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Platetectonics
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Platetectonics(fromtheLateLatintectonicus,from
theGreek:"pertainingtobuilding")[1]isa
scientifictheorythatdescribesthelargescalemotionof
Earth'slithosphere.Thistheoreticalmodelbuildsonthe
conceptofcontinentaldriftwhichwasdeveloped
duringthefirstfewdecadesofthe20thcentury.The
geoscientificcommunityacceptedthetheoryafterthe
conceptsofseafloorspreadingwerelaterdevelopedin
thelate1950sandearly1960s.
Thelithosphere,whichistherigidoutermostshellofa
planet(onEarth,thecrustanduppermantle),isbroken
upintotectonicplates.OnEarth,therearesevenor
eightmajorplates(dependingonhowtheyaredefined)
andmanyminorplates.Whereplatesmeet,their
relativemotiondeterminesthetypeofboundary
convergent,divergent,ortransform.Earthquakes,
volcanicactivity,mountainbuilding,andoceanic
trenchformationoccuralongtheseplateboundaries.
Thelateralrelativemovementoftheplatestypically
variesfromzeroto100mmannually.[2]
Tectonicplatesarecomposedofoceaniclithosphere
andthickercontinentallithosphere,eachtoppedbyits
ownkindofcrust.Alongconvergentboundaries,
subductioncarriesplatesintothemantlethematerial
lostisroughlybalancedbytheformationofnew
(oceanic)crustalongdivergentmarginsbyseafloor
spreading.Inthisway,thetotalsurfaceoftheglobe
remainsthesame.Thispredictionofplatetectonicsis
alsoreferredtoastheconveyorbeltprinciple.Earlier
theories(thatstillhavesomesupporters)propose
gradualshrinking(contraction)orgradualexpansionof
theglobe.[3]

Thetectonicplatesoftheworldweremappedinthe
secondhalfofthe20thcentury.

RemnantsoftheFarallonPlate,deepinEarth's
mantle.Itisthoughtthatmuchoftheplateinitially
wentunderNorthAmerica(particularlythewestern
UnitedStatesandsouthwestCanada)atavery
shallowangle,creatingmuchofthemountainous
terraininthearea(particularlythesouthernRocky
Mountains).

TectonicplatesareabletomovebecausetheEarth's
lithospherehasgreaterstrengththantheunderlyingasthenosphere.Lateraldensityvariationsinthemantle
resultinconvection.Platemovementisthoughttobedrivenbyacombinationofthemotionoftheseafloor
awayfromthespreadingridge(duetovariationsintopographyanddensityofthecrust,whichresultin
differencesingravitationalforces)anddrag,withdownwardsuction,atthesubductionzones.Another
explanationliesinthedifferentforcesgeneratedbytherotationoftheglobeandthetidalforcesoftheSun
andMoon.Therelativeimportanceofeachofthesefactorsandtheirrelationshiptoeachotherisunclear,
andstillthesubjectofmuchdebate.
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Contents
1Keyprinciples
2Typesofplateboundaries
3Drivingforcesofplatemotion
3.1Drivingforcesrelatedtomantledynamics
3.2Drivingforcesrelatedtogravity
3.3DrivingforcesrelatedtoEarthrotation
3.4Relativesignificanceofeachdrivingforcemechanism
4Developmentofthetheory
4.1Summary
4.2Continentaldrift
4.3Floatingcontinents,paleomagnetism,andseismicityzones
4.4Midoceanicridgespreadingandconvection
4.5Magneticstriping
4.6Definitionandrefiningofthetheory
5Implicationsforbiogeography
6Platereconstruction
6.1Definingplateboundaries
6.2Pastplatemotions
6.3Formationandbreakupofcontinents
6.4Galleryofpastconfigurations
7Currentplates
8Othercelestialbodies(planets,moons)
8.1Venus
8.2Mars
8.3GalileansatellitesofJupiter
8.4Titan,moonofSaturn
8.5Exoplanets
9Seealso
10References
10.1Notes
10.2Citedbooks
10.3Citedarticles
11Externallinks
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11.1Videos

