend, Joe Welsh, of the ground
modification firm, Hayward Baker.
Dan, who had seen the proceedings
of the Paris conference, suggested to
Joe that he write a book on construction fabrics and Joe, being too busy,
suggested that he and I do it together.
It was interesting to me from the perspective that this was a new field of
endeavor and that it would be a hardcover book.
When I was proceeding through
my formal education, all books that
we used were hardcover. This continued throughout my university
years at Drexel, Columbia, Delaware, and Duke. There simply were no softcover books at
that time. When softbound books and paperback conference
proceedings began to appear, my thoughts (and perhaps those
of others) were that they were not quite finalized. Many
were published by university print departments and updated
annually. As an example, many soils laboratory books fell
into this category until Lambes hardcover manual eventually
settled the issue. A hardbound book was felt to be archival
and belonged permanently on ones bookshelf.
At any rate, my initial thought regarding the possibility
of a new hardbound book was that the information base was
certainly sparse. But upon further reflection (remember the
publish or perish concept was deeply entrenched in all of
academia, including Drexel University, then as it is now), I
58
started gathering all available publications and manufacturers literature and formed a table of contents. While the focus
was indeed fabrics, certainly impermeable fabrics (aka, pond
liners) were also considered. As such, the book was written
between 1978 and 1979 and published as a 267-page hardcover
in 1980 by J. Wiley and Sons Inc., under the title, Construction
and Geotechnical Engineering Using Synthetic Fabrics.
The individual chapters were: 1. Overview and Background
of Synthetic Fibers, 2. Construction Fabrics, 3. Fabric Use in
Separation of Materials, 4. Fabric Use in Reinforcement, 5. Fabric Use in Drainage, 6. Fabric Use in Erosion Prevention, 7. Fabric Use as Forms,
8. Impermeable Fabrics, 9. Guidelines
and Current Research and Development
Activities, 10. Several Appendixes and a
units conversion table.
There were a few numerical examples,
but it was not a complete textbook in that
there were no homework problems and
the references were obviously lean at this
early stage of the technology.
We (Joe Welsh and I) were delighted
with the books initial reception in that its
sales were good and, more importantly,
my phone never stopped ringing. Clearly,
my subsequent decision to go completely
into this newly emerging field was obvious and well beyond all other research
interests that I had at the time (e.g., deep
foundations, acoustic emissions, groundpenetrating radar, etc.).
The one cloud that arose was a book review by Dr. Alan
Haliburton of Oklahoma State University who reviewed the
book with the ending comment that the book was, too much
salad and not enough meat and potatoes. For those of you who
remember Alan, you can understand the context of his comment. What it did for me, however, was to propel me onward to
a meat and potatoes book, which emerged six years later as the
first edition of Designing With Geosynthetics, published in 1986.
Work is now beginning on the sixth edition of this textbook.
Some time after the publication of the first book in 1980,
I learned from Englands Peter Rankilor that our Construction
and Geotechnical Engineering Using Synthetic Fabrics book
was very close to not being the first hardbound geosynthetics
book. It seems that he had submitted his own manuscript to the
| Geosynthetic Institute |
Wiley office in London about the same time as we submitted

ours to Wileys New York office. Of course, neither London
nor New York knew of the two respective book topics and,
more importantly, Wiley in London lost all of Peters artwork,
photographs, and drawings, forcing him to do everything all
over. (Remember that these were the days before computers and
an all-electronic publication system.) The delay caused him at
least a year, which resulted in his book appearing a year later
than ours, in 1981.
At any rate, the Koerner/Welsh hardcover book of 1980

certainly put me on the map and (fortunately) I never looked
back. All subsequent research at Drexel University, along with
courses, students, and projects, was focused on geosynthetics
and it has not stopped to this day. Geosynthetics is a marvelous
field of endeavor and a technology that has had, has, and will
continue to have, an awesome growth and benefit to society. I
am delighted to have been a part of this growth and hope to
continue for another 30 (well, maybe not 30!) years.
Continued from page 64
HDPE. They had three chances on 3mlong strips to make a satisfactory weld from
which central samples were cut for peel and
shear testing at TRI in Austin, Texas. Each
candidate could send only one sample of
each type of weld for testing.
Equipment would seemingly work for
some people but not for others, but the more
experienced welders seemed to have no
problems at all. It got very hot and sweaty!
Cristina, Valentins daughter, had put them
all through a dry run of the welding and
testing before the actual test, but nerves
were still evident. No discussion or help
was allowed. Each person did his own QC
shear and peel testing to assess the quality of
the welding,
One of the first welders used all of his
allowed material before he was satisfied,
putting a large dent in the available time.
Extrusion-weld quality varied significantly
from constant and smooth to quite rough,
depending on the welders experience. It
averaged about three hours for each person
to do all require welding. When machines
malfunctioned, the operator made his own
repairs or moved to the unused machine.
Cutout samples were labeled by the welder
and were separately bagged for shipping to
TRI. We finished at 23:30 hr. We had dinner
in the car park at a McDonalds!
Cristinas comments: We had one month
to prepare for the exam (the theoretical and
| Mircea Pascaru and Cristina Feodorov

