Professional Documents
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The Botanical Atlas
The Botanical Atlas
The Botanical Atlas
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THE
BOTANICAL ATLAS
A GUIDE TO
BY
D.
V
M 'ALPINE,
JsLCtuCLO-qct-iyi
THE CENTURY
CO.,
1883
F.CS.
NEW YORK
TO
S>S*
l&t#
^onouraMF
fp
LL.D., F.R.S.E.,
^arl of JRosrtppj)
Etc
THIS
WORK
IS,
THE AUTHOR
PREFACE.
THE
"Botanical Atlas"
is
The
Animal
appropriate garb.
The
colour, for
Life Histories
is
much
in
instance,
natural, so that
is
common between
received
full
recognition,
Mushroom,
Seaweed, Lichen, Moss, Fern, Horse-Tail, and Club-Moss, ending with those which foreshadow the higher Seed-bearing
Plants.
The microscope is here necessarily the principal instrument of research and in delineating minute objects requir;
My
thanks
due to Professor Dodel-Port, who allowed me free and full use of the beautiful Figures in his "Anatomical
and Physiological Atlas of Botany," and even favoured me with other drawings to choose from, if necessary.
are specially
The Phanerogams are represented in all their leading divisions, and the various reproductive processes are fully
Typical members are chosen from the principal Natural Orders, and the mode of examination pointed out.
illustrated.
its
various parts passing into Fruit and Seed are mainly considered, and this forms the best introduction
to a course of Practical Botany, since the eye and hand, trained to dissect and distinguish these comparatively conspicuous
structures, can then
more
their various
modifications.
As
the woods
and
every one
who
as full
directions
commonest kind
from
in order,
the simplest and most uniform, and ending with the most complex, that general view of the whole field
the best preparation for
is
given which
it.
D.
April, 1883.
commencing with
M'ALPINE.
is
PHANEROGAMS
CONTENTS.
....
...
PHANEROGAMS.
CYCAD
PINUS and
PLATE.
I.
...
...
TAXUS continued
II.
CROCUS
------------
DATE
---------------....
WATER
of
WILLOW
VIOLET
-------
UMBELLIFER HOG-WEED
BRAMBLE
DOG ROSE, SWEET-BRIAR, STRAWBERRY, SPIREA, APPLE, CHERRY,
.
SWEET PEA
PRIMROSE AND HEATH
WHITE DEAD-NETTLE and SAGE
FOX-GLOVE AND SPEEDWELL
DAISY and DANDELION
-
ARRANGEMENT
of
MANTLE
----....
...
and LADY'S
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
XIX.
XX.
XXI.
XXII.
XXIII.
XXIV.
XXV.
XXVI.
CYCADS
PHANEROGAMS
Fig.1 Cycas circmalis -Female,
much^t,^
Fig.
reduced
PLATE
/.
V4-
y*
reduced,
Pinnae.
Rosette of
Green, Foliage, -Leaves
Unfertilixed
Ovules at different
Ovules
es ofdevelopment
Fig.
4 Mature
not
Ovale,
size
Scale. -Leaves
Flg.
Fig.
Fig.
8 Female,
Cone,
of Zamia, rnzaimta,
a..
5 Male,
6 Male,Fhwe^o^Ce^al^-za7?^iaMe^Licana
Longitudinal
of part of
b Transverse
section
under surface
Cone,
Fig.
Fig. II
'oUen sacs
Fig. 10 Unfertilized,
b-
Seed ofFjtcephalartos
in vertical section
Rudiment ofMcropyleSucculent
ShaL
,.
Older-
Layer
^Fibrous sheafo-lll
Fig.
Hard Liner..
Carpel of same
hearing Z Ovules
Layer
2 Cotyledons-
Ovide
Hilwn,
AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
Seed in
Vertical
section
PLATE I CYCADE.E.
(Cycas
Luerssen.)
Cycads belong to the warmer parts of the world, their chief centres being Tropical America, South Africa, Eastern Asia, and Australia.
Although there are no living representatives in this country, still as they form the base of the lowest class of Phanerogams, or seed-
They show
here.
The
examination of the Coniferae, with which they are closely allied, will enable the student to understand the various
Cycads may be seen growing in the " Palm-houses " of our Botanic Gardens,
hope to obtain specimens.
where their resemblance to Tree-ferns, or Palms, is strikingly manifest.
The genus Cycas shows, in a very elementary form, the essential characteristic of the Phanerogams, viz. the structure of a Flower
producing Seed
The terminal bud of the stem becomes a flower of the simplest kind a number of modified leaves arranged spirally
The
on an axis, and these modified or carpellary leaves assume the simplest form their lobes being converted into naked ovules.
central bud of the flower again grows out and produces ordinary leaves, thus showing the flower to be a modified bud, and the carpels or
ovule-bearing organs to be modified leaves.
In the Island of Portland there are the remains of an old
Fossil forms are found in this country, particularly in the Upper Oolite.
land surface, known as the " Dirt Bed," and in it are embedded the roots and woody stumps of Cycads.
practical
General Characters
Fig.
1.
In Cycas the male and female flowers are produced by distinct individuals, but both plants have the same general aspect
Stem, woody, fifteen to twenty feet in height, surface covered with the scars of fallen leaves, and summit bearing
a terminal crown of leaves, in the centre of which is the terminal bud.
Leaves, of three kinds scale-like leaves, foliage leaves, and carpellary leaves.
Scale-leaves envelope the bud, while a new crown of foliage-leaves is being prepared, and thus alternate regularly
with them.
Foliage-leaves are pinnate, and form a palm-like crown.
Carpellary leaves produced by the terminal bud, and bearing ovules.
Flower
Figs. 2
and
3.
leaf
pinnae.
Fig. 4.
Fig.
5.
size of
it,
number of
scales,
bearing pollen-sacs.
7.
Fig.
8.
axis
with
scales
closely packed,
and
their
thickened ends
hexagonal in shape.
Fig.
Seed
9.
Fig. 10.
Carpel in the form of a scale, bearing two ovules on the under surface.
End
Vertical section.
Outer
shell.
Endosperm.
Embryo
CLASSIFICATION.
Sub-kingdom.
Group.
Phanerogams,
so-called because the reproductive organs are generally more conspicuous than in Cryptogams.
Reproductive organs condensed into conspicuous structures known as Flowers.
Seed produced from the flower, and containing an embryo before it is detached from the parent plant.
Gymnosperms.
Order.
Cycadeae.
Foliage-leaves, large
CONIFERSMALE ORGANS
PHANEROGAMS
PLATE
Fig.
Fig.
2 Male Flower
6.
Transverse seed
enlarged ofP.Zaricio
<<>P
~^b&*LXj: k>
of Tarns baccala
(-10)
Stamens
Fig.
3.
Stamen ofYew
Pollen sacs
Scaly portu
Fig.
Axis
Fig.
StaBc
Bladder
Fig.ll Pollen
grain ofZarch
500)
like expansion.,
of Eoctine
Hudzmentary TrothaHus
{Vegetaave. cell)
Larae
Large
cell
cell
Large
Small vegetatb/e
Small vegetative
cell
cell
AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
II.
cell
and 10
ofttr Dodtl-Port
Organs.
The Coniferse are usually trees, with needle-shaped leaves, and fructification in the form of a cone, hence the name cone-bearers.
The cone of a Lycopod or Selaginella has an upright axis, clothed
This structure has been already met with in the higher Cryptogams.
with modified leaves or bracts, bearing sporangia in their axils.
The Stem of Pines and Larches, for instance, bears merely brown scales to represent leaves, and in their axils arise a tuft or a pair
These pairs or tufts of green leaves are really branches with their axis undeveloped; indeed, if a young
of the green foliage-leaves.
Larch is examined, some of the tufts will be met with elongated and developed into branches.
The Flower and Fruit will only be considered now the Male Flower in this Plate and the Female Flower and Fruit in the next
They are little cones developed in the axils of scales.
The male flowers are much simpler in their construction than the female flowers.
They discharge their pollen about May, and in such enormous quantities as to give rise to the so-called showers of sulphur the pollen
being powdery and of a sulphur-yellow colour.
Fossil forms occur in the Carboniferous formation, the wood exhibiting the bordered pits characteristic of the wood-cells of Conifers.
Fig.
1.
Fig.
2.
Single
Fig.
3.
Male Flower.
Each male flower is situated like an ordinary bud
appendages of which become Stamens.
in
It is
Embed Male
spirally.
Fig.
5.
Detached Stamen with two pollen-sacs upon its under surface, and provided with a very short stalk or filament
The pollen-sacs open by a longitudinal slit on the under surface.
These are the Stamens.
Male Flower of Yew, consisting of an axis bearing a number of shield-shaped bodies.
Fig.
6.
Embed Male
Fig.
7.
Fig. 4.
lateral
Flower in paraffin, and make transverse section (compare with transverse section of cone of Equisetum).
Central axis giving off fibro-vascular bundle to each Stamen.
Fig. 8.
Figs. 9
and
radially,
and not
bi-laterally,
as in Fig. 4.
10.
Examine
pollen-grains,
developing antherozoids.
Fig. 11. Treat some pollen of Larch with caustic potash, and crush, to rupture outer coat, which
under high power.
The small vegetative cell is seen to be divided into several cells.
is
somewhat opaque.
Examine
CONIFERSFEMALE ORGANS
PHANEROGAMS
Fig. I Fondle,
at
^different
a.
Terminal
at
Cone ofFinns
stages
time,
ofdevelopment
of PoGznatiori
Bud
Tipper portion
Half grown
D A G RAM I
I
portion
Longituamal section of
Engraved, Printed
PLATE
Fig.3 Long&iduwl section through
hwer of
111.
PLATE
and 9 from
Jkxlet-Port.)
and
The
Flower
Fig.
1.
(a.)
as in May, upright and situated in the axil of a bract like one of the rudimentary branches.
Previous year's cone hanging, with scales firmly closed to protect the ovules.
(6.)
Ripe cone
in Fig.
5.
2.
ment of the
fibro-vascular bundles
in
each other.
Ovule consisting of a central Nucellus enclosed
in
or to an aggregation of
like the male cone
variously regarded as equivalent to a single flower
Taking a Flower in its simplest expression to be a modified axis bearing modified
lateral appendages for reproductive purposes, then if the bract be regarded as a Carpellary leaf (as is sometimes done),
and the scale as the placenta to which the ovules are attached, the whole cone will constitute a Flower ; but, if on the
is
other hand, as many suppose, the ovule-bearing scale represents a reduced branch, then the primary axis of the cone
So instead of the violent supbears secondary axes, and such an assemblage must be considered as an Iiiflorescetice.
position of one leaf in the axil of another, there is a single leaf representing a reduced branch, and the first leaf of the
branch is, as it should be, opposite to the bract from which it arises.
Diagram
Fig.
3.
II.
The
Ovule-bearing scale and Bract are united in Cupressus, as shown by the double fibro-vascular bundle, and the
inner portions of each bundle being contiguous, shows that the two corresponding faces are opposite to each
The Ovule is thus borne upon the dorsal surface of the leaf, i.e., the surface originally turned away from
other.
the axis bearing it.
Ovules may occur singly, as in Yew and Araucaria ; in pairs, as in Pines and Firs, Larches and Spruces ; or in
groups, as in Cypress.
Embed Female
woody
opened
Fig. 4.
Ripe
Fig.
5.
The seed-bearing scale of Pinus has apparently no bract In the ripe cone, owing to the excessive crowding of the parts,
the bract has become welded to the scale, forming a dense woody mass; whereas in the Larch, the compression of
the membranous scales is not so great, and the bracts remain distinct.
Fig.
6.
fruit
scales,
vertical section,
in glycerine.
Seed-cover or Testa.
Endosperm.
Embryo
Fig.
7.
ripe Fruit of the Yew has a crimson cup known as the Arillus.
from the base of the seed, surrounding it and finally rising above it.
The
Germination
9.
is
It
is
The
fleshy
to
is
poisonous.
Yew
plant showing the two green Cotyledons opposite and persistent, and succeeding leaves arranged spirally.
The leaves of the Yew are seen at first to have a regular spiral arrangement; but as branches are formed, which
spread out more or less horizontally, the leaves get twisted upon their stalks and come to lie in one plane, as if
In that way the original radial symmetry has become bi-lateral.
arranged in two rows.
Young
CLASSIFICATION.
Phanerogams.
Sub-kingdom.
Group.
Gy mnosperms.
Coniferae.
Order.
and sweet
hard-shelled Seed
Fig. 8. Germinating
Fig.
spirally.
Taxineae,
represented by Yew.
Genus.
Pinus with woody cone.
Species.P. sylvestris, or Scotch
Advance
in
Fir,
>
J&.TTl
'
PHANEROGAMS
Fig.l General Characters
ofFoci
PLATE
Tig.
Inflorescence^^ }g SpikdU
1 Spikelet detached
IV.
Stigmas
-10 j
Fig. 3 Floret detached
a. Panicle
"10
Stamens
Flowering Glume
Blade.
Florets
Ovary
Split
2 Imbricating
Sheath
Outer Glumes
DIAGRAM
out
Tale
Ovary with
Stamens
feathery
Ovary
Stigma
& Lodiades
L odiatles
Fbtrering
Tak
Glume
Fig.
8 Wheat germinating
Fig.
Ftp.
Fig.
6 Groan of Wheat
Flowering Olurru.
9 Root -hairs
highly magnified
7 Longitudinal section
^^ ^
~\
gr00 ve
Cotyledon
^j Plumule
Embryo
Rootlets with
^j~^
"^SS^Root hairs
Radicle
Epidermal cells
Fig. 12
Fig.FL
Fig.10 Triangular
&
Male Flower
Fankle
Fig.
IS Female Flower
Solid Stem
SpOcelets
Yak
Fig.
of
14 Fruit
Flowers
Stamens
/Stigma
Bract
I
Ovary
Spikekts of
Female Flowers
DIAGRAMED ofMaleFlower
WAj-is
DIAGRAM
a,.
