Contents

DBMS
RDBMS
DBMS Based Storage Approach
OS File System Storage Based Approach
Relational Model
SQL (Structured Query Language)
Tables
Data Types
Simple Queries
Select Query
Selecting Columns
Selection of Tuples
Relational operators in sql
Logical operators in sql
Create table command
Constraints
Inserting values into table
String Operations
Aggregate Functions
Update statement
Delete tuples from table
Deleting a Table
Alter table command
Commit and Rollback
Complex Queries
Joining Relations
Subqueries
Operations on Result Sets
union
intersect
minus
Group by clause
Views
Sequence & Synonym

 Introduction of PL/SQL

Introduction PL/SQL
(Procedural Language/SQL) is a procedural extention of oracle-SQL that
offers language constructs similar to those in imperative programming
language. PL/SQL allows its users to develop complex database applications
that require the usage of control structure & procedural elements such as
procedures, function, modules etc.

PL/SQL Block:

A PL/SQL block is a set of related procedural SQL

statements, delimited by the reserved words BEGIN & END. PL/SQL supports
two types of block:i)Anonymous blocks
ii)Named blocks

Anonymous blocks: Anonymous blocks are the blocks without headers.

Anonymous blocks do not form the body of a procedure function or trigger.

Named blocks: Named blocks are the block having headers or labels,
Named blocks can either be sub programs (procedures, function, packages)
or triggers (specialized block that initiate some action before or after some
data is manipulated in a table).

Variable:

A variable declaration requires valid name & data-type

information. Variable declaration in PL/SQL are contained in its DECLARE
section. When a variable is declared using the CONSTANT keyword, its values
cannot be changed after it has been defined PL/SQL supports there type of
variables:-

i)Local variable:- These variable are declared in the DECLARE block of

PL/SQL code.
ii)Substitution variable:- These variable get declared automatically by
prefixing the & sign to the variable. These variable used for data input at
suntime.
iii) Bind variable:- These variable can be declared in SQL*Plus (at SQL >
prompt) & are refrred to in PL/SQL program using the : as prefix.

Use of % type attribute: % The ROWTYPE attribute can be used to declare

a composite variable that can store all the data associated with a single row
of a table or a query.
Use of % type attribute: % type is used to retrieve a data-type from
database. The variable declared with a % type attribute are called anchored
variables. An anchored data type find its use in declaring variable thats can
hold data being read from a database or from a predefined variable.
Use of Select into Statement:- A PL/SQL program is not allowed to send the
data generated by a SELECT statement, directly to the output. A SELECT
INTO statement helps in the situation by storing the data coming from tables
into memory variables, which can later be displayed or used for further
processing.
A SELECT INTO statement can be used with those queries that
generate exactly one row. If the number of rows generated is either less or

greater than one, an exception is raised. To process the queries that might
generate zero or multiple rows a cursor can be used.
Coments:- Coments are statements that are ignored by the compiler & are
used to enhance program readability. PL/SQL supports two ways of adding
comments: Single line comments:- These comments start with sign_ _
Multiline Comments:- These comments start with/ * & end with * /

SELECTION STATEMENT:

IF <condition> Then
Statement block
END IF;

This form of the 1F statement is used to control whether a

code block should be executed or not. Here, the statement block 1
executes if the condition is true.

IF <condition> Then
Statement block 1
ELSE
Statement block 2
END IF;

This form of the 1F statement is used to choose which block

out of two given block should be executed. Here, if condition is true,
block 1 executes otherwise block 2 execute.

IF <condition 1> Then

Statement block 1
ELSE IF <condition 2> THEN
Statement block 2
ELSE IF <condition 3> THEN
Statement block 3
ELSE
Statement block 4

END IF;
This form of the If statement is used to choose one out of
variable mutually exclusive choices. Here, the block, which is
associated with the condition that evaluates to true, is executed.
If none of the conditions is true, then the block associated with
the ELSE part is executed.

LOOPING STRUCTURE:a) Simple Loop:- LOOP. . .END LOOP. This construct creates an
infinite loop by default. In order to terminate this loop, we can
use the EXIT statement.
eg:- . . .
I:=1;
LOOP
Sum:= Sum + I;
I:= I + 1;
EXIT WHEN I > 10;
END LOOP;
...
b) Numeric FOR LOOP:- This looping construct is used to
repeat a set of instruction for a fixed number of times.
Eg: FOR I IN 1. . .10
LOOP
Sum:= Sum + 1
END LOOP;
c) WHILE LOOP:- This looping construct is used to repeat a set
of statement till a condition holds good.
Eg:
...
I : = 1;
WHILE (I<=10)

LOOP
Sum:= Sum + I;
I : = I + 1;
END LOOP;
...

GOTO Statement:
GOTO statement is used to jump ie., branch unconditionally to a
named label. Programs that use the GOTO statement are unstructured and
difficult to maintain so this statement should rarely be used. The syntax of
statement is:
GOTO label_name;