worked on translating the questions for
the written CWT test.
the practical parts). During this time, we

composed more than 500 possible questions
and we ran a couple of tests, the last one a
simulation of the actual event! We created the
normal Romanian exam conditions. All of the
participants passed this test! Ciprian Ciobanu,
the leader of the Iridex geosynthetics installer
team, prepared them for the practical part.
He was changing the equipment settings all
the time to make sure that each person was
capable of setting the machines correctly. We
did our best to pass the IAGI examination! We
knew that we would become the first company
in Europe welders to receive IAGI certification, so we welcomed the challenge!
On Monday morning I gave a lecture,
translated by Mircea Pascaru and Cristina
Feodorov, on Geomembranes: Successes
and Failures to about 55 people at the
Technical University of Bucharest. Some
of the guests came from the Romanian

Environmental Ministry. They were very
interested in how installations of geomembranes are done and how they must be
checked. Waste management systems are
an important topic in Romania right now.
In the afternoon, we first went to an
international courier company to send the
sealed packages containing the samples and
the examination papers to TRI. Then we
visited the Hall of the People, really Ceausescus palace, looking out over the Avenue
of the People that was modeled on the
Champs Elyses, but it is1m longer and 1m
wider! The gall of the man and his separation from the people were unbelievable.
On Tuesday morning, we were delivered
back to the Bucharest airport for our flights
home via Paris and Atlanta.
All but one person became certified
welding technicians after the welds were
tested by TRI, where they had to meet the
GRI.GM-19 specifications for seam shear
strength/elongation and peel strength/
separation. Congratulations to Ciprian
Ciobanu, Viorel Cotrau, Radu Dinu Cezar,
Florin Vlaicu, Cristian Gheorghe, Stan
Sterea, Valerica Martin, and Constantin
Popescu for successfully becoming IAGI
Certified Welding Technicians!
And many thanks to the Feodorovs
and to Mircea Pascaru for their excellent
hospitality.
59
| Geosynthetic Materials Association |
GMA helps organize pre-Expo green roof workshop in San Diego
pre-show program titled How to design

green roofs and landscapes will be held
Tuesday, Sept. 22, 5:308:30 p.m., at the San
Diego Marriott Hotel & Marina, in conjunction
with the 2009 IFAI Expo at the San Diego Convention Center Sept. 2325.
This workshop is free to licensed architects
(see details below). It will provide insightful information on the use of geosynthetic and textile
materials that promote the design of sustainable,
energy efficient environments and buildings.
The workshop is organized by the Industrial
Fabrics Association International (IFAI) and the
Geosynthetic Materials Association (GMA).
IFAI members, please note that an additional
registration fee applies for this workshop, as it is
not included in a Full Business Package to IFAI
Expo-09. (See costs below.)
Benefits of attending this course
| The Chicago City Hall green roof project included a drip-irrigation system, fed partially by
water collected from the adjacent penthouse roof.
2.0 continuing education hours (CEHs)

Networking reception on Sept. 22
Free admission to the IFAI Expo Trade Show Sept. 2325
Learn how geosynthetic materials are producing sustainable,
energy efficient environments
Examine on-site geosynthetic materials and learn about their
performance characteristics
Learn the steps to a successful landscape project with geosynthetic materials
Get new ideas for designing landscapes, green roofs, and
related building structures
Collect resources and contacts to get started on projects using
geosynthetic materials
Enjoy a networking reception and meet geosynthetics experts
Receive a free subscription to Fabric Architecture and Geosythetics magazines
Costs and Continuing Education Hours
This workshop is not included in the Full Business Package to

IFAI Expo. Costs: Before Sept. 12$99 for IFAI members, $149
nonmembers; after Sept. 11$129 members, $179 nonmembers. Students receive a 70% discount; college and government
employees get a 40% discount.
The program offers 2.0 CEHs at the conclusion of the program. Architects must register by contacting Barbara Connett,
bjconnett@ifai.com or +1 651 225 6914 with RSVP, contact
information, and state license number.
60
Tentative schedule
66:30 p.m.: Keynote speaker Glen Schmidt, FASLA,