Cartx.
c.
Elyna
#
'racteole
o>
- 2 Keeled
forming Perigyniwn,
Female. Flower
B racteole
forming
Perigymum,
'
Bract
Axis
Bract
Bract
An 3
Gn i3j or
2j
Engraved. Printed
Mile Fh.ftr
borne on sh.vt Bmndi
SAND CAREX
(Carex arenaria).
Grass.
The
of the year.
everywhere by the road-side, and may be had in flower at almost any season
instead.
examined
might
be
Wheat
of
flower
flower is exceedingly small, and when the season permits the
In accrathere is an interchange of pollea
Grasses are usually wind-fertilised the pollen is wafted from flower to flower, and thus
turn aoout
and
filaments
long
on
out
hang
anthers
the
colours,
ance with this arrangement, the flower is inconspicuous and without gaudy
entangle the pollen as it passes.
with every breath of wind, and the stigma is a branching tree, in miniature, to
Some, however, are self-fertilised and the Annual Meadow Grass is an example.
The Grass chosen
common
is
>
Fig.
General characters.
1.
_
,
Root, fibrous.
.
.
_ A fVlof ^y.^
that tnc
the inner, so
In the quickly growing stem, the outer parts grow faster than
Stem, hollow and jointed.
nodes,
the
at
partition
horizontal
form
a
bundles
The fibro-vascular
interior is ruptured and a hollow produced.
and thus strengthen the stem.
sheath and blade
Leaves, linear and alternate, with pointed membranous Ligule at junction of
flowers.
stalked
bearing
Inflorescence consisting of an axis with branches
:
composed of
Spikelet
et
lg.
etac^e^
Fig.
3.
Floret detached.
Fiff
4.
Under
several flowers.
^ ^^ ^
the
the flowers.
imbricating with each othe r, and the axis of the spikelet bears
,
The Stigma in the centre is seen to be branched and hairy in order to intercept and
The Anthers are placed on slender filaments.
The Flowering glume and Pale are simply bracts overlapping each other.
Diagram I. Plan of
flower,
at
one
level
and
Fig.
5.
Figs. 6
Fig.
9.
and
7.
^^
Root-hairs^
^^
and
it
will
soon begin.
is
food.
Sedge {from
may be contrasted in
row?on the stem and
Luerssen).
Sed-es
3
sheath is not
but are usually male and female, and not bi-sexual like the flower of Grass.
Sedges are mostly found in damp places.
in three
split.
the
triangular
bracts
The Leaves
are arranged
called glumes, as
in
grasses,
enclosing
the flower
is
CLASSIFICATION.
Group
Class.
Angiosperms.
Embryo
fertilisation.
Graminaceae.
Stem, hollow.
Leaves, alternate, with
split sheaths,
and
.
, , t ,
.
ligules at junction of blade
and feathery..
and one-seeded.
Seed with Endosperm.
Stigmas, two,
Fruit, dry,
Order.
Cyperaceae.
'
and sheath
LILY
PHANEROGAMS
Fig.lFidly developed
PLATE
V.
Ldy
Fig.
ZFkwerofl'ritMrniti-LongVudmal section
Brads
Perianth Leaves
of honey
at entrance
of Nectary
Stioma
Fig.
hm#
3 Transverse
section to
show Nectaries
* W*
{ Nectary
DIAGRAM
Fkui oFFbwer
Fin. 4 Foliane
lea ves
Fig.
5 Bract
3 chambered
Ovary
of-.
Ca.
Fig.
Co.
An.
3-3
Gn. (3)
6 Stamen
Fig.
Transverse section
and
7 Transverse section of
Anther ofFritdkrin
\Anttier
Fig
Pollen,
sacs
Conntctb/t
Anther -lobe
opening
tm
Filament
AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
^Ol5o:
PLATE
VMARTAGON
LILY
and
9, after
CROWN IMPERIAL
(Fritillaria imperialis).
Dodel-Port).
Fig.
1.
fully
developed.
The
flower in the
Figs. 2
Diagram
and
I.
its
the parts of the Calyx and Corolla are similar in size, shape, and colour,
Nectaries are at the base of each perianth-leaf.
Andrcecium of two whorls of three Stamens each.
Gyncecium of three united Carpels.
Figs.
six
Plan
When
The
and the
4 and
5.
base
The
till
it
is
usual to call
them
at the
of the flower-stalks.
Fig. 6. Stamen.
Figs. 7
Fig.
9.
and
The
The Anther appears at first to be quite in line with the Filament, but as the stamen curves outwards, the
anther comes to swing on the very top of the filament, so as readily to discharge its contents (as in Fig. 1).
a longitudinal slit down the side.
8. Each Anther-lobe consists of two pollen-sacs, and opens by
It is beautifully netted on
Pollen-grain of Martagon Lily is a striking example of beauty and utility combined
This oil is to keep it moist until it
the outer surface, and each mesh of the net usually contains a globule of oil.
reaches the stigma with its secretion, and the netted arrangement distributes the oil more evenly and generally over
the surface.
LILY AND
PHANEROGAMS
Fig.
PL ATE
Epidermis
Fig.l
(jywmum. ofFritiRarin
Stigma
trifui
Fig.
5 Lorigitudinal
Style
of FriMariu
Fig.
of Ovary
section
of
VI.
Flower
Fig.
cont
and
LILY.
4 after Dodel-Port.)
1.
Fig.
2.
Style, smooth.
Stigma, indistinctly lobed, three narrow clefts marking off lobes.
Fig.
Transverse section about the middle of Ovary, and Longitudinal section through its lower portion.
Three Carpels evidently united together, forming a three-chambered Ovary.
Ovules in two vertical rows in each chamber of ovary.
Placentation is axile, because the ovules arise from a central axis which is attached to walls of ovary.
3.
Fig. 4. Longitudinal section of Stigma with pollen, showing two stigmatic lobes highly magnified.
The Stigmatic surface is seen to consist of an epidermis, the cells of which have either grown out into papilla:
or hairs.
Such a surface evidently entangles pollen-grains falling upon it, and the secretion of the stigma not only
retains the pollen, owing to its viscid nature, but supplies nourishment for the growth of the pollen-tube.
The Pollen-tube is seen to grow down the canal of the style, the walls of which are furrowed, so as to guide
the pollen-tube to the ovules.
In order to see Pollen-tubes distinctly, take a drop of the secretion from the stigma on a slide, by simply
bringing it into contact with the moist stigma, then apply this to the tip of the mature anther, and a few pollengrains will stick.
In a short time (about half-an-hour) the pollen-grains will begin to put forth their tubes, if the
secretion is kept moist, and the tubes with their contents appear beautifully transparent.
Fig.
Embed
5.
Style of
Crown Imperial
in paraffin,
to
to fertilise
the ovules.
The
Style consists of loose tissue, through which the pollen-tubes make their way.
The secretion of the stigma
the pollen-tube a start, then it passes down the centre of the style, where the cells arc largest and loosest,
and thus follows the line where the ovules are attached.
The growth of the pollen-tube is thus seen to be different in the two cases.
In the Lily, the pollen-tube
depends entirely on its own resources and the secretion of the stigma, whereas in the Crown Imperial, it bores into
the tissue of the style, just like the hypha of a fungus, absorbing it, and dying off in its hinder parts as it
proceeds.
will give
Fruit of
6.
which
splits
escape.
Figs. 7
and
8#.
The Seeds
There
Figs. So
and
9.
is
are flattened out and lie one above another in two rows in each chamber.
a margin to each, and the Embryo is seen embedded in the endosperm.
finger
seed,
CLASSIFICATION.
Monocotyledon.
Class.
Oder.
Genera.
Liliaceae.
Lilium.
PLATE
NARCISSUS
PHANEROGAMS
Fig.
...
Ovary
Flower
i
DIAGRAM
Fig.
4 Perianth
Stigma
inferior j
stall:
a.
Plan of Flower
n,
e,
FoRen
Co.
Co..
VII.
3 An
3+3
tube.
Gn.(j)
Micropyle.
DIAGRAM
II
Imbricate Arrangement of
Perianth leaves in
Fig.
Bud
Polyanthus Narcissus
Infbrescenc&-ojv Umbel
"NuceHus
Fig.
y:::..-'OvuMs
VT.
Edinburgh.
PLATE VIL-NARCISSUS.
The
Daffodil
is
It occurs in woods, in moist and shady situations, somea favourite garden-flower appearing in the early spring.
The flower is solitary, on a long stalk; but in the Polyanthus Narcissus there are a number of flowers form-
ing an umbel.
In Polyanthus Narcissus it is
In the Daffodil the most striking part of the flower is the Corona, which forms the central tube.
This structure is merely an
simply like a little cup; and in the Snowdrop, belonging to the same Natural Order, it disappears altogether.
Pinks,
the throat of the corolla.
with
in
at
shall
meet
we
processes
the
and
appendage of the perianth, resembling the ligule of grasses,
.
Fig.
Daffodil.
1.
Bract,
membranous.
The
Figs. 3 and
Fig.
2.
I.
Diagram
II.
5.
Fig.
6.
is
Calyx
Diagram
Fig.
of three Sepals.
( Perianth.
Corolla of three Petals alternating with the Sepals, f
Androecium, of six Stamens, in two alternating whorls.
Gynoecium of three united Carpels.
Showing
Fig.
7.
Make
in section.
and you
of the
(a.)
(o.)
Three
Embryo-sac
in detail
CLASSIFICATION.
Class.
Monocotyledon.
Amaryllideae.
Order.
Genera.
enlarging.
Embryo-sac, originally a single cell of the Nucellus, growing fast and
These three
Embryo-cell with two other cells called Synergidae or Co-operative cells.
cellulose-wall.
with
a
Three Antipodal cells, each
Nucleus of Embryo-sac, surrounded by a vacuole.
a capsule.
Seeds, endospermous.
Narcissus with a corona.
perianth-segments largest.
Galanthus (Snowdrop) without corona, and outer
equal.
Leucojum (Snow-flake) without corona, and perianth-segments
cells are
without a
cell-wall.
CROCUS
PHANEROGAMS
PLATE
Fig.
2.
VIII.
Fig.
Section
MlU^l Plan,
of Flower
DIAGRAM
Fig. 3
^f^
Ca.3
Co.
An. 3
Bract
Gn.fjj
Fig. 8
Sagmatic Surface,
Fig.
4 Loriguuamal
Anther
section
b.
side view
c.
expanded
ofFlower
Stigma,
Perianth -tube
Fig.
Underground Stent
Fig. 7
Stamen
Fig. 9
Fruit
remains of Style,
fruit
l/i\\
'
AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
8c
London
remains ofTerianth-
Fig.10 Seed
PLATE
,i th
VIII. CROCUS.
continued
which has been cultivated for centuries vie ds that
beauri
also in medicine.
It is from the
which are o a
This order is characterised by havTng thre st^enl
sSas
t
Two
Fi<r, 1 QT
,H 2.
9
Figs.
1 and
'
Fig.
4.
T" 6 Ur
thl^nt^^ v^
,r<r
different
flowers are represented to
^J
T
to
t0 that
nd
and
*-*
for
vie
is
sativus,
1S USed f r d ein
^
g' for flavouri "8 S P*> and
PaSSmg
ye loW that the d e is obtainc d?
i
WhlCh pen outwards and
the stigmas usually petaloid.
.1
-^rVJsJSiaErs :&
3.
^LTr
nl
ul
Fig.
7^
^5
,^
iMS? ?
*"* -*
"***
*9% which
the Saffron or Crocus
**
their
'
>
show the
relative position of
i^r^s^
-^ s - - *
in
each case
up from below
Pe
^t^^Cln^cSed
Ovary,
the Sh Wy SCgmentS
ThC SegmCntS
^^
Fig.T'
The ovules
Diagrams
I.
but in
this
'
axis.
is
l- rticular
inst
The Ovary
clearl
^ftta
LbSe
Plan of Flower
Fig.
5.
Fig. 6.
Fo
^^ 5
v
d
This
fo n
is
&
7.
Fig.
8.
Stamenthe Filament
The Stigmatic surface
Fig.
9.
Fruit, a
its
Fig.
of
is
chiefly
com-
leaves as well.
is
flattened,
is
ridge
on the
leaf.
arrow-shaped.
in addition to the
CLASSIFICATION.
Monocotyledon.
Order.
Class.
Iridaceae.
Ovules, numerous;
Placentation, axile.
opening by
Seed with endosperm.
Fruit, capsular,
valves.
Embryo.
COMMON ORCHIS
PHANEROGAMS
PLATE
3 Front view ofFlower (*10)
Fug.
Tuberous Rhizomes
Fig. 1
IX.
Sepals
Fig.
Flowering Stern
Beak
RosteUimv
Bud.
Sugmatic Surface
Old Tub t
'.'-
Young Tuber
Young Tuber
6 FoliageLeaf
4
Fig.
7Bract
Fig.
laj
PoUinium
Front View
lb)
RosteUurn
Back View
Spread, out
Fig.
8 Sepal
Connective
Opening Lengthway.
>
\Sntrance
Antherlobes
Stigma,
fK
to
Spur
Stigmatbc Surface
of Ovary
Fig.
9 Folli/iMUTb
DIAGRAM Plan of Flowers
Orchid
(a)
Fug.
ib) lady's
Slipper
10 Twisted Ovary
Pollen-mass
St/zrriinodei
Bracts
Ca,3 Co
Fig.
[a]
3 Jrvl
Gn.13)
15 0&77nuiatton^of Date
Transverse Section
of Seed
(dj
tf^^Ernbryo
ff\j*'
Endosperm,
Young leaves
Transverse Section
Fig. 11
of Ovary
Fig. 12
Transverse Section of
Lobes which/
afterwards separate,
in, Frulb
o.