Keyprinciples
TheouterlayersoftheEartharedividedintothelithosphereandasthenosphere.Thisisbasedon
differencesinmechanicalpropertiesandinthemethodforthetransferofheat.Mechanically,the
lithosphereiscoolerandmorerigid,whiletheasthenosphereishotterandflowsmoreeasily.Intermsof
heattransfer,thelithospherelosesheatbyconduction,whereastheasthenospherealsotransfersheatby
convectionandhasanearlyadiabatictemperaturegradient.Thisdivisionshouldnotbeconfusedwiththe
chemicalsubdivisionofthesesamelayersintothemantle(comprisingboththeasthenosphereandthe
mantleportionofthelithosphere)andthecrust:agivenpieceofmantlemaybepartofthelithosphereor
theasthenosphereatdifferenttimesdependingonitstemperatureandpressure.
Thekeyprincipleofplatetectonicsisthatthelithosphereexistsasseparateanddistincttectonicplates,
whichrideonthefluidlike(viscoelasticsolid)asthenosphere.Platemotionsrangeuptoatypical10
40mm/year(MidAtlanticRidgeaboutasfastasfingernailsgrow),toabout160mm/year(NazcaPlate
aboutasfastashairgrows).[4]Thedrivingmechanismbehindthismovementisdescribedbelow.
Tectoniclithosphereplatesconsistoflithosphericmantleoverlainbyeitherorbothoftwotypesofcrustal
material:oceaniccrust(inoldertextscalledsimafromsiliconandmagnesium)andcontinentalcrust(sial
fromsiliconandaluminium).Averageoceaniclithosphereistypically100km(62mi)thick[5]itsthickness
isafunctionofitsage:astimepasses,itconductivelycoolsandsubjacentcoolingmantleisaddedtoits
base.Becauseitisformedatmidoceanridgesandspreadsoutwards,itsthicknessisthereforeafunctionof
itsdistancefromthemidoceanridgewhereitwasformed.Foratypicaldistancethatoceaniclithosphere
musttravelbeforebeingsubducted,thethicknessvariesfromabout6km(4mi)thickatmidoceanridges
togreaterthan100km(62mi)atsubductionzonesforshorterorlongerdistances,thesubductionzone
(andthereforealsothemean)thicknessbecomessmallerorlarger,respectively.[6]Continentallithosphereis
typically~200kmthick,thoughthisvariesconsiderablybetweenbasins,mountainranges,andstable
cratonicinteriorsofcontinents.Thetwotypesofcrustalsodifferinthickness,withcontinentalcrustbeing
considerablythickerthanoceanic(35kmvs.6km).[7]
Thelocationwheretwoplatesmeetiscalledaplateboundary.Plateboundariesarecommonlyassociated
withgeologicaleventssuchasearthquakesandthecreationoftopographicfeaturessuchasmountains,
volcanoes,midoceanridges,andoceanictrenches.Themajorityoftheworld'sactivevolcanoesoccur
alongplateboundaries,withthePacificPlate'sRingofFirebeingthemostactiveandwidelyknowntoday.
Theseboundariesarediscussedinfurtherdetailbelow.Somevolcanoesoccurintheinteriorsofplates,and
thesehavebeenvariouslyattributedtointernalplatedeformation[8]andtomantleplumes.
Asexplainedabove,tectonicplatesmayincludecontinentalcrustoroceaniccrust,andmostplatescontain
both.Forexample,theAfricanPlateincludesthecontinentandpartsoftheflooroftheAtlanticandIndian
Oceans.Thedistinctionbetweenoceaniccrustandcontinentalcrustisbasedontheirmodesofformation.
Oceaniccrustisformedatseafloorspreadingcenters,andcontinentalcrustisformedthrougharc
volcanismandaccretionofterranesthroughtectonicprocesses,thoughsomeoftheseterranesmaycontain
ophiolitesequences,whicharepiecesofoceaniccrustconsideredtobepartofthecontinentwhentheyexit
thestandardcycleofformationandspreadingcentersandsubductionbeneathcontinents.Oceaniccrustis
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alsodenserthancontinentalcrustowingtotheirdifferentcompositions.Oceaniccrustisdenserbecauseit
haslesssiliconandmoreheavierelements("mafic")thancontinentalcrust("felsic").[9]Asaresultofthis
densitystratification,oceaniccrustgenerallyliesbelowsealevel(forexamplemostofthePacificPlate),
whilecontinentalcrustbuoyantlyprojectsabovesealevel(seethepageisostasyforexplanationofthis
principle).

Typesofplateboundaries
Threetypesofplateboundariesexist,[10]withafourth,mixedtype,characterizedbythewaytheplates
moverelativetoeachother.Theyareassociatedwithdifferenttypesofsurfacephenomena.Thedifferent
typesofplateboundariesare:[11][12]
1. Transformboundaries(Conservative)occurwheretwolithosphericplatesslide,orperhapsmore
accurately,grindpasteachotheralongtransformfaults,whereplatesareneithercreatednor
destroyed.Therelativemotionofthetwoplatesiseithersinistral(leftsidetowardtheobserver)or
dextral(rightsidetowardtheobserver).Transformfaultsoccuracrossaspreadingcenter.Strong
earthquakescanoccuralongafault.TheSanAndreasFaultinCaliforniaisanexampleofa
transformboundaryexhibitingdextralmotion.
2. Divergentboundaries(Constructive)occurwheretwoplatesslideapartfromeachother.Atzonesof
oceantooceanrifting,divergentboundariesformbyseafloorspreading,allowingfortheformation
ofnewoceanbasin.Asthecontinentsplits,theridgeformsatthespreadingcenter,theoceanbasin
expands,andfinally,theplateareaincreasescausingmanysmallvolcanoesand/orshallow
earthquakes.Atzonesofcontinenttocontinentrifting,divergentboundariesmaycausenewocean
basintoformasthecontinentsplits,spreads,thecentralriftcollapses,andoceanfillsthebasin.
ActivezonesofMidoceanridges(e.g.,MidAtlanticRidgeandEastPacificRise),andcontinentto
continentrifting(suchasAfrica'sEastAfricanRiftandValley,RedSea)areexamplesofdivergent
boundaries.
3. Convergentboundaries(Destructive)(oractivemargins)occurwheretwoplatesslidetowardeach
othertoformeitherasubductionzone(oneplatemovingunderneaththeother)oracontinental
collision.Atzonesofoceantocontinentsubduction(e.g.,WesternSouthAmerica,andCascade
MountainsinWesternUnitedStates),thedenseoceaniclithosphereplungesbeneaththelessdense
continent.Earthquakesthentracethepathofthedownwardmovingplateasitdescendsinto
asthenosphere,atrenchforms,andasthesubductedplatepartiallymelts,magmarisestoform
continentalvolcanoes.Atzonesofoceantooceansubduction(e.g.,theAndesmountainrangein
SouthAmerica,Aleutianislands,Marianaislands,andtheJapaneseislandarc),older,cooler,denser
crustslipsbeneathlessdensecrust.Thiscausesearthquakesandadeeptrenchtoforminanarc
shape.Theuppermantleofthesubductedplatethenheatsandmagmarisestoformcurvingchainsof
volcanicislands.Deepmarinetrenchesaretypicallyassociatedwithsubductionzones,andthebasins
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thatdevelopalongtheactiveboundaryareoftencalled"forelandbasins".Thesubductingslab
containsmanyhydrousmineralswhichreleasetheirwateronheating.Thiswaterthencausesthe
mantletomelt,producingvolcanism.Closureofoceanbasinscanoccuratcontinenttocontinent
boundaries(e.g.,HimalayasandAlps):collisionbetweenmassesofgraniticcontinentallithosphere
neithermassissubductedplateedgesarecompressed,folded,uplifted.
4. Plateboundaryzonesoccurwheretheeffectsoftheinteractionsareunclear,andtheboundaries,
usuallyoccurringalongabroadbelt,arenotwelldefinedandmayshowvarioustypesofmovements
indifferentepisodes.

Threetypesofplateboundary.