Schmidt Design Group, Creative Solutions for Sustainable
Environments
6:307 p.m.: Mechanics and Construction of Geosynthetic
Technology, Bruce Dvorak, ASLA, Department of Landscape
Architecture & Urban Planning, Texas A&M University
77:20 p.m.: Examples of Green Roofs and Landscapes
using Geosynthetic Technology, Allan Wingfield, AIA, product
manager, Colbond Inc.
7:207:50 p.m.: Practical Steps for Designing and Installing
Green Roofs and Landscapes, Angie Derman, Tecta America
7:508 p.m.: Workshop Summary, Boyd Ramsey, GSE Lining Technology Inc.
Andrew Aho, Managing Director, GMA,
amaho@ifai.com
| Calendar |
September
2325 September
IFAI Expo
San Diego
25 September
GeoAfrica-2009
Cape Town, South Africa

The first African regional conference on
geosynthetics is Sept. 25, 2009, in Cape Town.
The Geosynthetics Interest Group of
South Africa (GIGSA), under the auspices
of the International Geosynthetics
Society (IGS), will host the first regional
conference in Africa on geosynthetics.
The theme for the event is Geosynthetics
for Africa. The conference will include an
exhibition for the specification and trade
of geosynthetics for users in Africa and for
those interested in a business entry into
the continent.
For complete information on the
conference, including registration
information, key dates, technical and social
programs, and exhibition and sponsorship
options: +27 21 559 4574, fax +27 21 559
4574 086, lesley@cebisaconferences.co.za.
At the San Diego Convention Center, San Diego, Calif., U.S.A. The largest specialty
fabrics show in the Americas, offering hundreds of exhibitors and high-impact,
cutting-edge symposiums and workshops.
For information, contact show management at ifaiexpo@ifai.com, or visit www.ifaiexpo.com.
Course location: Pyle Center, 702 Langdon

St., Madison, Wis.; course fee: $1,095.
For more information: +1 608 262 0785;
www.epdweb.engr.wisc.edu/webK816
RemTech Expo 2008

Ferrara, Italy
911 September
University of WisconsinMadison
To register, exhibit, or for more information:

+39 0532 909495, info@remtechexpo.com,
www.remtechexpo.com
Shoreline Protection: Practical Coastal

Engineering Design and Practice
Topics include: coastal processes, data
gathering, and planning; mechanics of
wave, water, and wind interactions; design
of breakwaters, jetties, groins, seawalls and
revetments, armoring, and rock quality.
This course is prepared for: city, county,
and state agency officials; regulators,
planners, and developers; civil and
geotechnical engineers; contractors and
construction personnel; geologists and
hydraulic engineers.
Participants can earn 21 professional
development hours (PDH) and 2.1
Continuing Education Units (CEU).
To reserve a room, call 800 356 8293
or +1 608 257 6000 and indicate that you
will be attending this course under group
code 6595.
Sardinia-2009: 12th International

Waste Management and
Landfill Symposium
Sardinia, Italy
2325 September
The 3rd edition of Remediation Technologies

Exhibition will be held at the Ferrara Exhibition
and Conference Centre in Ferrara, Italy.
The event is organized by the Ferrara
Fiere Congress and by coordinator, Dr.
Daniele Cazzuffi.
The expo will feature: remediation
technologies; removal and encapsulation
of asbestos; characterization, investigation,
and instruments for analysis, inspection,
and monitoring; brownfields and real
estate; management and planning.

www.geoafrica2009.org,
www.gigsa.org/GIGSA/index.htm
59 October
October
12 October
LRFD for Geotechnical

Engineering Features
University of Delaware,
Newark Campus
Load and Resistance Factor Design (The
Design Platform for the 21st Century),
presented by Jerry A. DiMaggio, P.E., and
Dov Leshchinsky, Ph.D., and facilitated by
UDs Engineering Outreach.
web: www.engr.udel.edu/outreach/short-courses/
LRFDGeoTechFeatures/index.html
e-mail: werrell@udel.edu
For conference details and more

information: Anne Farmer, Eurowaste srl,
via Beato Pellegrino 23, I-35137 Padova,
Italy; +39 049 8726986; fax +39 049
8726987, eurowaste@tin.it.
For more information: www.sardiniasymposium.it
1921 October
Waterproof Membranes 2009