Fig.
13 Frwil.A Capsule
I
bj
S-tction
of Germinating
Seed.
Cotyledon
Opened
letj-unopened/
Fig.
14 Seed
Stalk of Cotyledon
[Embryo
Seed Cover
with, netted
markings
Sheath, of
Seen tnrouq h
'
|i
I. eaves
succeeding Cotyledon
>
W.
k AX Johnston, Edinburg
Rootlets
(Orchis mascula).
in many respects, for the curious shapes of the flowers, the peculiar structure of their parts, and the
The common or purple Orchis occurs in shady situations, and flowers early
beautiful contrivances for cross-fertilisation.
The underground stem is in the form of a Tuber, which in this species is ovoid, or it may be divided at the base into
in April.
There are two Tubers, a young one storing up material for next year, while the old one is providing for the
finger-like processes.
The young Tuber arises as a lateral bud, growing in size as the old one decays, and thus the plant is carried on from year
present
The flower and its arrangement will be noticed in connection with the Figures.
to year.
The Date belongs to the
As the Orchid ends the Monocotyledons, space has been found to show the germination of the Date.
Palm family, but is here introduced to show the well-developed primary or tap-root, a structure with which Monocotyledons are not
numerous and
usually credited.
1.
Dig up Tubers
The
Fig". 2.
Flower
Fig.
3.
Flower
in front view.
Sepals, three, one median and two lateral.
Petals, three, the lower one forming a platform
Fig.
5.
Anther-lobes open lengthways, exposing the pollen-masses, and there is a Connective between, which arches
over at the top.
Make a vertical section of the flower used in Fig. 4.
The
The relative position and structure of the parts have evidently reference to the visits of insects.
entrance to the spur is guarded by the Rostellum, in which, as in a cup, lies the Sticky base of each pollen-mass.
The stigmatic surfaces project immediately beneath and by the side of rostellum, so that the upright pollen-mass,
when it becomes horizontal on the insect's head, will strike against it.
Calyx
Orchid
Fig.
8.
Fig.
9.
Fig
Sepal, blunt at
(3).
tip.
In a ripe flower insert the point of a pencil for instance, so as to rupture rostellum, and on withdrawing the pencil,
one or two pollinia will be found adhering to it.
Pollinium, consisting of a club-shaped pollen-mass borne on a stalk, with a sticky gland at the base.
Ovary is untwisted, and that the lip is uppermost (as
10. In a young unopened flower it is interesting to note that the
In expanding, however, the twisting of the ovary turns the parts of the flower right round,
shown in Diagram).
and the
lip
The
Figs. 11
and
12.
comes
stalk-like
to
occupy
its
inferior position.
sessile,
is
therefore a spike.
The
it,
or lobes, leaving
the
ribs
still
stand-
ing between.
Fiff
*'
14
'
Detach one of the Seeds from wall of fruit, and examine under microscope.
The Seed consists of a Cover, which is irregularly netted, and an Embryo, which
entiated mass of tissue.
CLASSIFICATION.
Monocotyledon.
Division. Petaloidese.
Order. Orch
Class.
dacesc.
is
a roundish undiffer-
Common Orchis
continued.
Germination of Date.
Fig. 15.
The
Seed.
'
{b,
c.)
Embryo, small.
Endosperm, large and horny.
Germinating seed
c,
in
its
natural position
and
in vertical section.
of the single Cotyledon remains in the seed, absorbing the endosperm, while the other end lengthens
The primary root is developed with its rootand carries with it the other parts of the embryo out of the seed.
cap, and leaves are formed within the sheath of the cotyledon.
(d.) The young leaves have burst through the sheath of the cotyledon, and the Primary root has become largely
The primary root has a coil at the base, because it had
developed, giving rise to numerous Rootlets.
One end
"
PHANEROGAMS
FiglMale & Female
Inflorescence ofBurn
Fig.
2 Scale detached
>b)jnmr v^
3
Fig.
AND WILLOW
PLATE
Fig.
DIAGRAM
,{
Tangle.
'
Tlovs
Primary Bract
Fanale
B rae.t a
MaJe
l>
Flowers
forMFlament
5Female
X.
(a,, Male.
Fig
ofFruit
" BFrwtTuTged FiglYejtaaTs^ction
<j
<.'
remale.
In/lortscnre
Tertiary
.,
/w,~
8 Maf.& Female
Inflorescence, ofHazel
Bracts'..
Seeondan
HAZEL
Fig.
'emaL- Inflorescence
FigllStamen
witfi
Fig.l4Female Mower
forked Filament]
Primary Bract
Fig.Tl'Male^Female
Irfmrescence
Bracteole
of Oak
Figlo Fruit
witii
Fig16 Seed
Vertical Section
Tladich
Shell
Plumule
Stalk orPetiole,
of Cotyledon
(I) Fanale
Fibrous
Tertian;.-
Coral
Cotyledon.
Bracts
Secondary
Primary
Fig.
20
Yertical Section
ofsame enlarged
Stiama,
FigBMakFtower
enlarged.
**^-
Bract
iflfe
Ovules
WILLOW
Fig.
Fig.
25 Female Inflorescence
Fig
n Fruit ofOak
Remains of Stigma
2dFemale Flower
Stigma.
Nut
24 Male Flower
Fig.
22 Seed
j^Eadical
[fbanule
Stamens
Cotyledon
Scalv Bracts
ract
Disc
Disc
PLATE X.BIRCH
(Betula),
HAZEL
(Corylus),
OAK
(Quercus),
and
WILLOW
(Salix).
These four well-known Trees, chosen to illustrate the simpler forms of flowers among Dicotyledons, have this in common,
that the
and simple, male and female being separate and arranged in different spikes which fall away after flowering: hence
commonly called Catkins.
The Male Flower consists of Stamens, and the Female of Carpels, to which may be added a Perianth more
or less obvious.
There are also frequently a number of investing Bracts connected with the flowers which have an interest in the
detailed comparative study of plants, but for our present purpose are mere accessories
not essentials.
The Birch and Alder, Oak and Hazel, are wind-fertilised, and the pollen is therefore dry and powdery, falling from the male catkins
like showers of fine dust, and the male and female flowers are on the same tree.
But in the Willow, which is insect-fertilised, the goldenyellow pollen is not dry and powdery, and the two kinds of flowers are on separate trees..
flowers are small
Common
Fig.
1.
Fig.
2.
Detach a
Fig.
3.
tree,
own
its
stamens.
5.
(b.)
Diagram
II.
Alder
(a.)
(b.)
Fig.
6.
Winged
Fig.
7.
Make
the appearance
{Alnus).
Male Flower each consists of four unbranched Stamens and a Perianth of four Segments.
In the Female group the middle flower is absent
Fruit
fruits.
Common Hazel
Fig.
8.
Fig.
9.
Detach scale from Male Inflorescence outer view (not inner as on Plate).
Wedge-shaped and hairy, with two smaller scales appearing on each
Fig. 10.
rise to
of four Stamens.
Female Flower each consists of two Carpels united.
the female being small and bud-like with the crimson stigmas projecting.
tree,
four Stamens with forked filaments, so that there are apparently eight stamens.
Female Inflorescence
Fig. 13.
Remove some
side.
at the tip.
enlarged.
of the outer scales and observe that they are barren, while the inner are
fertile.
scale.
Female flower consisting of two united Carpels, as indicated by the two long, separate Styles. There are indiminute teeth surrounding upper part of Ovary, and these may be regarded as a very rudimentary
cations of
Perianth.
Diagram
III.
(a.)
(b.)
to be developed.
Perianth.
There are three small Bracts surrounding the flower, united towards their base
margins, forming the " husk " of the fruit
at their
Nut
Fig. 16 Soak seed for a little in boiling water with a little washing-soda added, then the two coats of the seed
an outer brown and an inner white and the two cotyledons parted from one another.
may be removed
Two
fleshy Cotyledons.
Short Radicle at top.
Plumule continuous with radicle, and forming a terminal bud.
Oak (Quercus
Fig. 17. Male and Female Inflorescence on
stouter and upright
same
tree
the
Fig. 18.
Male
Perianth, toothed.
forked.
flowers,
the
female
Birch, etc
continued.
21.
The
Oak is
The woody cup
Fruit of the
Oak
Fig. 22. Seed with usually two Cotyledons, but sometimes, as in this case, with three.
soft
at the base.
Two
Fig. 27.
axis.
The
is
CLASSIFICATION.
Class.
Dicotyledon.
Leaves, net-veined.
Embryo with two cotyledons.
Orders.
Betulacese
Corylaces (Hazel).
each.
Cupuliferae (Oak).
two
valves.
curl
PLATE
PHANEROGAMS
DIAGRAM
Pk
'Flower
XI.
>
Green, Sepals
(4)
Styles radiating
Ovary
Flower- Sialic
with.
Air Cavities
stalk
Fig
4.
Vertical Section
of Bud
Sepals ( S
Ca.4
Co co An. oo
A G R A
Superior
II
On. oo
Ov,
er Stalk
FlowerstaUc
Fy
(a,)
6.
Sepal
^^^
Fio
5.
(c) Petal
Foliage,
( a.}
Smmm
Peta2oia\ Stamen,
(ij Stamen,
Leaf ofNymplvzn
Ca.
~fRg
An,
G/l.qb
*carvf
l-e/'t
by
A'h<ra! Lew*
Fig
9 Seed -vertical
section
Embryo
"ntiospcr-m
YELLOW WATER-LILY
(Nuphar luteum).
These are water-plants, growing in lakes or ponds, with floating leaves and large solitary flowers. The leaves and flowers are borne
on long stalks, so as to reach the surface of the water, and the stalks are permeated by large air-cavities.
The "White Water-lily is specially interesting, as showing a gradual passage from Sepal to Petal and from Petal to Stamen.
The Yellow Water-lily has an alcoholic odour like brandy, hence it sometimes gets the name of brandy-bottle.
Flower
Fig.
1.
Fig". 2.
Diagram
I.
is
developed around,
Calyx,
of four Sepals.
Corolla, of numerous Petals, gradually getting smaller as they approach the Stamens.
3.
Fig. 4.
Diagram
Flower-bud of Yellow
Bud
II.
"Water-lily
showing
Calyx
of five Sepals.
Corolla, of a variable
number of
and heart-shaped.
5.
Foliage-leaf, large
Fig.
6.
Fig.
7.
Fig.
(a.)
(6.)
8.
The
numerous
carpels,
surrounded by a fleshy Receptacle upon which the petals and stamens were
spirally arranged.
It ripens
Fig.
9.
splits
up
Dicotyledon.
Division.
Thalam
Order. Nymphaeaceae.
Class.
Polypetalae.
Sub-division.
florae
Water-plants.
Leaves, usually large and floating.
Flowers, regular.
Petals and Stamens, indefinite.
Carpels, indefinite.
Fruit, berry-like.
CLASSIFICATION.
PHANEROGAMS
PLATE XII
10)
Fexal.
DIAGRAM
I TIojl
of Flower
in. JBujJ.
i
//
Stnme.n.
Nectary
Flj}-wer-sCaVc
Fig.
Ca
simplified^ as they
Co
5 An
> Gn.
(b }
(<tj
(C)
re j
V~
Fig.
3 Floral leaves
Fetals
Notched
Sepal
5 Carpel
stffwrf^k
Uhnotched
Fig.
Tig.
4 Stamen (*10)
Fig
&
Outer Fact
Ovary
Mcac7imen
Anther
Fig.
{Dlamenc
removed.
Fig.
raj
7 Frwi-Achme
(o)
entire
Fig. 12
Fruit -A Berry
Seats
Fig.13
Seed detached
Vertical section
Seed-cover
-cover
o
Fig.
Sndosperrn
Seed
Embryo
Fig.10
Vertical
Section
Seed
8 Cohanbuu.
of Flower
Fig.
9 Fnat-Folhcles
la./ entire
Scales
Ca S Co S An SO
Gn
n*nrrea, Printed
and Pablished
"by
W AX Johnston, Eciinbnr^].
St
PLATE
COLUMBINE
(Aquilegia).
J><ii!lon).
Buttercups are very common, but they are not on that account to be lightly passed over.
The Flower shows the four sets of
organs very distinctly, and the pans in each are separate.
The Leaves are also very instructive as showing how the much-divided
compound leaf gradually gets simpler and simpler as the flower is approached, until there is no difficulty in passing from them to the
sepals.
In the White Water-lily the passage of one yf<?w/-leaf into another was shown, but no attempt was made to connect the
ordinary foliage-leaves with them
in fact there is often a difficulty in doing so, especially where the leaves are compound, for you
invariably find the leaves of the flower to be simple.
The Buttercup shows the process of simplification very beautifully, and it may
also be observed in the white-flowered garden Peony, belonging to the same Order as the Buttercup.
The simple flower of the Buttercup has many contrivances worth noticing.
It is of a golden colour to attract insects;
has a
it
nectary at the base of each petal to entice them into the recesses of the flower; the outer stamens shed their pollen before the inner, and
before the carpels are ready to receive it, in order that insects may carry the pollen from younger flowers, to those more advanced, in
which the carpels are mature ; and, finally, the whole flower is beautifully spread out to sun and sky, enabling it, with the help of its
minutely divided leaves, to get the full benefit of its surroundings.
;
Flower
Fig.
Buttercup.
1.
Diagram
I.
Make
Gently separate
parts.
Fig". 2.
Fig.
Floral-leaves.
3.
on one
should be examined.
Fig.
6.
7.
Columbine.
the common name, Columbine (Lat columba, a dove), have both reference
The scientific name Aquilegia (Lat aqui/a, an eagle),
on each side resembles a bird.
sepal
with
a
petals
of
the
one
petals,
since
the
form
of
the
to
and
Fig.
8.
Diagram
II.
Plan
of Flower.
Calyx of
Fig.
9.