Drivingforcesofplatemotion
Platetectonicsisbasicallyakinematicphenomenon.
Scientistsagreeontheobservationanddeductionthat
theplateshavemovedwithrespecttooneanotherbut
continuetodebateastohowandwhen.Amajor
questionremainsastowhatgeodynamicmechanism
motorsplatemovement.Here,sciencedivergesin
differenttheories.
Itisgenerallyacceptedthattectonicplatesareableto
movebecauseoftherelativedensityofoceanic
lithosphereandtherelativeweaknessofthe
asthenosphere.Dissipationofheatfromthemantleis
acknowledgedtobetheoriginalsourceoftheenergy
PlatemotionbasedonGlobalPositioningSystem
requiredtodriveplatetectonicsthroughconvectionor
(GPS)satellitedatafromNASAJPL
largescaleupwellinganddoming.Thecurrentview,
(http://sideshow.jpl.nasa.gov/mbh/series.html).The
thoughstillamatterofsomedebate,assertsthatasa
vectorsshowdirectionandmagnitudeofmotion.
consequence,apowerfulsourceofplatemotionis
generatedduetotheexcessdensityoftheoceanic
lithospheresinkinginsubductionzones.Whenthenewcrustformsatmidoceanridges,thisoceanic
lithosphereisinitiallylessdensethantheunderlyingasthenosphere,butitbecomesdenserwithageasit
conductivelycoolsandthickens.Thegreaterdensityofoldlithosphererelativetotheunderlying
asthenosphereallowsittosinkintothedeepmantleatsubductionzones,providingmostofthedriving
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forceforplatemovement.Theweaknessoftheasthenosphereallowsthetectonicplatestomoveeasily
towardsasubductionzone.[13]Althoughsubductionisbelievedtobethestrongestforcedrivingplate
motions,itcannotbetheonlyforcesincethereareplatessuchastheNorthAmericanPlatewhichare
moving,yetarenowherebeingsubducted.ThesameistruefortheenormousEurasianPlate.Thesourcesof
platemotionareamatterofintensiveresearchanddiscussionamongscientists.Oneofthemainpointsis
thatthekinematicpatternofthemovementitselfshouldbeseparatedclearlyfromthepossiblegeodynamic
mechanismthatisinvokedasthedrivingforceoftheobservedmovement,assomepatternsmaybe
explainedbymorethanonemechanism.[14]Inshort,thedrivingforcesadvocatedatthemomentcanbe
dividedintothreecategoriesbasedontherelationshiptothemovement:mantledynamicsrelated,gravity
related(mostlysecondaryforces),andEarthrotationrelated.

Drivingforcesrelatedtomantledynamics
Formuchofthelastquartercentury,theleadingtheoryofthedrivingforcebehindtectonicplatemotions
envisagedlargescaleconvectioncurrentsintheuppermantlewhicharetransmittedthroughthe
asthenosphere.ThistheorywaslaunchedbyArthurHolmesandsomeforerunnersinthe1930s[15]andwas
immediatelyrecognizedasthesolutionfortheacceptanceofthetheoryasoriginallydiscussedinthepapers
ofAlfredWegenerintheearlyyearsofthecentury.However,despiteitsacceptance,itwaslongdebatedin
thescientificcommunitybecausetheleading("fixist")theorystillenvisagedastaticEarthwithoutmoving
continentsupuntilthemajorbreakthroughsoftheearlysixties.
TwoandthreedimensionalimagingofEarth'sinterior(seismictomography)showsavaryinglateral
densitydistributionthroughoutthemantle.Suchdensityvariationscanbematerial(fromrockchemistry),
mineral(fromvariationsinmineralstructures),orthermal(throughthermalexpansionandcontractionfrom
heatenergy).Themanifestationofthisvaryinglateraldensityismantleconvectionfrombuoyancy
forces.[16]
Howmantleconvectiondirectlyandindirectlyrelatestoplatemotionisamatterofongoingstudyand
discussioningeodynamics.Somehow,thisenergymustbetransferredtothelithospherefortectonicplates
tomove.Thereareessentiallytwotypesofforcesthatarethoughttoinfluenceplatemotion:frictionand
gravity.
Basaldrag(friction):Platemotiondrivenbyfrictionbetweentheconvectioncurrentsinthe
asthenosphereandthemorerigidoverlyinglithosphere.
Slabsuction(gravity):Platemotiondrivenbylocalconvectioncurrentsthatexertadownwardpull
onplatesinsubductionzonesatoceantrenches.Slabsuctionmayoccurinageodynamicsetting
wherebasaltractionscontinuetoactontheplateasitdivesintothemantle(althoughperhapstoa
greaterextentactingonboththeunderanduppersideoftheslab).
Lately,theconvectiontheoryhasbeenmuchdebatedasmoderntechniquesbasedon3Dseismic
tomographystillfailtorecognizethesepredictedlargescaleconvectioncells.Therefore,alternativeviews
havebeenproposed:
Inthetheoryofplumetectonicsdevelopedduringthe1990s,amodifiedconceptofmantleconvection
currentsisused.Itassertsthatsuperplumesrisefromthedeepermantleandarethedriversorsubstitutesof
themajorconvectioncells.Theseideas,whichfindtheirrootsintheearly1930swiththesocalled
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"fixistic"ideasoftheEuropeanandRussianEarthScienceSchools,findresonanceinthemoderntheories
whichenvisagehotspots/mantleplumeswhichremainfixedandareoverriddenbyoceanicandcontinental
lithosphereplatesovertimeandleavetheirtracesinthegeologicalrecord(thoughthesephenomenaarenot
invokedasrealdrivingmechanisms,butratherasmodulators).Moderntheoriesthatcontinuebuildingon
theoldermantledomingconceptsandseeplatemovementsasasecondaryphenomenaarebeyondthe
scopeofthispageandarediscussedelsewhere(forexampleontheplumetectonicspage).
Anothertheoryisthatthemantleflowsneitherincellsnorlargeplumesbutratherasaseriesofchannels
justbelowtheEarth'scrust,whichthenprovidebasalfrictiontothelithosphere.Thistheory,called"surge
tectonics",becamequitepopularingeophysicsandgeodynamicsduringthe1980sand1990s.[17]