Dsseldorf, Germany
This conference provides a forum for

manufacturers and users of waterproof
membranes, as well as their supply chain
and researchers, to discuss the latest
trends in markets and technologies.
A small exhibition runs alongside
the conference. Waterproof Membranes
2009 aims to cover a range of subjects
including: membrane materials and
additives, material selection, market
trends, applications, legislation, standards
and testing, manufacturing technology,
and more.
Conference location:
Swisstel Dsseldorf/Neuss, Dsseldorf,
Germany, +49 (0) 2131 77 00,
reservations@swissotel-duesseldorf.de,
www.swissotel.com
For more information: Sally Humphreys at Applied
Market Information Ltd. (AMI), +44 (0) 117 924 9442,
Fax: +44 (0) 117 989 2128
sh@amiplasticscom, www.amiplastics.com
61
| Calendar |
1922 October
CitiesAlive 2009
Toronto
In partnership with the city of Toronto

and the World Green Roof Infrastructure
Network, Green Roofs for Healthy Cities
has announced the inaugural CitiesAlive
World Green Roof Infrastructure Congress,
taking place at the Sheraton Centre in
downtown Toronto, Canada.
Addressing the theme Green Roof
Infrastructure: A Global Solution to
Climate Change, the objectives of the
CitiesAlive Congress are to raise awareness
of the benefits of green roof infrastructure
and to build capacity of the green
roof infrastructure market through an
international exchange of information,
and via local education, training, and
accreditation opportunities.
More than 1,000 participants within
the building design, development,
construction, and management sectors,
as well as policymakers, government
officials, NGO representatives, students,
and engaged members of the public are
expected to participate in the event.
www.citiesalive.org
2022 October
Geotextile Tubes: Coastal,

Structural, and Dewatering
Design and Applications
Newark Campus
Three course options are offered to meet

specific needs, presented by Douglas A.
Gaffney, P.E., and Dov Leshchinsky, Ph.D., and
facilitated by UDs Engineering Outreach.
1. Coastal and Structural Engineering
Applications (Oct. 2021).
2. Dewatering and Other Environmental
Applications (Oct. 2122).
3. The full geotextile tube course
(Oct. 20, 21, 22).
GeotextileTubes/index.html
62
28 October1 November
1113 November
Washington, D.C.
Newark Campus
Society of Hispanic
Professional Engineers
MSEW & Reinforced Soil Slopes
The nations largest technical conference

for Hispanics offers a lineup of
educational, technical, networking, and
career programs to support college
students and professionals.
The conference promises to be
particularly popular for job seekers, since
more than 300 organizations are projected
to attend, hiring in the fields of science,
technology, engineering, and math.
Other highlights at the 33rd SHPE events
include award presentations, workshops,
engineering and design competitions, career
fair, and corporate tours.
Mechanically stabilized earth walls and

reinforced soil slopesincluding LRFD
and allowable stress wall design sections
based on AASHTOLRFD Specifications,
4th Edition, 2007, presented by Dov Leshchinsky,
Ph.D., and James G. Collin, Ph.D., P.E., and facilitated
by UDs Engineering Outreach.
For registration and more information: www.shpe.org
Phoenix
November
1011 November
Geosynthetics Middle East 2009

Dubai, UAE
SKZ announces the 2nd International

Conference of Geosynthetics Middle East
in Dubai, UAE.
This years topics include polymer
developments; products (geomembranes,
geotextiles, geogrids, geocomposites,
erosion control products, geopipes);
testing, quality assurance, and
certification; installation and welding;
applications, projects, and case studies;
durability and lifetime.
Dr. Helmut Zanzinger will chair
the seminar.
Conference site: Radisson SAS Hotel
Dubai, UAE; www.dubai.radissonsas.com
For more information: Irina Bender at SKZTeConA
GmbH , Friedrich-Bergius-Ring 22 Wuerzburg,
97076 Germany; +49 931 4104-436
i.bender@skz.de, www.skz.de
msew-rss/index.html
1618 November
National Tribal
Transportation Conference
The 12th annual NTTC is at the Pointe
Hilton Tapatio Cliffs Resort in Phoenix this year.
Featured at the November event will
be a focus on stimulus funding and the
reauthorization of federal highway legislation.
The exhibit hall at this event will be
open Monday night, Nov. 16, and all day
Nov. 1718.
For more information about sponsoships, exhibiting,
or registration: 800 262 7623, ttap@business.
colostate.edu, www.ttap.colostate.edu
| Advertisers Index |
| For your convenience, a list of advertisers, including hot links to their web sites, is available at www.geosyntheticsmagazine.info. When you contact an
advertiser in this issue, please tell them that you saw their ad in Geosynthetics.
Cv2 Agru America GMA

800 373 2478
www.agruamerica.com
13 Huesker, Inc. GMA

800 942 9418
www.huesker.com
51 Synder Mfg. Inc. GMA

800 837 4450
www.snyderman.com
45 American Wick Drain Corp.