Fruit
its inner face to discharge the seeds.
consisting of a single carpel, containing a number of seeds,
or ventral face is called a Follicle.
Fig. 10.
a, b.
dry
fruit,
its
inner
Seed consisting of Cover, which forms a projecting ridge on one side, ending in a scar or place of attachment
Endosperm, large and fleshy.
Embryo towards apex, with two Cotyledons and Radicle pointing to Micropyle.
Bane-berry.
Fig. 11. Inflorescencea Raceme.
Fig. 12. Fruit
Fig. 13.
It
Berry, containing a
may be remarked
is
its
number
of Seeds.
covering or Testa.
that in Baneberry, where the Carpels are reduced to their lowest number, viz., one, the
eaten by animals, and so the Seeds are deposited under the most favourable conditions.
fruit
becomes an
Buttercup
Dicotyledon
Order. Ranunculaceae.
continued.
CLASSIFICATION.
Class.
Polypetalae.
Division.
Thalamifloras.
Sub-division.
Fig.
u4.
1.
PLATE
PHANEROGAMS
Fig. ZRowerseen
DIAGRAM
DIAGRAM I
Plan of Flower ofBarberry
Inflorescence,
fhm above,
XIII.
(no
(<10)
\EncLosperm
fEmbryo
Ca^LCo
2*2
An
2+2 Grvl
repeated
POPPY
Fig. 2. Vertical
DIAGRAM HI
Plan of Flower
Section
of Flower
Fig. 1 Flower - bud
Detal
Sepals
Petals
C&.2
Leaf
Co 2+2 An. . Gn.
oo
Leaf
(h J Outer Petal
(c
Inner Petal
fa) Sepal
Fig
8.
dehiscent
vertical section
Se*cUoverlEndosperrru\
Fig.
5.
Stamms (*10)
AGRA M
wTrOJlSV^SZ SeCtWTl
ofPoppy Fruit
Fig.dFruzt-aCapsuIe
Ernhryo-
Fig.
9.
Fmbryo detached
DIAGRAM
Fig.
7.
Seeds
Transverse, Sectwri
of CheZidoraiuTb Fruit
(* 10)
*
Engraved, Printed and Published
Edinburgh,
k London.
PLATE
Rhceas).
Barberry.
leaf-spines
are hard
branches reduced to
tufts
of
leaves.
The Stamens
stand out from the Carpel and lie in the hollow of the petals.
If a stamen is touched at the base, with a pin for
curves forward towards the centre of the flower ; and it is evident that when an insect visits the honey-glands, situated at the
base of the petals, it will irritate the stamens, get dusted with the pollen, and possibly be hurried off in alarm to the next flower.
The connection of the Barberry with Rust of Wheat is shown in treating of that Fungus.
instance,
it
Raceme, as
Fig.
1.
Inflorescence
Fig.
2.
Diagram
Diagram
Fig.
3.
I.
Baneberry.
in
in three's
Gyncecium being
in two's;
II.
petal,
single.
Gyncecium being
single.
The
Fig. 4.
Fruit
Fig.
Seed
5.
in
irritability
common
in shrubberies.
Berry, as in Baneberry.
in vertical section.
Seed cover.
Endosperm.
Embryo occupying the
Poppy.
Field Poppy, so common in fields and waste places, has a conspicuous scarlet flower.
If the flower is examined while still
wrapped up in the two sepals, it will be found that the anthers fit exactly between the stigmatic rays; and as the inner stamens open
first by lateral slits, the pollen is necessarily dusted over the rays of the stigma which stand up like so many ribs in the centre of the
flower.
The Stigma is not quite mature, and the pollen is just so much dainty food, spread out on a table as it were, and arranged
When the sepals fall away and the flower expands the stamens have diverged, as in Fig. 2. An insect attracted by
along radiating lines.
It is arranged along certain lines, and just as the
the scarlet naturally alights on the solid centre, and finds the pollen it is in quest of.
lines and bands of many flowers are supposed to be honey-guides, so these stigmatic rays may be of the nature of pollen-guides.
There is abundance of pollen produced by the numerous stamens and the insects, no doubt while feasting themselves, will carry pollen
on their bodies from one flower to another.
The
Flower
Fig.
1.
Fig.
2.
Take an expanded
flower,
fall
Petals beneath.
it.
Peduncle, hairy.
larger
Petals,
and
Diagram
III.
Calyx
3.
Fig. 4. Floral-leaves
(a.)
(, c.)
Fig.
5.
Fig.
inner
Petals,
of each,
laterally.
Fruit
7.
and
side.
6.
FigS. 8
and
Sepal, concave.
9.
Embryo turned
Fig. 10.
Diagram IV.
Diagram
Fruit
and forming a
CLASSIFICATION.
Class.
Dicotyledon.
Polypetalae.
Division.
Thalamiflorse.
Sub-division.
Berberideae.
Order.
Flower with Bract.
Stamens
Order.
definite,
Petals, four.
Stamens, indefinite.
Fruit, a Capsule.
Seed with endosperm.
the
centre,
inturned carpels.
valves.
siliquose fruit
to the surface
PHANEROGAMS
PLATE
FUMITORY
FW 3 VeMcal Se^\
Side. View
DIAGRAM I
Plan of' Flower
Fig.
Fig.l. Inflorescence
2.
XIV.
of FLOW67
Raceme,
Flower
Bract
-Bract
Fig. 7 Petals
Fig.
Fig.
4.
5.
Bract
Fig&Sepa l
(inner View
Co..
Co-
(o)
Foliage Leaf-Compound.
Fiq.8.
9LU
T*~
D A G R A M tt
Transverse Section
of Fruit. ofCorydalis
leedjfTT'yValve
^fe
\styU
^JJ
Se
%AcheT FyZ J***
rTWL
Wm
.;-.
WALLFLOWER
Fig.l. l7iflorescence-a
Raceme
DIAGRAM
Flower
Opened.
onq Stamen,
tiffiruL
Short Stamen,
Foliaav leaves
Ca.2*2
Co
Fig.
6.
Stamens
(c)Mabure, Stamen, dehiscing
Inner Face,
Fig. 5. Petals
Fig. 4. Sepals
Face,
Saccate,
1*)
0utEr FaCA
W
I
Fig
7.
tj,.
,- 7
Pistil
v^
^t
FiqS.FruiL-ASiliqiux
o
DIAGRAM IV
Section,
Fig. 9.
Seed
Transverse
of Fruit
tf
^Septum,
'Cotyledons
Ovary
RadzcZe-\
{Valve
of Embryo
Flower Stalk,
2
Engraved, Printed
Cotyledons
PLATE XIV.FUMITORY
(Fumaria
officinalis),
and
WALL-FLOWER
(Cheiranthus Cheiri).
Fumitory.
May onwards, in all sorts of waste places and corn and other
The flower is of a pale rosea weak straggling herb, with finely divided leaves, and a peculiar shaped irregular flower.
The form and arrangement of the different parts
colour and inconspicuous, and said to be fertilised without the agency of insects.
are evidently suggestive of some purpose.
fields.
It
is
Flowers
Fig.
1.
Inflorescence
Raceme, and
Make
Diagram
I.
The
it
towards the axis may be conveniently termed dorsal, or posterior, and the opposite
present) will be ventral, or anterior.
Calyx, two sepals become lateral by a twisting of the flower-stalk.
Corolla, two outer petals (anterior and posterior) large, two inner small.
Andrcecium, two stamens, each splitting into three anthers.
Gynoecium, two united carpels, as indicated by the lobed stigma.
part of the
flower turned
much
(when
divided.
Fig.
5.
Fig.
6.
Fig.
7.
Petals,
(a.)
(&.)
(e.)
Fig.
8.
Stamen with
Fig.
9.
Fig. 10.
Fruit an
Fig. 11.
Hold
Diagram
II.
at tip.
Achene.
the minute fruit between finger and thumb, and cut section lengthways.
Fruit-cover or Pericarp.
Seed consisting of minute embryo with endosperm.
Fruit
in Corydalis,
Dicotyledon.
Thalam
Order. Fumariaceae
CLASSIFICATION OF FUMITORY.
Class.
Division.
Polypetalae.
Sub-division.
iflorae.
Flowers, irregular.
Wall-flower.
It may be had for examination at
sweet smell.
Wall-flower is a universal favourite no less from its beautiful colours than from its
Cruciferae which includes, not
Order
name
to
the
the
gives
petals
the
of
The cross-like arrangement
almost any season of the year.
Cabbage,
Cress and Cauliflower.
Turnip
and
such
as
vegetables,
useful
many
but
Stock,
and
Wall-flower
as
only ornamental plants, such
1.
at the base,
Foliage-leaves alternate.
Opened flowers outer, unopened towards centre.
Fig.
2.
a vertical section of fully opened flower, so as to pass through lateral sepals which bulge at the base.
Receptacle, the slightly expanded end of flower-stalk.
Make
upon receptacle.
upon receptacle.
Stamens long and short inserted upon receptacle.
Diagram III. In a Flower-bud examine arrangement and relation of partsthe anterior and posterior overlapping the two
Calyx, in two whorls of two sepals each
Sepals, inserted
Petals, inserted
lateral sepals.
four
long stamens.
Gynoecium of two united carpels.
Fig.
3.
Floral-Leaves
Fig. 4.
short stamens
Lateral sepals, bulging at the base to accommodate the bending of the two
side.
inner
to a little gland on their
this
bending
in turn being
due
Wall-flower
Fig.
5.
Fig.
6.
Petals,
(,
b,
continued.
it.
Stamens-
7.
face.
Style
in
The Septum
is
not
formed by the
united edges
of the
two
carpels,
but by the
placentas
Fig.
9.
Fig. 10. After the seed-cover is removed, nothing is left but the embryo, thus the seed
Embryo the Radicle is lateral to the two Cotyledons.
Class.
CLASSIFICATION OF WALLFLOWER.
I
dicotyledon.
Division.
Polypetalae.
Sub-division.
Tha lam i fl orae.
Order.
Crucifen-e.
Leaves, alternate.
Flowers, regular and without bracts.
Petals, arranged cross-wise.
Stamens, four long and two lateral short.
Carpels, united and two chambers formed.
Fruit, a siliqua or silicula.
Seed, without endosperm.
Genus. Cheiranthus.
is
without endosperm.
meeting,
and thus
CH1CKWEED
PHANEROGAMS
Fix/.
1 Inflorescence -
jty.
PLATE XV
Cyme
z Cfrasmm-aLulwtOTnoiis
Arts
Axts
Fig.
Vertical section
ofFlower
Petal
.Sepal.
-Stamen.
Ovary
Ca.5
with,
numerous
Co.
Gn.. ID;
(3.
Ovules
Flower stalk
'Node-
Line,
of hairs
Main. Axis
Gynccctum (*10)
Fig. 7
Fig.
6 Stamen
Styles 13)
\Anther
Fig.
a..
b.
Fetal (> 10 J
\
Fig. 4<
5 Floral Leaves
Hutment
Foliage Leaves
Fig.
swelling
\/
Seed in Optical
section.
Fig. 11 Section
of Ovary
CAU
Fink-Lixmthus
allocked to
central
placentas
free
in first
condition
of Seed
Valves
section
^Glandular
Fig. 12
Fig. 10
8 Transverse
Ovary
Stamens mature
of Capsule.
Curved Etnbrvo
Sepals persistent
Fin. 13
Fink
in second condition
Fig.14-
Campion
Corona, or
Llgular appendag
.Stamens (ID}
'
Stigmas IS/-
Stigmas MaJuri
Eugrecwa, Printed
8c
London.
F& 16
(Stellaria media),
MAIDEN PINK
CAMPION
(Lychnis vespertina).
duckweed.
of Chickweed is applied to two different genera of the same order the one being Stellaria, which is easily known
by the line of hairs on stem and branches, and the other Cerastium, distinguished as Mouse-ear Chickweed. Stellaria has been chosen
for representation, which is common on roadsides and waste places at almost any season of the year, and though small it forms a very
good example of a large and varied class of plants.
The flowers are not very 'conspicuous, the petals being overtopped by the sepals,
and the pollen is ripe before the stigmas are ready to receive it.
The inner stamens are often absent, and even the outer are sometimes
reduced to
three.
1.
Flowers
and
Figs. 1
Inflorescence
2.
by a
the
and so
flower,
main
on.
axis
Fig.
terminates
in
when an
axis
Generally
produces two
a flower, and two lateral axes below that are similarly terminated
produces a flower at its apex its growth is closed; hence such an
lateral
in
this way,
it
is
called a
Cyme
of two
3.
Diagram.
Calyx,
petals,
and
five lone;.
Fig. 4.
Lower
Fig.
5.
(a)
Fig.
6.
Fig.
7.
Fig.
8.
Placentation, free-central, because ovules are attached to a central axis free from wall of ovary
(l>)
sessile.
at base of filament
distinct Styles.
9.
upper,
Figs. 10
and
11.
Figs. 12
and
13.
opening by
six valves,
seeds.
Maiden Pink.
Pink, in its first condition, with stamens mature
occupying position of the shrivelled-up stamens.
and projecting
mature, and
Campion.
Campion, like the generality of flowers which expand by night, is white; since white is a colour which reflects even the faint light
It also smells in the evening in order to guide
existing at night-time, thus rendering objects of that colour as conspicuous as possible.
and
attract insects.
In Chickweed, the male and female organs exist, but there is a tendency to reduction in the stamens, and the pollen is shed before
the stigmas of the flower are mature.
In Pink, male and female organs also exist, but the pollen is shed while the stigmas are not
only immature but concealed.
In Campion, the separation of the male and female organs has gone further, since the male and female
flowers are produced on separate plants.
FigS. 14
and
15.
Corona,
five long,
petal,
scale-like
and
essentially a ligular
Fig. 16.
Dicotyledon.
Division.
Thalam
Order. Caryophyllaceae,
Polypetalse.
i fl
orae.
or Pinks.