Drivingforcesrelatedtogravity
Forcesrelatedtogravityareusuallyinvokedassecondaryphenomenawithintheframeworkofamore
generaldrivingmechanismsuchasthevariousformsofmantledynamicsdescribedabove.
Gravitationalslidingawayfromaspreadingridge:Accordingtomanyauthors,platemotionisdrivenby
thehigherelevationofplatesatoceanridges.[18]Asoceaniclithosphereisformedatspreadingridgesfrom
hotmantlematerial,itgraduallycoolsandthickenswithage(andthusaddsdistancefromtheridge).Cool
oceaniclithosphereissignificantlydenserthanthehotmantlematerialfromwhichitisderivedandsowith
increasingthicknessitgraduallysubsidesintothemantletocompensatethegreaterload.Theresultisa
slightlateralinclinewithincreaseddistancefromtheridgeaxis.
Thisforceisregardedasasecondaryforceandisoftenreferredtoas"ridgepush".Thisisamisnomeras
nothingis"pushing"horizontallyandtensionalfeaturesaredominantalongridges.Itismoreaccurateto
refertothismechanismasgravitationalslidingasvariabletopographyacrossthetotalityoftheplatecan
varyconsiderablyandthetopographyofspreadingridgesisonlythemostprominentfeature.Other
mechanismsgeneratingthisgravitationalsecondaryforceincludeflexuralbulgingofthelithospherebefore
itdivesunderneathanadjacentplatewhichproducesacleartopographicalfeaturethatcanoffset,oratleast
affect,theinfluenceoftopographicaloceanridges,andmantleplumesandhotspots,whicharepostulated
toimpingeontheundersideoftectonicplates.
Slabpull:Currentscientificopinionisthattheasthenosphereisinsufficientlycompetentorrigidtodirectly
causemotionbyfrictionalongthebaseofthelithosphere.Slabpullisthereforemostwidelythoughttobe
thegreatestforceactingontheplates.Inthiscurrentunderstanding,platemotionismostlydrivenbythe
weightofcold,denseplatessinkingintothemantleattrenches.[19]Recentmodelsindicatethattrench
suctionplaysanimportantroleaswell.However,astheNorthAmericanPlateisnowherebeingsubducted,
yetitisinmotionpresentsaproblem.ThesameholdsfortheAfrican,Eurasian,andAntarcticplates.
Gravitationalslidingawayfrommantledoming:Accordingtooldertheories,oneofthedriving
mechanismsoftheplatesistheexistenceoflargescaleasthenosphere/mantledomeswhichcausethe
gravitationalslidingoflithosphereplatesawayfromthem.Thisgravitationalslidingrepresentsasecondary
phenomenonofthisbasicallyverticallyorientedmechanism.Thiscanactonvariousscales,fromthesmall
scaleofoneislandarcuptothelargerscaleofanentireoceanbasin.[20]

DrivingforcesrelatedtoEarthrotation
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AlfredWegener,beingameteorologist,hadproposedtidalforcesandpoleflightforceasthemaindriving
mechanismsbehindcontinentaldrifthowever,theseforceswereconsideredfartoosmalltocause
continentalmotionastheconceptthenwasofcontinentsplowingthroughoceaniccrust.[21]Therefore,
Wegenerlaterchangedhispositionandassertedthatconvectioncurrentsarethemaindrivingforceofplate
tectonicsinthelasteditionofhisbookin1929.
However,intheplatetectonicscontext(acceptedsincetheseafloorspreadingproposalsofHeezen,Hess,
Dietz,Morley,Vine,andMatthews(seebelow)duringtheearly1960s),oceaniccrustissuggestedtobein
motionwiththecontinentswhichcausedtheproposalsrelatedtoEarthrotationtobereconsidered.Inmore
recentliterature,thesedrivingforcesare:
1. TidaldragduetothegravitationalforcetheMoon(andtheSun)exertsonthecrustoftheEarth[22]
2. ShearstrainoftheEarthglobeduetoNScompressionrelatedtoitsrotationandmodulations
3. Poleflightforce:equatorialdriftduetorotationandcentrifugaleffects:tendencyoftheplatesto
movefromthepolestotheequator("Polflucht")
4. TheCorioliseffectactingonplateswhentheymovearoundtheglobe
5. Globaldeformationofthegeoidduetosmalldisplacementsofrotationalpolewithrespecttothe
Earth'scrust
6. OthersmallerdeformationeffectsofthecrustduetowobblesandspinmovementsoftheEarth
rotationonasmallertimescale.
Forthesemechanismstobeoverallvalid,systematicrelationshipsshouldexistallovertheglobebetween
theorientationandkinematicsofdeformationandthegeographicallatitudinalandlongitudinalgridofthe
Earthitself.Ironically,thesesystematicrelationsstudiesinthesecondhalfofthenineteenthcenturyandthe
firsthalfofthetwentiethcenturyunderlineexactlytheopposite:thattheplateshadnotmovedintime,that
thedeformationgridwasfixedwithrespecttotheEarthequatorandaxis,andthatgravitationaldriving
forcesweregenerallyactingverticallyandcausedonlylocalhorizontalmovements(thesocalledpreplate
tectonic,"fixisttheories").Laterstudies(discussedbelowonthispage),therefore,invokedmanyofthe
relationshipsrecognizedduringthispreplatetectonicsperiodtosupporttheirtheories(seetheanticipations
andreviewsintheworkofvanDijkandcollaborators).[23]
Ofthemanyforcesdiscussedinthisparagraph,tidalforceisstillhighlydebatedanddefendedasapossible
principledrivingforceofplatetectonics.Theotherforcesareonlyusedinglobalgeodynamicmodelsnot
usingplatetectonicsconcepts(thereforebeyondthediscussionstreatedinthissection)orproposedas
minormodulationswithintheoverallplatetectonicsmodel.
In1973,GeorgeW.Moore[24]oftheUSGSandR.C.Bostrom[25]presentedevidenceforageneral
westwarddriftoftheEarth'slithospherewithrespecttothemantle.Heconcludedthattidalforces(thetidal
lagor"friction")causedbytheEarth'srotationandtheforcesactinguponitbytheMoonareadrivingforce
forplatetectonics.AstheEarthspinseastwardbeneaththemoon,themoon'sgravityeversoslightlypulls
theEarth'ssurfacelayerbackwestward,justasproposedbyAlfredWegener(seeabove).Inamorerecent
2006study,[26]scientistsreviewedandadvocatedtheseearlierproposedideas.Ithasalsobeensuggested
recentlyinLovett(2006)thatthisobservationmayalsoexplainwhyVenusandMarshavenoplate
tectonics,asVenushasnomoonandMars'moonsaretoosmalltohavesignificanttidaleffectsonthe
planet.Inarecentpaper,[27]itwassuggestedthat,ontheotherhand,itcaneasilybeobservedthatmany
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platesaremovingnorthandeastward,andthatthedominantlywestwardmotionofthePacificoceanbasins
derivessimplyfromtheeastwardbiasofthePacificspreadingcenter(whichisnotapredicted
manifestationofsuchlunarforces).Inthesamepapertheauthorsadmit,however,thatrelativetothelower
mantle,thereisaslightwestwardcomponentinthemotionsofalltheplates.Theydemonstratedthough
thatthewestwarddrift,seenonlyforthepast30Ma,isattributedtotheincreaseddominanceofthesteadily
growingandacceleratingPacificplate.Thedebateisstillopen.

