Industrial Crops and Products 13 (2001) 93 100

www.elsevier.com/locate/indcrop

Promising oil producing seed species of Western Ghats

(Tamil Nadu, India)
G.D.P.S. Augustus a,*, G.J. Seiler b
b

a
Research Center in Botany, V.H.N.S.N. College, Virudhunagar 626 001, India
USDA, ARS, Northern Crop Science Lab., P.O. Box 5677, Fargo, ND 58105, USA

Received 21 January 2000; received in revised form 4 May 2000; accepted 12 May 2000

Abstract
Fifteen species of plants from the Western Ghats were screened as alternative sources of energy, oil, polyphenol,
hydrocarbon, and phytochemicals. The highest oil content was observed in Achras sapota with 13.8%. The highest
polyphenol and hydrocarbon content was observed in seeds of Dalbergia sissoo with 7.1% and 1.9%, respectively. The
seeds of Prosopis spicigera yielded the highest protein content with 20.9%. P. spicigera exhibits highest quantity of
carbohydrate with 7.9%. The gross heat value of 5506.0 cal/g for the seeds of Terminalia tomentosa was the highest
among the species analysed. The gross heat value of oil and hydrocarbon fractions of A. sapota were very high with
8717.0 and 9930.0 cal/g, respectively. The fatty acid composition of Calophyllum elatum seed oil contained oleic acid
(38.02%), palmitic acid (20.98%), and linoleic acid (14.48%). The hydrocarbon fractions were also analysed to
determine the type of isoprene present. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Seeds; Oil; Hydrocarbon; Polyphenol; Gross heat value; Fatty acid; Protein

1. Introduction
Oils and waxes are commonly found in many
plant species. Oils are abundant in seeds, while
waxes are normally abundant on the surface of
leaves or stems. Most of the vegetable oils used
today are produced in agricultural systems and
are necessary in one way or another for a variety
of industrial uses. Vegetable oils also have great
* Corresponding author. Present address: Grace Cottage, 1
Mangalapuram 1st Lane, Dindigul 624 003, Inida.
E-mail address: augustusgdps@yahoo.com (G.D.P.S. Augustus).

potential to be used as liquid fuel or as a source

of hydrocarbons. Vegetable oils are combustible
and some will combust in diesel engines. Earlier
systematic screening programs for oil-producing
crops from diverse plant species have been undertaken and some promising candidates with seed
oils with various fatty acids have been reported
(Princen, 1977). Polyphenol is a generic term referring to a variety of phytochemicals with a
hydroxy substituted aromatic ring. According to
Buchanan et al. (1980) composition of polyphenols is species specific, depends on the nature of
partitioning solvents, the heating sometimes used
to solubilize the acetone extract (Abbott et al.,

0926-6690/01/$ - see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0926-6690(00)00056-X

G.D.P.S. Augustus, G.J. Seiler / Industrial Crops and Products 13 (2001) 93100

94

1990) and consists of a complex mixture of constituents such as tannins, phlobaphenes, lipids,
sugars and substituted ring compounds. The objective of this study was to determine the extractable yields, heat content, and chemical
composition of several seed species and to give an
overview of the chemical utilization of plant material for liquid fuels and as industrial raw
materials.

2. Materials and methods

R.F. of Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India (Table

1). Healthy seed samples were collected for a total
fresh weight of 2000 2500 grams from the respective species belonging to the same agro-climatic
zone. They were randomly collected from a minimum of 1525 populations which were composited into one sample for chemical analysis.
Each sample was subsampled twice. Seed samples
were allowed to dry in a sheltered area at ambient
temperature ranging from 10 to 30C and were
ground in a Wiley mill equipped with a 1 mm
sieve.