Flowers, regular.
Stamens,
Genera.
CLASSIFICATION
Class.
Sub-division.
petals.
definite.
petals.
GERANIUM
PHANEROGAMS
Fig.
Fig.
Vertical
section
PLATE
of Flower
DIAGRAM
XVI.
Plan of Flower
>^
Flower
iFhwer-bud,
Longer Stamen
STvorC Stamen
Ca.5
Gn. (5)
Co.
GyruRcuan
Fig. 7
Fig 6 Stamen
Stigrna,
Fw.5 Petal
Style.
2 Ovules-.
superposed,
Fig.
Ml
, 0vary
"
Sepal,
L ongitudiriaL
o.
Transverse,
of Ovary (+10
(*10)
Fig. 10 Seed
S&cd,
cover
I
Fig. 2
becorrung simplified
Fig.
Engraved, Printed
and Published
"bj"W
PLATE XVI-HERB-ROBERT
b
to
Wards% hftTof\Ur^n?TTT
brZ
or1h e
?\
Stem
brittle at
Fig". 2.
Compound
1.
family, so
,
plant becomes a
/ liage asSUmes a tint to match the flower thc
fi
bnt
at the j intS
The leaves are in ' )airs as wel1 as the flowers, and are
the
t0
I"
much
^ ""^
divided.
The
leaf as
^\e
** * ** f
it
^^
is
CnC Unter
seen to become
the joints.
Fig.
Crane's-bill
Hon. J22\f
Fig.
the
.
"f*
"
e
deXL^emid
e
d
%mT
member f
^T
^1 1 ^^^f^T-V^
JSSWjS^T*
fl'lr
co?o U
conTnicuous oblct
tle
(Geranium Robertianum).
and membranous
stalks
stipules.
3.
Diagram
I.
Calyx
Floral-Leaves
5.
Fig.
6.
Stamen with
Fig.
7.
Fig.
8.
Gyncecium with Ovary, Style, and five distinct Stigmas. There are two Ovules superposed
one of which grows largely, while the other shrivels up.
Cut across ovary to see Placentation.
Ovules attached
9.
and expanded
blade.
flattened-out filaments.
to
a central
axis,
This
is
in
The
sepals persist at the base of the Fruit, as in Fig. i, but spread out when fully ripe.
The carpels split from below upwards, and to prevent the jerk separating them entirely from the central axis, each
ovary is fastened to the base of the stigma by two silky hairs.
These hairs are sufficiently strong to keep the ovaries
in place till the wind wafts them to new quarters, so by this beautiful and delicate contrivance
the seeds are properly
scattered.
Fig. 11. Take the seed between finger and thumb, and make a section lengthways and another cross-wise.
Embryo occupies the whole of the seed, and has its cotyledons much folded.
Dicotyledon.
Division.
Thalamiflorae.
Order. Geraniaceae (Gr. geranos,
CLASSIFICATION.
Class.
Polypetalae.
Sub-division.
Leaves, stipulate.
Stamens,
definite.
Placentation, axile.
Fruit, capsular.
Genus.
Species.
Geranium.
Robertianum.
crane,
carpels).
PANSY
PHANEROGAMS
Fig.
1 Leaf sjipukie
Fti.
PLATE
3 YerOcal
section
of Sweet
^^
Violet
A'
^1
XVII.
Ovnrv
Ovary
Oyaty
Petals
Bract
Curved Flower stalk
Petal*
Flower
stalk.
of Ovule
Tughly magnified
Fig.
FoOvituZe
^ ^
7 Stamen-mner view
Highly magnified
&
Inner Coat
Fig.
5 Sepal
Embryo
Endosperm.
jl'
Fig.
Bent
Fig.
Style.
Stomata,
Fig. 13 Section
ofAlbuminous Seed
Place, to
which
Seed-cover--
AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
Anther
(Viola odorata)
and
PANSY
(Viola Tricolor).
The Vagrant odour of the one and the brilliant colouration of the other have rendered these flowers universal
favourites but to the
botanist they have an additional charm in the beautiful mechanical arrangement of parts for
ensuring cross-fertilisation that is, the transference of the pollen from one flower to the stigma of another.
As there are many other flowers with equally remarkable contrivances, it may prove interesting and instructive
to ask ourselves and
answer for ourselves some of those questions which this very flower the Sweet Violetsuggested to the
mind of Sprengel who was
one of the first during the last century, to perceive the relations between flowers and insects.
After examining the flower in order to
understand the position and arrangement of the different parts, he asked himself, What is the meaning
of all this? and proceeded to
write down questions and answers similar to the following:
i.
Why does the flower bend over?'Yo protect the honey from rain, and to place the stamens so that the pollen will fall
into the space between the ovary and the free end of the stamens.
Why
2.
for
the
and
to
hold
the
nectar
they
secrete.
Why
Why
Why
3.
4.
5.
Why
6.
is
it,
as
if
straight
bend
difficult to
the pollen
membranous
fall
it
would be more
out of the anther more readily into the box formed by the
connectives.
The
object of the whole contrivance is evidently to get an interchange of pollen through the agency of insects the honey,
the colour,
all being so many inducements to attract them.
The insect on alighting crawls between the style and the petal to reach
the nectar.
In so doing it comes in contact with the stigma and leaves there any pollen about its head brought from another flower.
At the same time it bends the flexible style which moves the ovary, thus pressing back the anthers surrounding the ovary, and tapping
the pollen-box, as it were.
As the anthers slightly overlap, this motion is communicated all round, and the pollen collecting in the
lower anthers will be jerked out by the necessary wagging of their appendages.
The converging spoon-shaped connectives (Fig. 7)
regulate the distribution of the pollen on the insect's head, so that when it visits the next flower, the bulk of the pollen will be left
upon
the open mouth of the stigma ready to receive it
The lower lip of the stigma will clearly prevent the insect, as it withdraws its head,
from leaving any of the flower's own pollen, since the lip will close and none will stick.
The Sweet Violet may be found in shady woods as early as February, but it may be purchased much earlier.
Fig". 1.
Leaf of Pansy
Figs. 2
and
Stipules, large
and
leafy.
and shape; the lowest the largest and prolonged into a spur.
surrounding the ovary, with little membranous orange tips, and the two lower anthers with appendages
Stamens,
Diagram.
Calyx,
Andrcecium, of five free Stamens, with large curved anthers overlapping one another.
Gynoecium, of three united Carpels.
Fig". 4.
Fig.
5.
two
brush of
Fig.
6.
Petals
Fig.
7.
8.
Fig.
lateral with a
hairs,
spur.
large scoop.
Ovary composed of three carpels, united by their in-turned edges, which bear the Ovules. Here there is a single chamber
and the ovules are attached to the wall of the ovary, so that the placentation is said to be parietal.
Fig. 10. In Narcissus the Ovule was shown on the eve of fertilisation, here in Viola it is shown directly after fertilisation.
The pollen-tube has spread out on the Embryo-sac and, by virtue of some influence conveyed by the pollen-tube to the embryo-cell
through the synergida, fertilisation has been effected and an Embryo formed
The contents of the embryo-sac also break up into a number of Endosperm cells by a process of free-cell formation.
It may be noted that, whereas in Narcissus only a single layer of cells formed the apex of the Nucellus, here there are several
Fig.
9.
layers.
Figs. 11
and
12.
Fruit,
a Capsule splitting up into three valves along what corresponds to the midrib of each carpellary
may be
readily halved.
CLASSIFICATION.
Dicotyledon.
Division.
Thalamiflorse.
Order.
Class.
Polypetalse.
Sub-division.
Violacese.
Leaves, stipulate.
Flowers, irregular.
Stamen with Connectives produced beyond Anthers.
Placentation, parietal.
Fruit,
Genus.
Only
one
a three-valved capsule.
British genus, Viola.
leaf.
PLATE XVIII.
HOGWEED
PHANEROGAMS
Fug.l Compound Umbel
Cbn'ilu
to* 71
'b)
Female, conthuon.
Jnlher
IA
Disc
CoroHa. (insertion. J
Fig.
'Calyx.
Ca5
Co
5 An 5 On (J)
A
Fig. 7
Leaf'reduced
to sTiealk
Fig.
Stamen, magnified
Fg. 8 Fract
Filament
I
Fw.F Fruit
(a.)
Outer face.
Fig.l3F7TUDryo detached
(
b J Inner- face.
Style.
Oil-Canals.
(a.) entire.
f
(c)Mertarp
Marginal Ridge
- Intermediate.
'Forked axis
Stalk,
with,
bj Vertical
Section.
/"QxFnibryo
I
Engraved, Printed
Fndosperm,
or
HOGWEED
(Heracleum Sphondylium).
Umbellifers are so named from the arrangement of their flowers, their stalks standing out from a central spot like the wires of an
umbrella.
The Order is a very extensive one including useful forms, such as Carrots and Parsnips, Celery and Parsley, or poisonous
forms, such as Hemlock and Fool's Parsley ; and in keeping with this distribution the attractions and inducements held out to insects are
neither few nor small.
The flowers, though small individually, are associated together in such a way as collectively to present an imposing
appearance.
Further, the outer flowers of the umbel have their corollas larger and much more developed than those towards the centre
so the outer flowers, with plenty of room to expand, attract insects by their size and thus entice them to visit the less conspicuous
flowers in the centre.
Not only is there attraction, but there is inducement in the shape of honey. In the centre of each flower is a
ring-like disc secreting nectar, which is thus not only central in position but also circular, to admit of free access to it from any and
every part of the flower.
As a further precaution against self-fertilisation the pollen is shed before the stigmas are ready to receive it.
The Fruit of Umbellifers is very characteristic, and important for purposes of classification, and even the smell of the plant may be
of use in the same direction.
Inflorescence
Fig". 1.
its
base,
Outer flower with the three outer Petals largely developed, and the two inner small.
Inner flower with all the Petals equally small.
Fig. 2 a.
b.
Flower of Wild Chervil showing the first or Male condition, when the anthers are ripening and the stigmas
veloped
and the more advanced or Female condition, when the stamens are gone and the stigmas appear.
Fig". 3.
still
unde-
Make
Fig. 4.
Sepals,
Petals, inserted
upon
styles,
to
show
ovary.
Diagram.
Fig.
5.
Fig. 6
insertion of parts.
this section).
Calyx
Stem
and
hairy,
7.
The
and the
leaf-stalk
forms a sheath at
its
base.
(Fig.
of sheath.)
and pointed
Fig.
8.
Bract, small
Fig.
9.
to the
its tip.
styles,
and a transverse
section in
One Ovule
in
top.
Fig. 11. Fruit of two carpels, each containing a seed, and called a Cremocarp (Gr. cremos, I suspend). The forked axis
middle separates and suspends each half of the fruit, which is called a Mericarp (Gr. meros, a part).
a.
Outer face with five ridges and furrows between.
(
Two
Marginal.
Two Intermediate.
One Median.
Furrows In the underlying
Ridges
in the
<
b.
c.
median
face,
and the
fifth
furrrow
Fig. 12. If a Mericarp is soaked the cover can be easily removed, exposing the Seed
showing the small embryo and large endosperm.
Then
Fig. 13. Minute embryo may be turned out of seed with a needle and examined.
CLASSIFICATION.
Dicotyledon.
Division. Poly
Order. Umbelliferae.
Class.
petalse.
Sub-division.
Calyciflorse,
is
made by
ridge.
by the
BRAMBLE
PHANEROGAMS
Fig.l Prickly
PLATE
Stem
Fig.
Fig.
ofFlower
Vertical section
XIX.
4 Calyx -lobe
,.Carpel
.
Stamm.
Fig 6 Stamens
.
a,,
inner
vie
b.
outer view
Fig.
camoaZ
Stamens persistent
Calyx persistent
Engraved. Printed
8c
London.
PLATE XIX.BLACKBERRY
or
BRAMBLE
(Rubus
fruticosus).
is
The Flower
is
much
visited
by
insects,
that
the
stigmas will
nave
usually
Stem
Fig.
Leaf
1.
2.
prickles.
superficial
derived entirely
Fig.
Flower
Fig.
(6.)
(c.)
Compound
leaflets,
3.
numerous
the middle
<
Fig. 4.
Fig.
5.
Fig.
6.
FiffS.
trans-
into connective.
8.
Fruit entire
and
in vertical section.
Embryo.
CLASSIFICATION.
Dicotyledon.
Order. Rosacese.
Class.
Division.
make
Seed
7 and.
9.
the
blade.
The Receptacle
Fig.
bear
carpels.
Fruit and
to
Polypetalae.
Sub-division.
Calyciflorae.
Stamens
free
and indefinite
one or more.
Carpels free,
Seeds without endosperm.
margin of receptacle.
PHANEROGAMS
Fig. 1
PLATE
XX.
Sweetbrwr CIO
Vertical
Section.
ofRos&e
DIAGRAM
Fig.
2 Fruit
'Fig.
3 Fruit
Vertical Section
Petal
Remains of Calyx
Stamens
&s
Styles
Stamen
Achenes
Stigmas
Ca
Co
5 An co
{-'til
oo
Fig.
Fig.
6 Fruit
a
Flo.
4 Strawberry
-&****
9 Fruit
Transverse Section
VJ
5 Bast ofFlower
luf
Bpicalyx
fFmgarim
D(AGRAM
WW
CwS. Co SArvoo
J 7 SpumTertimL
I
enlarged
Fig.
Receptacle
enlaraed
Gn, c
Section.
DIAGRAM ofSpirex
Stigma.
Zarpels becoming
Ca 5 Co 5
An 20 -oo Gn 5
or more,
Seed
FoThcles
DIAGRAM ofFormal
Fig.
8 _ Appl&- Vertical
Section,
Fy.ll
DIAGRAM ofPrimce
Ca
S.
Co
Fwt-AFmpe
5 In 15-10 GnSorkss
i- Epicarp
^feMesocarp \Pericarp
tMj&habcarp)
Fig.