Relativesignificanceofeachdrivingforcemechanism
Theactualvectorofaplate'smotionisafunctionofalltheforcesactingontheplatehowever,thereinlies
theproblemregardingthedegreetowhicheachprocesscontributestotheoverallmotionofeachtectonic
plate.
Thediversityofgeodynamicsettingsandthepropertiesofeachplateresultfromtheimpactofthevarious
processesactivelydrivingeachindividualplate.Onemethodofdealingwiththisproblemistoconsiderthe
relativerateatwhicheachplateismovingaswellastheevidencerelatedtothesignificanceofeachprocess
totheoveralldrivingforceontheplate.
Oneofthemostsignificantcorrelationsdiscoveredtodateisthatlithosphericplatesattachedtodowngoing
(subducting)platesmovemuchfasterthanplatesnotattachedtosubductingplates.ThePacificplate,for
instance,isessentiallysurroundedbyzonesofsubduction(thesocalledRingofFire)andmovesmuch
fasterthantheplatesoftheAtlanticbasin,whichareattached(perhapsonecouldsay'welded')toadjacent
continentsinsteadofsubductingplates.Itisthusthoughtthatforcesassociatedwiththedowngoingplate
(slabpullandslabsuction)arethedrivingforceswhichdeterminethemotionofplates,exceptforthose
plateswhicharenotbeingsubducted.[19]Thedrivingforcesofplatemotioncontinuetobeactivesubjects
ofongoingresearchwithingeophysicsandtectonophysics.

Developmentofthetheory
Summary
Inlinewithotherpreviousand
contemporaneousproposals,in1912the
meteorologistAlfredWegeneramply
describedwhathecalledcontinentaldrift,
expandedinhis1915bookTheOriginof
ContinentsandOceans[28]andthescientific
debatestartedthatwouldendupfiftyyears
laterinthetheoryofplatetectonics.[29]
Startingfromtheidea(alsoexpressedbyhis
forerunners)thatthepresentcontinentsonce
formedasinglelandmass(whichwas
Detailedmapshowingthetectonicplateswiththeirmovement
calledPangealateron)thatdriftedapart,
vectors.
thusreleasingthecontinentsfromthe
Earth'smantleandlikeningthemto
"icebergs"oflowdensitygranitefloatingonaseaofdenserbasalt.[30]Supportingevidencefortheidea
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camefromthedovetailingoutlinesofSouthAmerica'seastcoastandAfrica'swestcoast,andfromthe
matchingoftherockformationsalongtheseedges.Confirmationoftheirpreviouscontiguousnaturealso
camefromthefossilplantsGlossopterisandGangamopteris,andthetherapsidormammallikereptile
Lystrosaurus,allwidelydistributedoverSouthAmerica,Africa,Antarctica,IndiaandAustralia.The
evidenceforsuchanerstwhilejoiningofthesecontinentswaspatenttofieldgeologistsworkinginthe
southernhemisphere.TheSouthAfricanAlexduToitputtogetheramassofsuchinformationinhis1937
publicationOurWanderingContinents,andwentfurtherthanWegenerinrecognisingthestronglinks
betweentheGondwanafragments.
Butwithoutdetailedevidenceandaforcesufficienttodrivethemovement,thetheorywasnotgenerally
accepted:theEarthmighthaveasolidcrustandmantleandaliquidcore,butthereseemedtobenoway
thatportionsofthecrustcouldmovearound.Distinguishedscientists,suchasHaroldJeffreysandCharles
Schuchert,wereoutspokencriticsofcontinentaldrift.
Despitemuchopposition,theviewofcontinentaldriftgainedsupportandalivelydebatestartedbetween
"drifters"or"mobilists"(proponentsofthetheory)and"fixists"(opponents).Duringthe1920s,1930sand
1940s,theformerreachedimportantmilestonesproposingthatconvectioncurrentsmighthavedriventhe
platemovements,andthatspreadingmayhaveoccurredbelowtheseawithintheoceaniccrust.Concepts
closetotheelementsnowincorporatedinplatetectonicswereproposedbygeophysicistsandgeologists
(bothfixistsandmobilists)likeVeningMeinesz,Holmes,andUmbgrove.
Oneofthefirstpiecesofgeophysicalevidencethatwasusedtosupportthemovementoflithosphericplates
camefrompaleomagnetism.Thisisbasedonthefactthatrocksofdifferentagesshowavariablemagnetic
fielddirection,evidencedbystudiessincethemidnineteenthcentury.Themagneticnorthandsouthpoles
reversethroughtime,and,especiallyimportantinpaleotectonicstudies,therelativepositionofthe
magneticnorthpolevariesthroughtime.Initially,duringthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,thelatter
phenomenonwasexplainedbyintroducingwhatwascalled"polarwander"(seeapparentpolarwander),
i.e.,itwasassumedthatthenorthpolelocationhadbeenshiftingthroughtime.Analternativeexplanation,
though,wasthatthecontinentshadmoved(shiftedandrotated)relativetothenorthpole,andeach
continent,infact,showsitsown"polarwanderpath".Duringthelate1950sitwassuccessfullyshownon
twooccasionsthatthesedatacouldshowthevalidityofcontinentaldrift:byKeithRuncorninapaperin
1956,[31]andbyWarrenCareyinasymposiumheldinMarch1956.[32]
Thesecondpieceofevidenceinsupportofcontinentaldriftcameduringthelate1950sandearly60sfrom
dataonthebathymetryofthedeepoceanfloorsandthenatureoftheoceaniccrustsuchasmagnetic
propertiesand,moregenerally,withthedevelopmentofmarinegeology[33]whichgaveevidenceforthe
associationofseafloorspreadingalongthemidoceanicridgesandmagneticfieldreversals,published
between1959and1963byHeezen,Dietz,Hess,Mason,Vine&Matthews,andMorley.[34]
SimultaneousadvancesinearlyseismicimagingtechniquesinandaroundWadatiBenioffzonesalongthe
trenchesboundingmanycontinentalmargins,togetherwithmanyothergeophysical(e.g.gravimetric)and
geologicalobservations,showedhowtheoceaniccrustcoulddisappearintothemantle,providingthe
mechanismtobalancetheextensionoftheoceanbasinswithshorteningalongitsmargins.
Allthisevidence,bothfromtheoceanfloorandfromthecontinentalmargins,madeitcleararound1965
thatcontinentaldriftwasfeasibleandthetheoryofplatetectonics,whichwasdefinedinaseriesofpapers
between1965and1967,wasborn,withallitsextraordinaryexplanatoryandpredictivepower.Thetheory
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revolutionizedtheEarthsciences,explainingadiverserangeofgeologicalphenomenaandtheir
implicationsinotherstudiessuchaspaleogeographyandpaleobiology.