2.1. Seed samples

2.2. Extraction of oil, polyphenol and

hydrocarbon fractions

Fifteen species belonging to various families

were collected from courtallum to srivilliputhur

Extractables were removed from each sample

with acetone and then with hexane in a soxhlet

Table 1
Composition of chemical constituents of species from Western Ghats
Name of the species

Yield of extractablesa
Protein
(%)

Guttiferae
Calophyllum elatum Bedd.
C. inophyllum L.
Malvaceae
Bombax malabaricum Dc.
Meliaceae
Azadirachta indica A. Juss.
Leguminosae
Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.
Leucaena glauca Benth.
Pongamia glabra Vent.
Prosopis spicigera L.
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.
Combretaceae
Anogeissus latifolia Wall.
Terminalia tomentosa W.& A.
Myrtaceae
Syzygium jambolanum Dc.
Sapotaceae
Achras sapota L.
Apocynaceae
Rauwolfia serpentina
Benth. Ex Kurz
Euphorbiaceae
Jatropha gossypifolia L.
a

Oil
(%)

Polyphenol
(%)

Hydrocarbon
(%)

12.2 9 0.15a
2.8 90.20

4.7 90.11a
3.6 90.17

1.1 90.26a
1.1 9 0.18

10.8 9 0.11

8.9 90.15

5.3 9 0.23

0.8 90.16

7.69 0.12

5.0 9 0.20

4.4 90.30

1.1 90.40

4.09 0.36
12.79 0.30
3.790.28
20.9 9 0.39
1.890.25

4.8 90.38
6.2 9 0.32
10.4 90.14
2.3 9 0.37
2.7 90.16

7.1 90.35
1.0 90.14
2.6 9 0.42
0.8 90.32
0.9 9 0.20

1.9 90.25
1.4 90.21
1.3 9 0.36
0.6 90.14
0.99 0.28

12.390.26
6.8 9 0.21

1.6 90.34
2.1 9 0.30

2.1 90.29
1.7 90.54

1.5 9 0.27
1.3 90.11

10.1 90.13

1.0 90.10

1.6 90.14

0.3 9 0.32

12.6 90.42

13.8 9 0.13

2.0 90.39

0.7 9 0.10

3.6 9 0.38

9.3 9 0.15

1.5 90.21

1.3 9 0.13

6.2 9 0.27

4.5 9 0.13

2.7 90.11

1.4 9 0.44

0.89 0.11a
1.59 0.16

Values are mean of three replicates, and 9 S.D.

G.D.P.S. Augustus, G.J. Seiler / Industrial Crops and Products 13 (2001) 93100

95

apparatus for 24 h in each solvent. Care was

taken for complete removal of acetone from the
residue before hexane extraction. Acetone extracts
were allowed to air dry, then partitioned between
hexane and aqueous ethanol (water:ethanol) to
give oil and polyphenol, respectively. After solvent removal, these fractions were dried and
weighed gravimetrically for yield. After hexane
removal, the hydrocarbon fractions from the second 24 h extraction were dried and weighed for
yield (Buchanan et al., 1978a,b).

model cc.0.1). The gross heat values were expressed in cal/g (Anonymous, 1966).

2.3. Estimation of protein and ash content

3. Results and discussion

Ash content was estimated gravimetrically by

igniting the dry sulphuric acid digested residue in
an electric Bunsen burner following the method of
Goering and Van Soest (1970). Protein content
was determined by Kjeldahl method (AOAC,
1980).

3.1. Yield of protein, oil, polyphenol and

hydrocarbon

2.4. Estimation of carbohydrate

Carbohydrates of seed samples were estimated
using a spectrophotometer following the phenol
sulfuric acid method of Dubois et al. (1951, 1956).

2.5. NMR studies

NMR spectra for hydrocarbon samples were
obtained using a Bruker AC 300F NMR spectrophotometer (300 MHZ) with CDCl3 as the
solvent and tetramethylsilane (TMS) as the internal standard.

2.6. Fatty acid composition

Methyl esters of seed oil samples were prepared
following Metcalfe and Wang (1981), and analyzed for their fatty acid composition using a
GLC equipped with a SE 30 column and nitrogen
as the carrier gas.