10 _ Cherry
Fig.MFeafofAppk-Smiph
Vertical Section,
Stamen,
iV T* f?
I
Petal
ofHose Compound
Fig. 15 Leaf
Ovary \[
XI Sepal
Fig. 13
Zadys
Ca 5 Co 5 An 10-20 Snl
) entire
Sepals
Vertical Section
/jJx
CampoiindLeaf
5 for 4)
(
16 j^ st _ bld
Mantle (enlarged,!
Ovary
Ca.
AX Johnston, Edmbnrgh.
I.
Fig.
Type,
1.
upon
the
(Rosa rubiginosa).
hollowed out to protect the
Calyx
of five Sepals.
Corolla of five Petals.
Androecium of numerous Stamens.
Gynoecium of numerous Carpels.
and
Fruit of
3.
The
Dog Rose
and
entire
Fragarie^e or Dryade^e.
II.
caninci) or Sweetbrier
Diagram.
Figs. 2
principally
Type,
Bramble
in
section.
become
fleshy,
(Rul/its fruticosus)
fruits are
Achenes enveloped
in hairs.
in vertical section.
Receptacle, convex.
Sepals from lateral expansion of receptacle.
Petals from lateral expansion of receptacle.
Stamens from lateral expansion of receptacle.
Carpels, studded over elevated receptacle.
Fig.
5.
Ease of Flower.
The
Diagram.Calyx of
Sepals have Stipules as well as the leaves, and these form an Epicalyx or Calyculus.
five Sepals.
6.
Strawberry.
The
receptacle has become swollen and succulent and the little Achenes are almost imbedded in it
the Bramble (Rubus) the fruits which are little drupes, have become succulent, while the relatively small
receptacle is dry.
In the Silver-weed (Potentilld) both fruits and receptacle are dry.
In
III.
Spir^eace^e.
Fig.
7.
Type,
Diagram.
IV. Pomeje.
Fig.
8.
Calyx
Type,
and Stamens
Diagram.
Calyx
of five Sepals.
Corolla of five Petals.
9.
Apple
and
in transverse
The
swollen
vertical section.
succulent
now
ripened into
fruit,
carti-
laginous lining.
Seeds, two in each carpel, sometimes one aborts.
Calyx, persistent at the top of receptacle.
receptacle.
Diagram.
Figs. 11
Calyx
of five Sepals.
Corolla of five Petals.
Androecium from ten to twenty Stamens.
Gynoecium of one Carpel.
and
12.
part,
Cherry, a
Rose,
etc.
contimud.
The members
disc.
are
indefinite.
Compound
Fig. 16.
leaf of
Rose with
leaflets
arranged pinnately.
like
the
leaf,
simpler as
they pass
inwards to the
Petals.
Summary.
In
Rose the Carpels are indefinite and one-ovuled, and the receptacular cup becomes fleshy on ripening, forming the
well-known Hip.
The Anthers and Stigma are mature at the same time.
In the Strawberry the Carpels are still indefinite and one-ovuled, but instead of being in a cup are on an elevation, and the
swollen elevated receptacle becomes excessively succulent
Stigma mature before Anthers, hence called Protogynous (Gr.
the
In Meadow-sweet the Carpels are reduced to five (sometimes more), and the slightly convex receptacle bears Follicles which
contain several Seeds and open along one face.
In the Apple the Carpels are five (never more) and two-ovuled, enclosed in a receptacular cup which becomes much larger
and more succulent than in the Rose.
Stigma mature before Anthers.
In the Cherry the Carpels are reduced to their lowest one, and the Fruit, in the form of a Drupe, has reached its highest
perfection.
The exquisitely coloured and delicately flavoured Peaches and Prunes, Plums and Cherries, are objects of
attraction to various animals, and when eaten the seed protected by its stone is deposited under the most favourable
conditions as to warmth, moisture, nutriment, etc
Stigma and Anthers mature at same time.
Fia. 1
PLATE
SWEET PEA
PHANEROGAMS
GRAM
(
Fig.
Stiama.
DIAGRAM
Z Cassia, flower
Flan of Flower
II
CxsalpinUs.
Plan ofFlower
Mimosex
XXI.
Posterior fetal
Stamens
Carpel
Stamens
Ca (5) Co
DIAGRAM
Fig. 3
\\\
5 An
JO
Cm
Plan of Flower
fStetn
ending in Tendrils
Fig.
Vertical
section of Flower
Posterior Petal.
<
Standard, j
jCorolla
Stigma^
Stamens~
Flower -buds
Receptacle
Ccl (5)
Fig.
4-
Co
5 An
(S*4)*l
On 1
Fig. 7 StaTims-diadelphous
Stigma,
Anthers
Wings
Filaments
(q united 12 free J
Fig.
a.
6 Petals
b-
Standard
Wing
a.
/'
Fig. 11
Fin 8 Fruit
a
Fig.
a,
9 Garden Fen
with,
integumetu
b-
One Cotyledon
from, inside
seen from.
.Cotyledon...
Cotyledon. ..^jjB^
^ w
jfl
Plumule
RadieleRadiele
<jH
Mieropyle
Sweet
Fig. 10
jj
Fen
9
Engraved. Printed and Ponlisned "by
odorata), principally.
is only known to us in Britain as having irregular butterfly-shaped flowers, but in tropical regions
a more or less regular form.
The Order is thus capable of division into sections: i. Mimoseae represented by
the Sensitive Plant, having regular flowers ; 2. Caesalpinieaa
represented by Cassia having irregular flowers but not
Papilionaceae
our British representatives having flowers of the well-known Pea type, with a corolla fancifully
butterflied
and
3.
The
on the Pea
instance,
flower, for
may be
imitated by pressing
down
the
wings,
M mose^e. Flower,
Fig.
1.
C^esalpiniEjE.
Fig". 2.
Flower,
3.
I.
II.
Flower,
Compound
irregular.
which
The Pea
arise
leaflets,
Here the
Fig. 4.
definite.
Calyx
is
Stamens,
Petals, imbricate.
Petals, valvate.
Calyx
irregular.
and Diagram
Papilionaceae
Fig.
regular.
and Diagram
leaf or part of
it
is
flower in
leaf-
tendrils.
its
may
and
insects,
Fig.
5.
in
Petals
Diagram
III.
alights
Standard
down and
inserted
on
receptacle.
Calyx
Fig.
6.
Fig.
7.
and shape.
laterally
Wing
Fig.
8.
fit
with keel
Stamens.
Filaments united for the greater part of their length into a Staminal tube.
Dorsal filament free to about base.
Fruit
On
Fig. 11.
Germination.
The Radicle has elongated, producing the primary root or Tap-root, with its
The Plumule also grows upwards, producing at first the insignificant small
you ascend the stem.
Dicotyledon.
Order. Leguminosoe.
Class.
Division.
Polypetalae.
Sub-division.
Calyciflorae.
Stamens,
ten.
Rootlets.
leaves
PHANEROGAMS
PLATE XXI
Fig. 4>
long
Flower
q%
tyg.
Pollen-grams
styled,
mm
'Vertical section
of Ovary
Ondts
)
fci
2
Fig.
Inflorescence
Upper
(a,)
Vie*
Upper
View
a Raceme
W
(b)
Vertical
Fig. 7
Seed -vertical
Vertical section
DIAGRAM I Plan
9 Flower
Fig 10.
Vertical Section
Figll
section
section.
(b
Fig.
central
-% ^ Fruit-a Capsule
ofFlower
\Plazoita
W\ free
Vertical
Section
Ca <5) Co (5)
ofMcdodcndron
^K
Stamens
<w-J?SM
Ovule.
ofFlower
Ajl0+5<h
of
PUwdodmdron
Fig.13 Frail
Corolla
t|\|
|H Values
^Hf
Calya>
Ca 4
Co (4)
An
4- 4 0nC(4)
&
formed
by the Carpels
PLATE
XXH PRIMROSE
HEATH
(Erica).
Primrose.
The Primrose might be dismissed with the convenient expression, "too well known to need description;" but, although certainly
known, it by no means follows that it is generally understood and appreciated, for in it there is to be seen a wonderful adaptation of
means to ends, which Darwin was the first thoroughly to appreciate and to explain.
If the flowers are examined on several different
plants it will be found that they vary: those on one plant having the knob-headed stigma at the entrance to the corolla-tube, and those
on another having the stamens in that position.
These two different forms of flowers are respectively called Long-styled and Shortstyled.
A glance at Fig. 2 will show that an insect visiting the long-styled flower, and thrusting its proboscis down the tube, will
carry away pollen so placed that, on visiting a short-styled flower, it will come in contact with the stigma, and thus ensure crossfertilisation.
Reversing the order of its visit, from short-styled to long-styled, the insect would still produce the same effect
The Pollen-grains, too (Fig. 4), are adapted for their respective duties.
In the long-styled flower they are smallest because they
are intended to be transferred to the stigma of the short-styled flower, and so have to produce a shorter pollen-tube than the other.
The Primrose appears in early spring (Primula, from Lat primus, first) at a time when insect life is still scarce and yet so perfect is
;
Fig.
1.
and
FigS. 2
stand out from the base in radiating fashion, and the Flowers also radiate from a centre,
Here the Umbel is sessile, but in Cowslip it is stalked.
3. Slit up a Long-styled and Short-styled form of flower from the base, and compare them.
Stigma of one about the same height as the Anthers of another.
slides
relative size in
Fig.
5.
Vertical section of Ovary, showing a free central column, to which the Ovules are attached.
Fig.
6.
Fruit
met
with in July.
Capsule of
Fig.
each case.
five valves
Seed halved.
7.
little
elevations.
CLASSIFICATION.
Class.
Dicotyledon.
Division.
Gamopetalae.
Calyx and Corolla present.
Petals,
Order.
united.
Primulacese.
Corolla, regular.
Heath.
Heath
It
is
sufficiently
common
to
give
its
its
name
"sheds beauty
it
moor."
Heather (Calluna) blooms in autumn, and the flower differs from that of Heath (Erica), principally in the Calyx being longer than the
and having four bracts at its base. Rhododendron is a well-known allied ornamental shrub, with large and showy flowers.
Corolla,
Fig. 8.
FigS. 9
the plant
upright and
arranged in crowded racemes.
and
is
much
branched.
Flowers are
Fig. 11.
The Leaves
Flower of Rhododendron
beyond
anthers.
in section.
Stamens,
ten.
of four Sepals.
Corolla of four united Petals.
Andrcecium of eight Stamens, four opposite to sepals and four opposite to petals.
Gyncecium of four united Carpels.
Rhododendron
a Capsule.
In Heather
Carpels separate in the form of five Valves, the sides of which are lormed by the split septa.
the Capsule splits similarly, but is four-valved ; while in Heath the splitting of the valves takes place along the
midrib cf each carpellary leaf.
Fruit of
The
continued.
CLASSIFICATION.
Dicotyled on
Division. Gamopeta
Order.
Class.
lse.
Ericaceae.
Corolla, regular.
PLATE XXIU
PHANEROGAMS
Tig.l Square, Stem,
& opposite
leaves
.Style.
CaJ5lCa<5)An4
Gn.(2)
4
Fig.
Ovary
Fiq.
loh&d.
Upper Zip
Fig.6 Nutlet
Stamens
( didynamcvis
b. vertical
Fig. 7 Fmbryo
mrwved
section.
Stioma.
fSeed
lose,
ii
Style
CaLyx-tubo
Pang of hairs
Ovary
tigrruL-
Fig.
S.
^Position, of Anther
when, moved by Insect
Stamens of S.pralensis
Fig. 9
Mature- Anther
oblique- front
vie-*/
Mature.
Anther Lobes
t... :
.'
i ower portion.
Stztnrut
...
of Connective
Jfature
Connective
Connective
Anther durvig
visit
of Insect
Filament
Engraved, Printed
and Published
"by VT
k AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
8r
London.
II.
album) and
SAGE
(Salvia).
Miiller.)
Dead-nettle.
he
common
nower
it
visits.
Fig". 1.
Stem, square.
Figs. 2
With a
Diagram.
pair of scissors
slit
up the
cyme condensed.
Plan
is,
of Flower
Calyx, bell-shaped, of five united Sepals
one dorsal, two lateral, and two ventral.
Corolla, two-lipped; upper lip of two united Petals, and lower lip of three (the upper lip is divided
in the Ground
Ivy, and the little teeth of the lower lip are known in some flowers to grow out into regular
lobes; hence,
from this and their alternating position, the two lips together are considered five united Petals).
Andruecium, of four Stamens; two long and two a little shorter (in some instances a fifth rudimentary stamen
is
found).
Floral-Leaves
Fig. 4.
Fig.
Gyncecium.
5.
The
ovary
and
two
is
four-lobed,
carpels, as
this
denoted by the
bifid stigma,
Fig.
6.
Fig.
7.
Sage.
Figs.
8,
9,
and
In Sage, the contrivances for cross-fertilisation are carried to even a higher degree of perfection than in Deadnettle, as the amount of fertilising material at command is less, there being only two stamens.
The Figures will show
the arrangement of the parts better than any description, and a brief explanation will suffice.
In Dead-nettle the two Anther-lobes were obliquely divided, but in Sage they are completely separated (Fig.
9).
The Connective diverges to such an extent that this separation takes place, and the upper anther-lobe only bears
pollen, while the lower is rudimentary and a mere pad
An insect visiting the flower (as in Fig. 9) strikes against
this lower rudimentary lobe, and the upper anther-lobe swings round, dusting the insect's back with pollen.
As an effectual
preventative against self-fertilisation, the anthers are mature before the stigmas are ready, and on ripening the stigmas
come to occupy the position formerly held by the anther-lobes, so that an insect carrying the pollen from one flower
will leave it on the stigma of another.