Continentaldrift
Inthelate19thandearly20thcenturies,geologistsassumedthattheEarth'smajorfeatureswerefixed,and
thatmostgeologicfeaturessuchasbasindevelopmentandmountainrangescouldbeexplainedbyvertical
crustalmovement,describedinwhatiscalledthegeosynclinaltheory.Generally,thiswasplacedinthe
contextofacontractingplanetEarthduetoheatlossinthecourseofarelativelyshortgeologicaltime.
Itwasobservedasearlyas1596thattheoppositecoastsofthe
AtlanticOceanor,moreprecisely,theedgesofthecontinental
shelveshavesimilarshapesandseemtohaveoncefitted
together.[35]
Sincethattimemanytheorieswereproposedtoexplainthis
apparentcomplementarity,buttheassumptionofasolidEarth
madethesevariousproposalsdifficulttoaccept.[36]
Thediscoveryofradioactivityanditsassociatedheatingproperties
AlfredWegenerinGreenlandinthe
in1895promptedareexaminationoftheapparentageofthe
winterof191213.
Earth.[37]Thishadpreviouslybeenestimatedbyitscoolingrate
andassumptiontheEarth'ssurfaceradiatedlikeablackbody.[38]
Thosecalculationshadimpliedthat,evenifitstartedatredheat,theEarthwouldhavedroppedtoits
presenttemperatureinafewtensofmillionsofyears.Armedwiththeknowledgeofanewheatsource,
scientistsrealizedthattheEarthwouldbemucholder,andthatitscorewasstillsufficientlyhottobeliquid.
By1915,afterhavingpublishedafirstarticlein1912,[39]AlfredWegenerwasmakingseriousarguments
fortheideaofcontinentaldriftinthefirsteditionofTheOriginofContinentsandOceans.[28]Inthatbook
(reissuedinfoursuccessiveeditionsuptothefinalonein1936),henotedhowtheeastcoastofSouth
AmericaandthewestcoastofAfricalookedasiftheywereonceattached.Wegenerwasnotthefirstto
notethis(AbrahamOrtelius,AntonioSniderPellegrini,EduardSuess,RobertoMantovaniandFrank
BursleyTaylorprecededhimjusttomentionafew),buthewasthefirsttomarshalsignificantfossiland
paleotopographicalandclimatologicalevidencetosupportthissimpleobservation(andwassupportedin
thisbyresearcherssuchasAlexduToit).Furthermore,whentherockstrataofthemarginsofseparate
continentsareverysimilaritsuggeststhattheserockswereformedinthesameway,implyingthatthey
werejoinedinitially.Forinstance,partsofScotlandandIrelandcontainrocksverysimilartothosefoundin
NewfoundlandandNewBrunswick.Furthermore,theCaledonianMountainsofEuropeandpartsofthe
AppalachianMountainsofNorthAmericaareverysimilarinstructureandlithology.
However,hisideaswerenottakenseriouslybymanygeologists,whopointedoutthattherewasno
apparentmechanismforcontinentaldrift.Specifically,theydidnotseehowcontinentalrockcouldplow
throughthemuchdenserrockthatmakesupoceaniccrust.Wegenercouldnotexplaintheforcethatdrove
continentaldrift,andhisvindicationdidnotcomeuntilafterhisdeathin1930.