800 242 9425
www.americanwick.com
31 Insulfoam, LLC
www.insulfoam.com
Cv4 Tenax Corporation GMA

800 356 8495
www.tenaxus.com
39 BTL Liners GMA

www.BIGLINERS.com
43 Invisible Structures Inc. GMA

800 233 1510
www.invisiblestructures.com
29 Carlisle SynTec
800 479 6832
www.carlislegeomembranes.com
15 Maccaferri Inc. GMA

800 638 7744
www.maccaferri-usa.com
43 Checkmate Geosynthetics Inc. GMA

+1 604 824 4963
www.checkmategeogrid.com
31 NAUE America Inc. GMA

+1 404 504 6295
www.naue.com
21 DEMTECH Services Inc.

888 324 9353
www.demtech.com
41 Parker Systems Inc.

866 472 7537
www.parkersystemsinc.com
19 Fiberweb GMA
800 321 6271
41 Presto Geosystems
800 548 3424
www.prestogeo.com
7 Firestone Specialty Products GMA

800 428 4442
www.firestonesp.com/ifai5
23 Propex GMA
800 621 1273
www.geotextile.com
2 GSE Lining Technology Inc. GMA

www.gseworld.com
1, 5 Strata Systems Inc. GMA

800 680 7750
www.geogrid.com
11 TenCate Geosynthetics GMA

800 685 9990
www.mirafi.com
27 Thrace-LINQ, Inc. GMA
800 445 4675
www.thracelinq.com
29 Trelleborg Building Systems AB
+46 370 481 00
www.trelleborg.com/waterproofing
39 Vector Engineering Inc.
+1 530 272 2448
www.vectoreng.com
www.ifaiexpo.com
GMA indicates advertiser is a member of the Geosynthetic Materials Association, a division of IFAI
| The Geosynthetic Materials Association actively identifies, assesses, analyzes and acts upon
market growth opportunities and issue that affect its member companies. The activities of the
association are proactive in nature and focus on five areas: Engineering support Business
development Education Government relations Geosynthetic industry promotion
| The bolded advertisers are exhibitors at IFAI Expo 2009.

Be sure to visit their booths at the show, which will be
held at the San Diego Convention Center, San Diego, CA
on September 2325, 2009.
For more information on IFAI Expo2009, please visit
www.ifaiexpo.com.
Visit www.gmanow.com, Contact: Andrew Aho amaho@ifai.com, 800 636 5042.
63
IAGI certified welding technician course, Romanian style

By Ian Peggs
hen I knew that Lyn and I were

going to EuroGeo4 in Edinburgh
(September 2008), we decided to take advantage of the cheap European airfares to
spend a few vacation (What a concept!)
days in Prague.
Having already proctored an IAGI
welder certification course for Permathene
in New Zealand during a business trip
Down Under, I asked Laurie Honnigford if
there was any company in Eastern Europe
that might want to run a CWT certification
course. Iridex, in Bucharest, Romania, she
said immediately.
So we made arrangements with Valentin Feodorov, president of both his company, Iridex, and of the Romanian chapter
of the International Geosynthetics Society
(IGS). We extended our award ticket to
Bucharest at a saving of 5,000 miles (How
does this work!?), so planned to spend
three days in Romania.
We arrived at the Bucharest airport early
on a Friday afternoon and were driven directly to the technical college where the
multiple-choice written test and hands-on
welding tests on high-density polyethylene
(HDPE) and linear low-density polyethylene
(LLDPE) were to be held.
I was safely guarding the written test
books. The intent was to go straight into the
written test. Of course, the written test was
in English and most of the welders (nine in
all) did not speak or read English! Needless
to say, the Spanish version of the test was no
help either.
We thought of translating each question in turn and presenting it verbally in
Romanian, then allowing sufficient time
so every question would have equal time,
but that would not allow backtracking or
reviewing previous questions and answers.
Photos courtesy of Ian and Lyn Peggs
| Classroom with participants taking the

written certification test (top). In addition to
a written test, hands-on welding proficiency
was also required (bottom).
Another option was to translate three or