In the Dead-nettle, which even flowers in winter and early spring, when
insects are either scarce or absent, the stamens may curve round and come in contact with the stigma, as has actually
Here self-fertilisation does sometimes occur, but in the Sage that is impossible.
been observed.
10.
CLASSIFICATION.
Dicotyledon.
Division. Gamopetalae.
Order.
Class.
Labiatse.
Stem, square.
Leaves, opposite.
Inflorescence,
condensed cymes.
Corolla, two-lipped.
FOX-GLOVE
PHANEROGAMS
Fig.
PLATE
XXIV.
1 Inflorescence -A Raceme.
Fig. 2 LongitLuiuial Section,
ofMower
Fig.
g*.
3 Anthers
opened.
'DIAGRAM I/;,::
,/.'.
% S&
Anthers opened
* 't*iV Anthers unopened
'
f tr.msverse j
y CI
.
iffy
Stamens
'*Ti
Ca 5, Co
'
An 4 Gn
leaves
Fig.
Fig-
6 Transverse
Section
5 Sepal
of Ovary
Fig.
(a.)
'
VpperVuw
fbj
Fruit
Size
7 Speedwell
'cLj-Under View
Natwvl
Upper Lip
t
Stamen
Jgfe,
Stigma
/^
ZobedLo.
Ca]yx.
Ca
4, Co
< 4-)
An 2 Gn.fl)
vm
Fig 11 Seed -Vertical Section
Fig.
9 Fruit\A Capsule
Fig. 1Z
Style \ persistent
Xndosperm.
Fig.lt1Fruit-transverse, section
Cafyx persistent
^A Seeds
Engraved, Printed
and
Publislied
by "W! 8c AX Johnston,
Edinburgh.
Seed of Snapdragon,
(Digitalis purpurea).
h
U le F<
l0V
iS a
ve n k " own P lant comin
g int0 flow er about June, and occuring usually on the rough and rugged slopes
;
-T
u
oft the {:-,P
hill-sides
The shape
of the flower has suggested both the common and the scientific name.
Folk's-glove has reference to its
resemblance to the finger of a glove, and Digitalis (Lat. digitus, a finger) implies the
same.
The leaves are used in medicine, and the
flowers are adapted for insect-visitation
The Anthers ripen first, and in doing so change from a transverse to a longitudinal position,
thus enabling the bee as it enters the bell to carry off the pollen, spread over a
larger linear surface of its body
There are several members of the same Order equally well-known and cultivated, such
as Snapdragon, Musk, and Calceolaria,
while the Speedwells, usually blue, are among the commonest of spring, summer,
and even autumn flowers.
-
S?
>
Inflorescence a
1.
The unopened
flowers
Fig.
Take
2.
make a
Sepals,
Petals,
inserted
on receptacle.
unopened anthers
The
filaments
are bent,
and the
Fig.
Take a
3.
Diagram
I.
lie
lower
Andrcecium
A rudimentary
sometimes developing into a complete one.
Gyncecium of two united Carpels, as indicated by the two-lobed stigma.
Fig. 4. Foliage Leaves, long-stalked towards the
Fig.
5.
Fig.
6.
Fig.
7,
8.
root,
and pointed
becoming
fifth
Bracts
stamen
is
found
in
the
and the
Snapdragon,
leaf)-.
tip.
petals,
lip
is
three-
Capsule
is
laterally
and
in vertical section.
to allow seeds
to escape.
Figs. 9
and
10.
Capsule
in vertical section.
The embryo occupies the axis of the seed, and is surrounded by Endosperm.
The Capsule of Snapdragon opens by pores, and the Seeds are curiously marked
with jagged surfaces.
CLASSIFICATION.
Dicotyledon
Division. Gamopetalas.
Order. Scrophulariaceae.
Class.
Corolla, irregular.
sometimes two.
PHANEROGAMS
'
fy- 2
ofFlower- food
#&- fLowersJeinM\^
fp) Occasional Corolla
/fn
jt,
PLATE XXV.
Say
(
flowers
a. j
Ordinary form.
StzgrnalsJobedj
Fig.
5}lobed,
Stigma. 2.lobed
Tubular CorolLi
5- bbed
formtna a Whorl
traces
3 Disc flower
Corolla.
'^-Jteceptacle
Corneal
Wvary
f
Fig.
Fig.
(a.)
natural
size,
Fig.
6 Unopened
Fhower head
Fruit
(b) enlarged.
Stigma,^.
Cot Utta ,J
Fig. 7
Vertical
section
ofFlower-head
Fig.
( cl )
Outer
(a,)
Outer
8 Flowers
Receptacle
Fig. 13
Foliage Leaves
(a,) Ordinary
Fig.
Fig. 10 Fruit
''Pappus
Beak.
MPruit
Fig..H'Fruit (-10)
Fig. 12 Vertical Section
Frilit
ofFruit
Fig. 14 Bracts
cover
Seed
JSngraved, Printed
and
Priblisned "by."W!&
AX Johnston, Edinburgh.
(bj Inner
(cj Erect
(Bellis perennis)
and
DANDELION
(Taraxacum
The Daisy and Dandelion are the commonest representatives of a Natural Order which is
The flowers are arranged in great numbers side by side on the extremity of a
having such compound heads of flowers, they are reckoned composite plants or Composite.
The
distribution.
dens-leonis).
large
distribution of
Order are associated with a condensation of parts carried to its greatest possible extent
Not only are the flowers, as a whole,
packed as possible into a Head, but the individual flowers have their various parts bound together in closest union.
This
compactness gives a completeness to the whole for insect-fertilisation, inasmuch as a number of flowers are likely to be fertilised by one
this
as
closely
visit
of the insect
flowers,
Daisy.
Fig.
Slit
1.
is
conical.
The
The
Fig.
2.
Detach a
outer Flowers are strap-shaped and constitute the Ray, while the inner are tubular and form the Disc.
flowers open from the outside inwards, so that the youngest are towards the centre.
(a.)
in one piece, tubular at the base, gradually flattening out, and ending in two small lobes.
In some,
however, there are distinct indications or" five small lobes, thus showing the five-fold nature of the corolla
Stamens, absent
Gyncecium of two united Carpels, as indicated by the bi-lobed stigma; but in the flower with five-lobcd corolla, the
stigma was also five-lobed.
The Ovary is elongated.
The Ray-flower is thus seen to be Female, and consists of a probable remnant of a Calyx, a Corolla of five
united Petals, and a Gyncecium of five united Carpels.
Corolla,
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Remove
is
two-lobed;
tubular Corolla with dissecting needle, and spread it out as much as possible.
seen to be bi-sexual.
short Filaments attached to corolla, and the Anthers are united so as to form a tube round
Open up
Fig.
5.
Look
style.
specimens without Ray-flowers, with much enlarged common Receptacle studded over with small Fruits, or
possibly lying in the cup-like whorl of bracts.
(a, b.) Fruit is an Achene, as on examination it will be found to be one-seeded, dry, and does not open.
for
Dandelion.
Fig. 6. Flower-head unopened, with portion of
The
7.
Flower-head
There
Fig.
Stalk.
slit
is
an outer
set of
up.
Common
Fig.
8.
flower.
(b.)
Fig.
9.
Stamens with short Filaments, and long Anthers united to form a tube.
Gynoecium of two united Carpels, the lobes of the Stigma curling over and fertilising themselves,
should fail to do so.
At this stage the Stigma projects beyond the Corolla, and has mere indications of two lobes.
Figs. 10
is
is
cavity,
without endosperm.
ordinary Foliage-leaf is deeply segmented, the apex of the triangular segments pointing downwards.
The occasional Leaf on Stalk is much smaller, less segmented, and altogether simpler.
Fig. 14. The bracts may be traced through all gradations from a lobed leaf, as en stalk, till next the flower
thoroughly simple, and even some of the petals are intermediate between bract and petal
CLASSIFICATION.
Class.
hairs.
fruit in two,
There
The
Fruit
insect
single Ovule.
very unlike that of the Daisy, in being conspicuous, and having a stalk bearing a tuft of
and 11.
These hairs catch the faintest breath of wind, and so disperse the fruit
The
Fig. 13.
and expose
if
Dicotyledon.
Gamopetalae,
Division.
Compositae.
Order.
Flowers,
sessile,
Corolla, in
one
and in heads.
piece, ligulate or tubular.
it
becomes
PHANEROGAMS
5tbaW
Stern
Rjmots
ofm&tM
^
_*
or Bladderwort
Tig.
Mak Momcenca.
**^Inflorescence
x[0}
_,* ofTv
^.
PLATE
penetrating Branch.
* L
XXVI.
^'
Vertical
^.
Section.
-,
Embryo
Seed
fruit
Sum
!</.
9 Butterwort
in,
Fig.
Fig.
flower
6 Flower
front
view
TigJTomgLeaf
with
^jf
Bladders
Fig. 10
Flower
dorsal view
Fig.
8 Bladder in
Vertical Section
(*22)
l$
.Valve
Bristles at entrance
Fig. 15
'talk.
QuadnRd
processes
Fig. 12
Leaf Epidermis
with
Sessile Glxn<:
Glands
^JCfw\
KAt>
EpuLernxST
Cells
A^
13 Sundew
AX Johnston, Eainbarg
flower
Coyer
They
The Mistletoe
its berried Fruit is a familiar object at Ch istmas-time, but it is in summer that the Flower is met with.
It
such as the Apple and Hawthorn, but rarely on the Oak.
The berries are used for making bird-lime, hence the
name of the plant Viscum (Lat viscus, bird-lime).
The seeds are often sown on the branches of trees by birds, which eat the fruit for
the sake of its succulent and viscid cover, and afterwards cleaning their bill, leave the seed behind sticking to the tree.
The seed
begins to germinate generally after it has slipped round to the under surface of the branch, and puts forth rootlets which bore through
the bark and pass towards the centre along the softest parts
the medullary rays.
It thus becomes blended with the tissues of the
plant on which it grows, and by means of this organic connection feeds upon it, frequently killing the branch on which it has settled.
The Mistletoe is a parasite which does not live wholly at the expense of others, but does something for itself by means of its green
leaves.
The Dodder (Cuscuta), however, produces no leaves, not even seed-leaves, but twines round its host such as the Clover and
sucks the substance out of it.
There are plants even, such as the Bird's-nest Orchid (Neottia), which grovel in decay, and live upon
decayed vegetable matter, such as decaying leaves and the like.
Such are distinguished as Saprophytes (Gr. sapros, rotten phuton, a
is
parasitic
on
with
trees,
plant).
Fig". 1.
Branch of
Figs. 2
and
Fig. 4.
Fir-tree,
in section,
it
Fruit, a berry,
Perianth-leaves,
and the
sessile
sticky,
and the
usually two,
little bottle).
Bladderwort
occurs in stagnant water and in ditches which are foul and therefore swarming with minute animal
life.
flowers
It
about July.
6. The flowering stem rises above the surface of the water and bears a few yellow flowers.
The flower has an
upper and an under lip, with a well-marked prominence on the latter, and altogether has a general resemblance to the
flower of Snapdragon.
Figs. 5
and
Fig.
The Leaf
7.
much
is
divisions
The Bladders
continually fork.
are borne
on short
stalks
and vary
in
number.
Fig. 8.
The Bladder
consists of a transparent membrane, and the specimens examined were of a pale, purple tint.
Small animals,
such as Cyclops, Insect larvae, etc., gain admission by following the bristles at the entrance, and thereby opening a
this shuts after them so that they are entrapped.
folding door in the shape of the free edge of an elastic valve
The
Bladders do not secrete, but only absorb, the decayed matter by means of four-armed processes covering the interior.
;
Butterwort grows
in
damp
fat).
places, sometimes near to the stagnant waters containing Utricularia, but flowering earlier, usually in
May.
Figs. 9
Fig. 11.
and
leaves,
violet
leaves have usually incurved margins and are embedded in the boggy ground, so that they are on a level with
When plucked up by the root the leaves soon bend
the surface, and creeping things may readily get on to them.
back and almost meet by their tips, and this folding is the same which keeps them flat when growing.
The
finger,
and remove a
thin
razor,
and examine
to
see the
There are two kinds of glands those which stand out on a stalk and those which are sessile These glands
secrete a viscous fluid, and when small flies, etc., venture on the leaf, the margins arch over them, and the secretion
Here a process of digestion takes place
acts upon them until they are dissolved.
Drosera rotundifolia
It
(Gr.
drosos, dew).
The Sundew derives its name from the glistening appearance of the fluid drops at the tip of each of the tentacles of the leaves.
It flowers about July.
occurs on boggy ground and wet moors, and the moss serves as a sponge to keep up a supply of water.
are arranged in the form of a rosette, and the scape bearing several flowers has a characteristic bend
The flowers are comparatively small, and the white petals are almost enclosed by the sepals,
towards the top.
merely peeping forth a little at the top.
Fig. 13.
The Leaves
Fig. 14.
The Leaf
secretion.
is
beset
An
with
insect
alighting
Parasites
Fig. 15. This
as
is
it
continued.
a case where the antenna wao caught by a gland, and it would appear that the insect is bound hand and foot,
and the outer, longer tentacles gradually fold over and seal its doom.
There are two ways in which a plant may feed, either by taking in inorganic substances and converting them into the organic
material of which it is already composed, or by taking in organic materials and working them up into its own substance.
The first mode is that adopted by plants possessed of chlorophyll, or an allied colouring matter. This chlorophyll is commonlv
regarded as a carbonic-acid decomposing-apparatus ; but quite recently it has been suggested that it is the living protoplasm underlying
it which performs this work, while chlorophyll merely serves
to mask it, and prevent too rapid action in the presence of sunlight.
In
would be an accompaniment, and not the cause, of decomposition.
is carried on by plants without chlorophyll, or an equivalent colouring matter; and, as already pointed out, living
green plants or animals may be preyed upon, in which case the attacking plants are Parasites ; or dead and decayed organic bodies may
be used, when they are Saprophytes.