Floatingcontinents,paleomagnetism,andseismicityzones
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Asitwasobservedearlythatalthoughgraniteexisted
oncontinents,seafloorseemedtobecomposedof
denserbasalt,theprevailingconceptduringthefirst
halfofthetwentiethcenturywasthatthereweretwo
typesofcrust,named"sial"(continentaltypecrust)and
"sima"(oceanictypecrust).Furthermore,itwas
supposedthatastaticshellofstratawaspresentunder
thecontinents.Itthereforelookedapparentthatalayer
ofbasalt(sial)underliesthecontinentalrocks.
However,basedonabnormalitiesinplumbline
Globalearthquakeepicenters,19631998
deflectionbytheAndesinPeru,PierreBouguerhad
deducedthatlessdensemountainsmusthavea
downwardprojectionintothedenserlayerunderneath.Theconceptthatmountainshad"roots"was
confirmedbyGeorgeB.Airyahundredyearslater,duringstudyofHimalayangravitation,andseismic
studiesdetectedcorrespondingdensityvariations.Therefore,bythemid1950s,thequestionremained
unresolvedastowhethermountainrootswereclenchedinsurroundingbasaltorwerefloatingonitlikean
iceberg.
Duringthe20thcentury,improvementsinandgreateruseofseismicinstrumentssuchasseismographs
enabledscientiststolearnthatearthquakestendtobeconcentratedinspecificareas,mostnotablyalongthe
oceanictrenchesandspreadingridges.Bythelate1920s,seismologistswerebeginningtoidentifyseveral
prominentearthquakezonesparalleltothetrenchesthattypicallywereinclined4060fromthehorizontal
andextendedseveralhundredkilometersintotheEarth.ThesezoneslaterbecameknownasWadati
Benioffzones,orsimplyBenioffzones,inhonoroftheseismologistswhofirstrecognizedthem,Kiyoo
WadatiofJapanandHugoBenioffoftheUnitedStates.Thestudyofglobalseismicitygreatlyadvancedin
the1960swiththeestablishmentoftheWorldwideStandardizedSeismographNetwork(WWSSN)[40]to
monitorthecomplianceofthe1963treatybanningabovegroundtestingofnuclearweapons.Themuch
improveddatafromtheWWSSNinstrumentsallowedseismologiststomappreciselythezonesof
earthquakeconcentrationworldwide.
Meanwhile,debatesdevelopedaroundthephenomenaofpolarwander.Sincetheearlydebatesof
continentaldrift,scientistshaddiscussedandusedevidencethatpolardrifthadoccurredbecausecontinents
seemedtohavemovedthroughdifferentclimaticzonesduringthepast.Furthermore,paleomagneticdata
hadshownthatthemagneticpolehadalsoshiftedduringtime.Reasoninginanoppositeway,the
continentsmighthaveshiftedandrotated,whilethepoleremainedrelativelyfixed.Thefirsttimethe
evidenceofmagneticpolarwanderwasusedtosupportthemovementsofcontinentswasinapaperby
KeithRuncornin1956,[31]andsuccessivepapersbyhimandhisstudentsTedIrving(whowasactuallythe
firsttobeconvincedofthefactthatpaleomagnetismsupportedcontinentaldrift)andKenCreer.
ThiswasimmediatelyfollowedbyasymposiuminTasmaniainMarch1956.[41]Inthissymposium,the
evidencewasusedinthetheoryofanexpansionoftheglobalcrust.Inthishypothesistheshiftingofthe
continentscanbesimplyexplainedbyalargeincreaseinsizeoftheEarthsinceitsformation.However,
thiswasunsatisfactorybecauseitssupporterscouldoffernoconvincingmechanismtoproduceasignificant
expansionoftheEarth.Certainlythereisnoevidencethatthemoonhasexpandedinthepast3billion
yearsotherworkwouldsoonshowthattheevidencewasequallyinsupportofcontinentaldriftonaglobe
withastableradius.
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Duringthethirtiesuptothelatefifties,worksbyVeningMeinesz,Holmes,Umbgrove,andnumerous
othersoutlinedconceptsthatwerecloseornearlyidenticaltomodernplatetectonicstheory.Inparticular,
theEnglishgeologistArthurHolmesproposedin1920thatplatejunctionsmightliebeneaththesea,andin
1928thatconvectioncurrentswithinthemantlemightbethedrivingforce.[42]Often,thesecontributions
areforgottenbecause:
Atthetime,continentaldriftwasnotaccepted.
Someoftheseideaswerediscussedinthecontextofabandonedfixisticideasofadeformingglobe
withoutcontinentaldriftoranexpandingEarth.
Theywerepublishedduringanepisodeofextremepoliticalandeconomicinstabilitythathampered
scientificcommunication.
ManywerepublishedbyEuropeanscientistsandatfirstnotmentionedorgivenlittlecreditinthe
papersonseafloorspreadingpublishedbytheAmericanresearchersinthe1960s.

Midoceanicridgespreadingandconvection
In1947,ateamofscientistsledbyMauriceEwingutilizingtheWoodsHoleOceanographicInstitution's
researchvesselAtlantisandanarrayofinstruments,confirmedtheexistenceofariseinthecentralAtlantic
Ocean,andfoundthattheflooroftheseabedbeneaththelayerofsedimentsconsistedofbasalt,notthe
granitewhichisthemainconstituentofcontinents.Theyalsofoundthattheoceaniccrustwasmuchthinner
thancontinentalcrust.Allthesenewfindingsraisedimportantandintriguingquestions.[43]
Thenewdatathathadbeencollectedontheoceanbasinsalsoshowedparticularcharacteristicsregarding
thebathymetry.Oneofthemajoroutcomesofthesedatasetswasthatallalongtheglobe,asystemofmid
oceanicridgeswasdetected.Animportantconclusionwasthatalongthissystem,newoceanfloorwas
beingcreated,whichledtotheconceptofthe"GreatGlobalRift".Thiswasdescribedinthecrucialpaper
ofBruceHeezen(1960),[44]whichwouldtriggerarealrevolutioninthinking.Aprofoundconsequenceof
seafloorspreadingisthatnewcrustwas,andstillis,beingcontinuallycreatedalongtheoceanicridges.
Therefore,Heezenadvocatedthesocalled"expandingEarth"hypothesisofS.WarrenCarey(seeabove).
So,stillthequestionremained:howcannewcrustbecontinuouslyaddedalongtheoceanicridgeswithout
increasingthesizeoftheEarth?Inreality,thisquestionhadbeensolvedalreadybynumerousscientists
duringthefortiesandthefifties,likeArthurHolmes,VeningMeinesz,Coatesandmanyothers:Thecrust
inexcessdisappearedalongwhatwerecalledtheoceanictrenches,wheresocalled"subduction"occurred.
Therefore,whenvariousscientistsduringtheearlysixtiesstartedtoreasononthedataattheirdisposal
regardingtheoceanfloor,thepiecesofthetheoryquicklyfellintoplace.
ThequestionparticularlyintriguedHarryHammondHess,aPrincetonUniversitygeologistandaNaval
ReserveRearAdmiral,andRobertS.Dietz,ascientistwiththeU.S.CoastandGeodeticSurveywhofirst
coinedthetermseafloorspreading.DietzandHess(theformerpublishedthesameideaoneyearearlierin
Nature,[45]butprioritybelongstoHesswhohadalreadydistributedanunpublishedmanuscriptofhis1962
articleby1960)[46]wereamongthesmallhandfulwhoreallyunderstoodthebroadimplicationsofseafloor
spreadingandhowitwouldeventuallyagreewiththe,atthattime,unconventionalandunacceptedideasof
continentaldriftandtheelegantandmobilisticmodelsproposedbypreviousworkerslikeHolmes.