2.7. Gross heat 6alue

Gross heat value of seed samples, oil, and
hydrocarbon fractions were determined using a
Bomb calorimeter (Toshniwal Bomb Calorimeter,

2.8. Statistical analysis

Three replications of each sample were evaluated for extraction of chemical constituents and
gross heat value. Values in tables are the means of
three replications and the standard deviation (9
S.D.).

Protein, oil, polyphenol, and hydrocarbon

yields of the 15 seed species are shown in Table 1.
The pods of Prosopis spicigera had the highest
protein content with 20.9% followed by Leucaena
glauca and Achras sapota with 12.7 and 12.6%,
respectively. Seeds of Calophyllum elatum had the
lowest protein content with only 0.8%, while nine
species had more than 5% protein content. If the
species with high protein content are properly
handled and processed, they have the potential to
provide a protein rich food for cattle as suggested
by Pirie (1975). However, it should be noted that
antinutritional factors may complicate its use as
animal feed (Shirley, 1986; Kellems and Church,
1998). Presence of alkaloids in the samples pose a
great threat to the palatability of plant material
by cattle. Glucosides viz. saponin are highly poisonous to both man and animals. Phytates create
nutritional digestive problems when seeds are
used for human food or fed to livestock, because
of the unavailability of the minerals in animal
nutrition. This however can be easily over come
by modern food processing techniques (Copeland,
1988). Extractive free residues would be the main
product by weight of a botanochemical extraction
process and would be available as flakes for
subsequent chemical or microbiological conversion to a wide variety of secondary botanochemicals as described by Buchanan et al. (1980). A
wide variety of enzymatic and fermentative conversions of extractive free residues are possible.

G.D.P.S. Augustus, G.J. Seiler / Industrial Crops and Products 13 (2001) 93100

96

Table 2
Ash and carbohydrate content of species of Western Ghats
Species

Guttiferae
Calophyllum
elatum
C. inophyllum
Malvaceae
Bombax
malabaricum
Meliaceae
Azadirachta
indica
Leguminosae
Dalbergia sissoo
Leucaena glauca
Pongamia glabra
Prosopis
spicigera
Pterocarpus
marsupium
Combretaceae
Anogeissus
latifolia
Terminalia
tomentosa
Myrtaceae
Syzygium
jambolanum
Sapotaceae
Achras sapota
Apocynaceae
Rauwolfia
serpentina
Euphorbiaceae
Jatropha
gossypifolia

Carbohydrate
(%)a

Totalb

0.2 90.04a

0.69 0.17a

19.6b

1.090.13

1.690.16

11.6

0.9 90.06

2.1 90.28

28.8

0.6 9 0.2

2.4 9 0.09

21.1

1.6 90.03
0.7 90.07
0.4 90.05
0.1 90.04

1.3 9 0.19
1.79 0.24
0.029 0.27
7.9 9 0.26

20.7
23.7
18.42
32.6

0.3 90.07

1.9 9 0.16

8.5

0.3 9 0.19

2.0 90.12

19.8

0.3 90.11

3.1 90.19

15.3

2.7 90.14

5.3 9 0.21

21.0

0.1 90.04

1.5 9 0.19

30.7

0.7 90.09

0.6 9 0.23

17.0

0.4 9 0.03

1.5 90.19

16.7

Ash
(%)a

Values are mean of three replicates and 9 S.D.

Total =Protein + oil + polyphenol + hydrocarbon + ash
+carbohydrate.
a

These residues might also serve as suitable substrate in the production of pullulan, astaxanthin,
and xylitol (Leathers et al., 1992).
The seeds of A. sapota yielded 13.8% oil followed by C. elatum with 12.2% and Pongamia
glabra with 10.4%. Oil of seven species were
slightly gummy and viscous in nature at room
temperature. Plant oils are used for food prod-