Starting with the ordinary Green Plants, every stage of Degradation may be traced.
The Mistletoe is only partially parasitic, since it bears green leaves, but the Dodder is wholly parasitic. It forms little discs in
contact with the stem of the plant it has attacked, from the centre of each of which a rootlet is emitted, and penetrates into the tissues
of
its
host.
Then
the next step is from living to decayed matter, as in the case of the brown Bird's-nest Orchid, which absorbs the liquified
decaying leaves amongst which it lives.
The Bladderwort, too, absorbs the decayed animal matter, putrifying in its bladders.
But a further stage is reached when the plant is able to bring its food-materials into a state of solution as well as to absorb them,
and this is accomplished by the Butterwort and the Sundew, which have not only beautiful contrivances for catching their living prey
but means for digesting it as welL
CLASSIFIED ARRANGEMENT
OF THE
VARIOUS
Sub-Kingdom PHANEROGAMS
Group GYMNOSPEUMS
Cyoadeaj
Oycas
ConifeiRi
Tajeiu
Zamia
Pinus
Cerato-zamia
Cupressux
lincephalartos
Class MONOCOTYLEDON
Division GLUMACE^
Division PETALOIDE.E
i
1
Grammaceaj
I'iki
Cyperacea;
Carfs
Liliaceaa
Lilium
Aniaryllidaceaj
Iridaceaj
Narcissus
Crocux
FritiUariu
Triticuni
Orchidaceu;
Orch is
Cypripediwn
Division POLYPETALiE
1
CALYCIFLOR/E
1
Sub-DivisionTHALAMIFLOR^:
Division APETALyE
Sub-Division
Division GAMOPETAL/E
Hutu
Betula
Coryiaceaj
Corylux
Salicaceas
Loranthaceso
Nymphaeaceas
Ranunculacea;
Berberideas
Papaveraceas
Fumariaceft)
Qutrout
Satix
Vise out
Nytnpfuta
Ranuneulv*
Berberit
Fumaria
A'/uiiei/ia
Epimediitm
Papaver
Chelulonium
Ainu*
Nvphar
Aetna
AmratMMB
Amenta
or Catkins
C'u]pulifen!
CorydalU
Crodfdtte
Cheiranthtix
Curyopliyllacea!
SUliaria
Ceraxtimu
IHanthus
Lvrhnis
Geraniacea?
(if rani inn
Violaceaj
Viola
Droseraceai
Vrottra
L'nilH'llifera)
Heraclcum
Anthritcut
Rosacew
Rosa
LeguminoBaj
Acacia
J{iiax
Cassia
Fragaria
Spiraea
Lathyrux
J'yrux
Prttnux
Alcliemilta
l'riinulaceas
Primula
Ericaceaj
Labiataj
l.entitmlariere
/.milium
Utrieutaria
Soxophtilariaoeea
OiffUalit
Composite
Urica
Pinguieula
Veronica
TaraxaewH
Rlioiioilemlron Salvia
fi-tlis
PHANEROGAMS
INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS-FOR COMPARATIVE STUDY.
"Z>"
INDICATES DIAGRAM.
PLATES.
...
....
-
Lilium Martagon
Bladder of Bladderwort
V.
Crocus
V.
Daisy,
XXVI.
Daisy, Disc
VIII.
1, 2,
XXV.
XXV.
XXV.
XIV.
Epimedium
Hazel
X.
13
Fox-glove
XXIV.
2,
Hog weed
XVIII.
Fritillaria
V.
Lilium Martagon
V.
Fumitory
Orchis
IX.
Geranium
XIV.
XVI.
XVII.
Grass
XXVI.
Hazel,
XIX.
Hazel,
XII.
Heath
Hogweed
in
....
....
Flower
Calyx-lobe of Bramble
Carpel of Buttercup
Cycas
circinalis
.....
Cycas revoluta
Fumitory
Zamia muricata
2, 3,
D
D
IV.
D3
2, 3,
1,
X.
X.
14,
XXII.
XVIII.
9, 10,
Lady's Mantle
Lilium Martagon
II.
D2
Narcissus, pseudo-narcissus
II.
1, 2,
Lady's Slipper
Da
D
XIV.
...
-
2, 4,
XX.
'3
IX.
V.
1,
VII.
1,
1
I
X.
19,
Orchis
IX.
3. 4, 5,
XVIII.
13
Pansy
XVII.
2, 3,
Lilium Martagon
VI.
Pink
XV.
12, 13
Poppy
XIII.
...
Hogweed
Wall-flower
White Dead-Nettie
Yew
Plant of
and Petals)
Polyanthus Narcissus
III.
XII.
Poppy
Poppy (Flower-bud)
do.
XV.
Primula, long-styled
do.
do.
XI.
Primula,'short-styled
do.
do.
XIII.
Primula, plan
IV.
Rhododendron
Alder, Female
XXIII.
do.
Male
Male
Female
Bladderwort
....
....
....
XXI.
1,
X.
X.
D2
XX.
8,
XIII.
2,
X.
3,
X.
5,
XXVI.
Salvia pratensis
Salvia sclarea
3, 4,
XI.
1, 2,
X.
18
1,2,3
IV.
VII.
XIII.
2,
XIII.
XX.
16
XXIII.
XXIII.
10
D2
XXI.
XIV.
2,
XXIII.
2, 3,
7,
7,D
4,5,
1,
4, 5,
Bramble
3,
Buttercup
XII.
1,
XXVI.
10
Willow, Male
X.
24
14, 15
Willow, Female
X.
26
Campion, Female
16
Yew, Male
II.
5,6
Carex, Male
....
XV.
XV.
IV.
12,
III.
Carex, Female
XX.
XXVI.
Butterwort
Campion, Male
...
IV.
IV.
XXI.
Cassia
Cerato-zamia, Male
I.
White Dead-Nettie
13, D4
D5
2, D2
XX.
10,
Chervil
XVIII.
Chickweed
XV.
3,
Yew, Female
Foliage- Leaves of Apple,
....
compound
'
Bladderwort
14
Bramble
XIX.
Buttercup
XII.
Butterwort
Chickweed
XXVI.
XV.
Crocus
VIII.
11
4
6
XIX.
11
Wall-flower
D3
Spirea
II.
Sweet Pea
D
D
20
XXIV.
XX.
XX.
XX.
Speedwell
D
D
XI.
XXII.
XXII.
XXII.
XXII.
....
....
...
....
-
Rose, in bud
D
D
D
D
10, 11
Nymphaea
Poppy
Flower of Acacia
Birch,
XIV
Chickweed
Poa
Alder,
....
...
....
....
of Bramble
2
1
D
D
Zamia muricata
Cone, Male, of Zamia muricata
Cycas circinalis, Female Plant -
XIX.
Nuphar
Nymphaea
Oak, Male
Oak, Female
Pinus Laricio
XIII.
Male
Female
4,
3,4
Fumitory
D2
8,
Dandelion
Butterwort
Floret of
....
....
Ray
tigs.
XII.
14
Pansy
Embryo
Flower of Columbine
XXV.
Bracts of Dandelion
Embryo
I'LATKS.
XXIV.
INDEX.
IM.ATKS.
Foliage-Leaves of Dandelion
Geranium
...
...
Hogweed
Fox-glove
Fumitory
XXV.
XXIV.
Lilium Martagon
Nymphaa
X.
...
XXVI.
IV.
11
XV.
XV.
XIV.
XVI.
Carex
Cerastium
XVIII.
6,7
Chickweed
Dandelion
Fox-glove
XXV.
XXV.
XXIV.
XIV.
X.
8,
XXII.
6,7
IX.
Pansy
XVII.
XIII.
Hazel,
XX.
XXVI.
XXI.
15
Heath
14
Hogweed
13
Mistletoe,
Male
XIV.
Mistletoe,
Female
XXVI.
XXVI.
X.
17
XIII.
Polyanthus Narcissus
VII.
X.
6,7
Primrose
XXII.
7,8
Wall-flower
XIV.
X.
23
X.
25
XXVI.
V.
XII.
Wall-flower
XX.
Fruit of Apple
Bane-berry
flat
Nut
XIX.
Bramble
Fumitory
....
Buttercup
XII.
Willow, Male
Carex
IV.
14
Willow, Female
XIII.
10,
XX.
XV.
XII.
XIV.
Chelidonium
Cherry
......
-
Chickweed
Columbine
Corydalis
------
Daisy
XI.
...
...
Crocus
.---
Daisy
Orchis
Birch, a
Bladderwort
V.
Female
13
VIII.
XXV.
XXV.
Dandelion
Dog Rose
Fox-glove, a Capsule
Fumitory, an Achene
Orchis, a Capsule
Pansy, a Capsule
I'inus sylvestris, a
XXIV.
Geranium
Heath
XVI.
XXII.
10, 11, 12
Hogweed
XVIII.
10
2,3
Lady's Slipper
9,
IX.
12
VI.
X.
15
Poa
IV.
XVIII.
Polyanthus Narcissus
VII.
VI.
6,7
Primrose
XXVI.
XI.
Dandelion
21
Narcissus pseudo-narcissus
IX.
13
Pansy
XVII.
11, 12
XIII.
6,
Fumitory
XXII.
XXII.
13
Geranium
Polyanthus Narcissus
XXIV.
XX.
Wall-flower, a Siliqua
Petals of
8,
XXIII.
I.
XXV.
VII.
10
VII.
4,
XIX.
XIV.
XVI.
XVII.
XXI.
XIV.
Sweet Pea
XXII.
3,
Bramble
Wall-flower
VIII.
Pansy
XXI.
XIV.
10, 11
XVII.
Perianth of Crocus
Strawberry
X.
Speedwell
Ovule of Cycas
III.
12
XVII.
Lilium Martagon
10
XV.
Pansy
Primrose
Rhododendron
Fox-glove
Cone
Poppy, a Capsule
IX.
...
...
-
Ovary of Buttercup
Chickweed
Orchis
Nymphaea
Oak, an Acorn
11, 12
6
6
IV.
Pollen-grains of Larch
II.
11
V.
II.
10
Willow
27
Lilium Martagon
Yew
III.
Pinus Laricio
IX.
15
Pinus Sylvestris
II.
11
Primrose
XXII.
Sweet Pea
Wheat
Yew
XXI.
IV.
Rhizomes of Orchis
III.
Root-hairs of
Grain of Wheat
Gynoicium of Chickweed
Fritilliaria Imperialis
Geranium
Lilium Martagon
Pansy
Wall-flower
White Dead-Nettie
Inflorescence of Barberry
Wheat
IX.
12
IV.
XXVI.
XXVI.
12
X.
15
Hazel
X.
9,
IV.
6,7
XV.
VI.
XVI.
-
Seed of Bane-berry
D2
D2
X.
Germination of Date
12
10, 11
XVIII.
XIV.
XVI.
....
Geranium
Hazel, a Nut
Hogweed, a Cremocarp
XX.
XXIV.
XII.
13
5
10
Barberry
XIII.
Chickweed
XV.
10, 11
XII.
10
Columbine
VI.
Crocus
XVII.
Cycas
VIII.
circinalis
XIV.
Encephalartos
XXIII.
Fox-glove
XIII.
Garden Pea
10
I.
11
I.
10
XXIV.
11
XXI.
INDEX.
PLATES.
O
J
c r*
seed
of Geranium
Ill
FIGS.
IO, II
Hazel
X.
16
Fumitory
Hogweed
XVIII.
12
Geranium
Lilium Martagon
Stamens of Crocus
VI.
------
Nymphaea
Oak
FK
1-I.ATE8.
XVI.
Hazel
....
....
-
VIII.
XIV.
XVI.
X.
XVIII.
9
6
XI.
Hogweed
X.
22
Lilium Martagon
V.
Orchis
IX.
14
Nymphaea
XI.
Pansy
XVII.
13
Pansy
XVII.
Pinus sylvestris
HI.
5,6
Pinus sylvestris
XIII.
7,8
Polyanthus Narcissus
XXII.
Poppy
XXIV.
12
Salvia pratensis
IO
Sweet Pea
Wall-flower
XXI.
XIV.
Taxus
Willow
X.
9
28
XXIV.
Poppy
Primrose
Snap-dragon
....
Sweet Pea
------
Sepals of Fox-glove
Fumitory
Wall-flower
II.
VII.
XIII.
XXIII.
....
-
White Dead-Nettie
Zamiamuricata
Stem of Bramble
XIV.
XXIII.
Orchis
IX.
Carex
XVII.
Crocus, a
XIV.
Hogweed
IV.
XIII.
X.
4
6
Pansy
Spikelet of
....
Poa
Stamens of Barberry
Birch
Conn
I.
Bramble
XIX.
Buttercup
XII.
Chickweed
XV.
Sundew
Lilium Martagon
in
Flower
XIX.
IV.
10
VIII.
XVIII.
XXIII.
...
VIII.
VI.
VII.
XXVI.
13
Leaves
Stigma of Cifocus
7,8
XIV.
XVI.
Wall-flower
II.
Geranium
XXI.
APPENDIX.
INSTRUCTIONS TO TEACHERS OF BOTANY, FROM THE DIRECTORY OF THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT.
I.
Some
kept to serve as
illustrations.
teaching
Preserving Specimens.
made more
seed-vessels,
lb.
common
salt.
lb.
The
fruits generally,
must be kept
in bottles in
some
Solution.
best
are glovers'
Arum, and
Dissecting needles.
handy
etc.,
II.
potash-alum.
Goadbys
i
effective, if
The wood
will
contract
in
cavity,
They may be
conveniently mounted
in
is
very
simple microscope.
This
may
be nothing more than a lens magnifying about four times, which should be mounted
lens.
it
wi.th
to dissect
For examining the structure of ovaries (habitually ignored by the pupils who present themselves
Department's examinations), a higher magnifying power, such as a Coddington lens similarly mounted,
needful.
flotver placed
will
for the
be found