four questions at a time and to project them
on a screen.
In the end, there was only one answer:
Since full translation would have to be
done anyway, we would make a completely
printed translation of the test. This took
about four hours, during which time all
nine participants waited nervously for the
test! We started quite late. There were just a
few explanations of the translation required.
Most of the guys finished before the two-
hour time limit; only a couple stayed to the

bitter end. Fortunately, we still had time for
a late dinner with Valentins family.
The driving in Bucharest was interesting,
to say the leasteither very wide boulevards
or narrow old streets; the surroundings of a
modern city anywhere in the world but still
a distinct aura of Ceausescus influence.
The youngsters in Valentins family
appreciated their free education but were
happy to have their own choice of job and
the ability to live well without it being taken
away. We also heard some fascinating stories from Valentin about leaving to work
internationally, making good money, and
the difficulties of bringing it back to start
his own business at home when Ceausescu had gone. Obviously, it has all paid off,
since Iridex is one of the largest and most
forward-thinking construction companies
in the country.
On Saturday morning, after all of the
equipment was gathered, we were ready to
start the hands-on tests at 09:30 hr. We had
two fusion and two extrusion welders, but
there was only sufficient power in the rented
college workshop to have two running at
any time!
The order of testing was pulled out of
a hat. Each welder had to double-wedge
weld: (1) 1mm smooth HDPE to 1mm
smooth HDPE; (2) two different thicknesses
of HDPEone smooth, one 1.5mm textured; and (3) 1mm smooth LLDPE to 1mm
smooth LLDPE, starting from scratch
clean wedges, adjust gaps, set nip roll pressure, and set temperatures and speeds.
They also had to extrusion weld 1mm
smooth LLDPE to 1mm smooth LLDPE
and 1mm smooth HDPE to 1mm smooth
Continued on page 59
| Ian Peggs, P.E., P.Eng., Ph.D., is president of I-CORP International Inc. and is a member of Geosynthetics
magazines Editorial Advisory Committee.
64
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| August September 2009 |

No matter how you

Condence runs deep with Strata.

| August September 2009 |

By Ronald S. Johnson, Sang-Sik Yeo, and Randy Sundberg

The benefits of geosynthetic materials are perfectly

36 History, development, and future

An introduction to Chinas geosynthetics

46 Seismic performance of various

Research and innovation:

64 Administering a certified welding

Go to this website every day

Geo news and notes from around the world

57 Letters to the editor

Comments and a question for the

30-year anniversary for the first hardcover

60 Geosynthetic Materials Association

GMA helps organize pre-Expo green roof

Geosynthetics | August September 2009

Stabilizing an unstable world!

Get to this website now

| Ron Bygness, Editor

www.geosyntheticsmagazine.comthe brand new

Save this date for this event: GeoFrontiers2011

GeoFrontiers returns to Texas, as the Industrial Fabrics Association International

Geosynthetics is an international, bimonthly publication for civil engineers,

*The Editorial Advisory Committee reviews selected papers, case

Geosynthetics | August September 2009

Two great companies,

The recently completed TCF Bank Stadium in Minnesota uses an

To learn more about geomembrane solutions from Firestone Specialty Products

800-428-4442 | info@restonesp.com | www.restonesp.com/ifai5

2009 Industrial Fabrics Association International all rights reserved

The official publication

Landfill cover promotes

covery to a new level, installing a geomembrane landfill cover with

Geosynthetics | August September 2009

nergy and waste-disposal companies today recognize that

New energy source

Geosynthetics | August September 2009

Antonios electric and natural gas provider, to deploy 5.6 acres

When you need reinforcement...

and separation Think TenCate.

Protective & Outdoor Fabrics

New energy source

Geosynthetics | August September 2009

New energy source

| Geomembrane covers are already in use across the country

The solar strips, which have flexible photovoltaic silicon cells

Geosynthetics | August September 2009

| Seaming the landfill cover: Republics

to working with state regulators across the country to capitalize

For over 130 years, Maccaferri has been controlling

From conceptual design to construction stage,

Our expert managers are available to provide useful

Photos courtesy of McGill Associates P.A.

Erosion-control mix rebuilds Clydes creekbank

Geosynthetics | August September 2009

Photo 2 | This before photo shows the artificially straightened

uring two weeks in September 2004, the town of Clyde,

Photo 3 | Post-hurricane runoff accelerated creekbank erosion.

Specifications and installation

In January 2009, Johns and his team

Geosynthetics | August September 2009