ucts such as shortenings, salad and cooking oils

(cotton seed oil) and margarines, while large
quantities serve as feed and in industrial applications. Industrial applications include chemicals
such as plasticizers, which add pliability to other
substances; stabilizers, which help other substances resist chemical change; emulsifiers, which
enable the mixing of normally unmixable liquids; surfactants, which reduce the surface tension of liquids and are commonly used in
detergents; and esters, nylons and resins, which
are basic ingredients in many products. Besides
detergents and plastics, products that contain
chemicals derived from vegetable oils include lubricants coatings, corrosion inhibitors, adhesives,
cleaners, cosmetics, water repellents and fuels
(Bagby, 1996). Vegetable oils have great potential as reliable and renewable sources of fuel for
compression ignition engines. If these oil samples are properly treated to reduce their viscosity (Bagby, 1996), they have potential as an
alternate to conventional oils.
Dalbergia sissoo and Bombax malabaricum
were the only two species that yielded more
than 5% polyphenols.
D. sissoo had the highest hydrocarbon content
with 1.9% followed by Anogeissus latifolia with
1.5%. Hydrocarbon contents of more than 1.0%
were observed in ten species. According to
McLaughlin and Hoffman (1982), in most of
the non-resin and non-latex plants, the
hydrocarbon content varied from 0 to 4% of
total dry weight of the plant. Results from
Calvins Lab showed that most of the laticiferous plants contain 114% hydrocarbons
(Nielsen et al., 1977).
Seed samples contained 0.02 7.9% carbohydrates (Table 2). P. spicigera had the highest
quantity of carbohydrate (7.9%), while P. glabra
had the lowest with 0.02%. The difference between the reported compounds and the total
mass balance could be accounted for by
starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, minerals, and
unknown compounds. All seeds had an ash content below 1.0%, except for three species C.
inophyllum, D. sissoo, and Syzygium jambolanum
(Table 2). High ash content has a negative effect
on the calorific value (Van Emon and Seiber,
1985).

G.D.P.S. Augustus, G.J. Seiler / Industrial Crops and Products 13 (2001) 93100

3.2. Gross heat 6alue

Gross heat value of seeds, oil, and hydrocarbons are presented in Table 3. Comparative fuel
values of representative biomass and fossil fuels

97

are also included in Table 3 for comparison. The

gross heat value of the seeds, oil fraction, and
hydrocarbon fractions are an indicator of their
potential use as an intermediate energy source.
Gross heat value of seeds ranges from 3141.0 to

Table 3
Gross heat values of oil, hydrocarbons and seeds of species of Western Ghats
Species

Guttiferae
Calophyllum elatum
C. inophyllum
Malvaceae
Bombax malabaricum
Meliaceae
Azadirachta indica

Gross heat valuea

Oil (cal/g)

Hydrocarbon (cal/g)

Seeds (cal/g)

7542.09 19.1a
7554.19 15.4

7990.0 935.3a
7965.0 928.2

3141.0 9 30.5a
3996.0 9 35.8

7651.49 30.4

8389.0 925.3

3676.4 9 49.2

7013.49 28.0

7646.2 918.9

4345.6 9 28.0

Leguminosae
Dalbergia sissoo
Leucaena glauca
Pongamia glabra
Prosopis spicigera
Pterocarpus marsupium

7228.09 31.2
7606.29 18.2
7400.39 21.5
8441.09 29.7
7666.09 24.4

8195.0 923.8
8040.0 927.5
7757.3 929.5
8547.3 928.1
8015.0 915.5

4075.0 9 18.0
4496.2 9 27.0
4051.4 9 22.0
3529.1 9 16.7
3730.0 9 23.0

Combretaceae
Anogeissus latifolia
Terminalia tomentosa

7252.09 28.0
7778.09 17.6

7664.3 926.3
7802.0 924.7

3400.0 9 20.2
5506.0 9 32.8

Myrtaceae
Syzygium jambolanum

7752.49 35.2

8150.4 927.8

3671.0 9 29.8

Sapotaceae
Achras sapota

8717.09 18.9

9930.0 927.6

4604.0 9 27.3

Apocynaceae
Rauwolfia serpentina

7017.39 37.2

7840.0 921.5

3558.0 9 14.2

Euphorbiaceae
Jatropha gossypifolia

7707.49 20.1

8172.0 924.4

3550.0 9 19.0

Biomass and fossil fuels

Rice Straw hulls
Lignite coal
Cattle manure
Corn cobs
Municipal refuse
Methanol
Anthracite coal
Fuel oil (Mexico)
Crude oil
Gasoline

3333b
3888b
4111b
5167b
5278b
5353b
7111b
10 308b
10 531b
11 256b

a
b

Values are mean of three replicates and 9 S.D.

Van Emon and Seiber (1985).

G.D.P.S. Augustus, G.J. Seiler / Industrial Crops and Products 13 (2001) 93100

98
Table 4
Nature of hydrocarbon
Species
Guttiferae
Calophyllum
elatum
C. inophyllum
Malvaceae
Bombax
malabaricum
Meliaceae
Azadirachta
indica
Leguminosae
Dalbergia sissoo
Leucaena glauca

Pongamia glabra

Prosopis
spicigera
Pterocarpus
marsupium
Combretaceae
Anogeissus
latifolia
Terminalia
tomentosa
Myrtaceae
Syzygium
jambolanum
Sapotaceae
Achras sapota

Apocynaceae
Rauwolfia
serpentina

Euphorbiaceae
Jatropha
gossypifilia

Nature of hydrocarbon

The hydrocarbon may have methyl

1,2+3,4 moieties
The hydrocarbon may have cismethyl
with 1,2 moiety
The hydrocarbon may have cis-methyl
with 1,2+3,4 moieties+methylene
nearly trans+vinylene protons
The hydrocarbon may have cis-methyl
with 1,2+3,4 moieties+methylene
nearly trans+vinylene protons
The hydrocarbon may have cis-methyl
with 1,2 moiety+vinylene protons
The hydrocarbon may have
cis,trans-methyl with 1,2+3,4
moieties+methylene nearly
cis+vinylene protons
The hydrocarbon may have
cis,trans-methyl with 1,2+3,4
moieties+methylene nearly
trans+vinylene protons
The hydrocarbon may have methyl with
1,2+3,4 moieties+methylene nearly cis
The hydrocarbon may have methyl 1,2
moiety
The hydrocarbon may have methyl 3,4
moiety
The hydrocarbon may have
trans-methyl with 1,2+3,4 moieties
The hydrocarbon may have
cis,trans-methyl with 1,2+3,4 moieties
The hydrocarbon may have cis-methyl
1,2+3,4 moieties+methylene nearly
trans+vinylene protons
The hydrocarbon may have
cis,trans-methyl 1,2+3,4
moieties+methylene nearly
trans+vinylene protons
The hydrocarbon may have
cis,trans-methyl with 1,2+3,4 moieties

5506.0 cal/g. Six species had calorific values above

4000 cal/g. One species, C. elatum, had a lower

gross heat value than rice straw hulls (3333 cal/g).

Seven species had gross heat values above 3900
cal/g which is higher than that of rice straw hulls
and lignite coal (3888 cal/g). Four species had
higher gross heat values than cattle manure (4111
cal/g). The gross heat value for Terminalia tomentosa was 5506.0 cal/g which is higher than municipal refuse, or methanol with 5278.0 and 5353.0
cal/g, respectively and also higher than the average heat content of hardwood (4781.0 cal/g) and
softwood (5010.0 cal/g). This would clearly indicate that seeds could be a supplement to wood for
fuel (Van Emon and Seiber, 1985).
The gross heat values of the oil fraction varied
from 7013.4 to 8717.0 cal/g. The oil fraction of
Azadirachta indica (7013.4 cal/g) and Rauwolfia
serpentina (7017.3 cal/g) had lower gross heat
values than anthracite coal, however, the gross
heat value of all others species were higher than
that of anthracite coal (7111.0 cal/g). The oil
fraction of A. sapota had a calorific value above
8500.0 cal/g with the potential to yield extremely
high quantities of oil (Table 1). This species could
serve as an alternate to conventional oil in the
future. The gross heat value of the hydrocarbon
fraction ranged from 7646.2 to 9930.0 cal/g. The
calorific values of the hydrocarbon fraction for all
species were higher than that of anthracite coal.
The hydrocarbon fraction of A. sapota had a
calorific value of 9930.0 cal/g. Eight species had
calorific values above 8000.0 cal/g for the hydrocarbon fraction. The calorific value depends on
the composition of the hydrocarbon fraction and
its content of rubber, gutta, wax, and their molecular weights.

3.3. NMR spectroscopy

The results of the NMR spectra are presented
in Table 4. Cis-methyl was observed at 1.63 ppm
and trans-methyl at 1.53 ppm. The methylene
resonance appears near 2.1 and 2.03 ppm for cis
and trans, respectively. The position of vinylene
proton resonance is insensitive to the geometrical
isomerism about the double bond and appears at
5.2 ppm for both cis and trans structures. The two
other geometrical modifications of poly-isoprene
units are 3,4 vinylene protons at 4.75 ppm, while

G.D.P.S. Augustus, G.J. Seiler / Industrial Crops and Products 13 (2001) 93100

1,2 vinylene protons appears at 4.95 ppm. The

most useful resonances for analytical purposes are
the methyl peaks at 1.59 ppm for 3.4 units and
1.05 ppm for 1.2 units (Chen, 1962; Bovey, 1972).
Poly-isoprene is the main constituent of latex,
which varies in quantity and weights from species
to species. Rubber is synthesized in over 2000
plant species representing about 300 genera of 700
families.

3.4. Fatty acid composition

C. elatum has an oil content of 12.2% which
was analysed for its fatty acid composition. The
fatty acids were comprised of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids such as 1.25% of myristic
acid (14:0), 20.98% of palmitic acid (16:0), 1.0%
of heptadecanoic acid (17:0), 12.48% of stearic
acid (18:0), 38.02% of oleic acid (18:1), 14.48% of
linoleic acid (18:2), 3.12% of 21:0 and three undetermined compounds (8.68%). Palmitic acid finds
its use in the preparation of palmitates of vitamin
A and chloramphenicol (Balaji, 1995). Stearic acid
is useful in soap, stearin, and in the candle
industries.

4. Conclusion
This study showed that several species of plants
from the Western Ghats Region, especially A.
sapota and C. elatum are capable of producing
high quantities of polyphenols, hydrocarbons, and
oil. The high calorific value of oil and hydrocarbon fractions of A. sapota above 8500.0 cal/g with
the potential to yield high quantities of oil could
serve as an alternate to conventional oil in the
future. Bio-inductional studies are also recommended on these species to increase the quantity
of extractables as achieved by Jayabalan et al.
(1994).
The dependence of man on plant products is as
old as the history of civilization. Historical trends
predicted changes in mans needs and the knowledge of plant potential has changed his perspectives about plants. The traditional division of
plants into primary, secondary and tertiary pools
reflects the utilization and economic importance

99

of plants. The primary pool is composed of staple

plants, with food plants and cultivated ones. The
major needs of man are met by this pool, although the secondary pool also delivers some of
the important fruits, beverages, and vegetables.
The secondary pool is complimentary to the primary pool and reflects the regional or national
usages. The tertiary pool is composed of wild,
protected, and occasionally some cultivated
plants. This pool provides a wealth of resources at
the subsistence level and constitute a maximum
number of plants. This pool is the most under
utilized or under exploited one compared to the
better utilized primary and secondary pools. The
tertiary pool requires no special agronomic technique. Careful breeding and genetic improvement
of these plants can help in producing novel compounds on a large scale to meet mans growing
demand especially in the energy sector. All possible needs cannot be met using a single plant.
Hence, a careful selection of species with maximum potential for desirable oil producing qualities need to be selected which can be genetically
improved for desired compounds using modern
techniques.

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