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Inthesameyear,RobertR.CoatsoftheU.S.GeologicalSurveydescribedthemainfeaturesofislandarc
subductionintheAleutianIslands.Hispaper,thoughlittlenoted(andevenridiculed)atthetime,hassince
beencalled"seminal"and"prescient".Inreality,itactuallyshowsthattheworkbytheEuropeanscientists
onislandarcsandmountainbeltsperformedandpublishedduringthe1930supuntilthe1950swasapplied
andappreciatedalsointheUnitedStates.
IftheEarth'scrustwasexpandingalongtheoceanicridges,HessandDietzreasonedlikeHolmesand
othersbeforethem,itmustbeshrinkingelsewhere.HessfollowedHeezen,suggestingthatnewoceanic
crustcontinuouslyspreadsawayfromtheridgesinaconveyorbeltlikemotion.And,usingthemobilistic
conceptsdevelopedbefore,hecorrectlyconcludedthatmanymillionsofyearslater,theoceaniccrust
eventuallydescendsalongthecontinentalmarginswhereoceanictrenchesverydeep,narrowcanyons
areformed,e.g.alongtherimofthePacificOceanbasin.TheimportantstepHessmadewasthat
convectioncurrentswouldbethedrivingforceinthisprocess,arrivingatthesameconclusionsasHolmes
haddecadesbeforewiththeonlydifferencethatthethinningoftheoceancrustwasperformedusing
Heezen'smechanismofspreadingalongtheridges.HessthereforeconcludedthattheAtlanticOceanwas
expandingwhilethePacificOceanwasshrinking.Asoldoceaniccrustis"consumed"inthetrenches(like
Holmesandothers,hethoughtthiswasdonebythickeningofthecontinentallithosphere,not,asnow
understood,byunderthrustingatalargerscaleoftheoceaniccrustitselfintothemantle),newmagmarises
anderuptsalongthespreadingridgestoformnewcrust.Ineffect,theoceanbasinsareperpetuallybeing
"recycled,"withthecreationofnewcrustandthedestructionofoldoceaniclithosphereoccurring
simultaneously.Thus,thenewmobilisticconceptsneatlyexplainedwhytheEarthdoesnotgetbiggerwith
seafloorspreading,whythereissolittlesedimentaccumulationontheoceanfloor,andwhyoceanicrocks
aremuchyoungerthancontinentalrocks.

Magneticstriping
Beginninginthe1950s,scientistslikeVictorVacquier,using
magneticinstruments(magnetometers)adaptedfromairborne
devicesdevelopedduringWorldWarIItodetectsubmarines,began
recognizingoddmagneticvariationsacrosstheoceanfloor.This
finding,thoughunexpected,wasnotentirelysurprisingbecauseit
wasknownthatbasalttheironrich,volcanicrockmakingupthe
oceanfloorcontainsastronglymagneticmineral(magnetite)and
canlocallydistortcompassreadings.Thisdistortionwasrecognized
byIcelandicmarinersasearlyasthelate18thcentury.More
important,becausethepresenceofmagnetitegivesthebasalt
Seafloormagneticstriping.
measurablemagneticproperties,thesenewlydiscoveredmagnetic
variationsprovidedanothermeanstostudythedeepoceanfloor.
Whennewlyformedrockcools,suchmagneticmaterialsrecordedtheEarth'smagneticfieldatthetime.
Asmoreandmoreoftheseafloorwasmappedduringthe1950s,themagneticvariationsturnedoutnotto
berandomorisolatedoccurrences,butinsteadrevealedrecognizablepatterns.Whenthesemagnetic
patternsweremappedoverawideregion,theoceanfloorshowedazebralikepattern:onestripewith
normalpolarityandtheadjoiningstripewithreversedpolarity.Theoverallpattern,definedbythese
alternatingbandsofnormallyandreverselypolarizedrock,becameknownasmagneticstriping,andwas
publishedbyRonG.Masonandcoworkersin1961,whodidnotfind,though,anexplanationforthese
dataintermsofseafloorspreading,likeVine,MatthewsandMorleyafewyearslater.[47]
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Thediscoveryofmagneticstripingcalledforanexplanation.Intheearly
1960sscientistssuchasHeezen,HessandDietzhadbeguntotheorise
thatmidoceanridgesmarkstructurallyweakzoneswheretheocean
floorwasbeingrippedintwolengthwisealongtheridgecrest(seethe
previousparagraph).NewmagmafromdeepwithintheEarthrises
easilythroughtheseweakzonesandeventuallyeruptsalongthecrestof
theridgestocreatenewoceaniccrust.Thisprocess,atfirstdenominated
the"conveyerbelthypothesis"andlatercalledseafloorspreading,
operatingovermanymillionsofyearscontinuestoformnewoceanfloor
allacrossthe50,000kmlongsystemofmidoceanridges.

Ademonstrationofmagnetic
striping.(Thedarkerthecolor
is,thecloseritistonormal
polarity)

Onlyfouryearsafterthemapswiththe"zebrapattern"ofmagnetic
stripeswerepublished,thelinkbetweenseafloorspreadingandthese
patternswascorrectlyplaced,independentlybyLawrenceMorley,and
byFredVineandDrummondMatthews,in1963,[48]nowcalledtheVineMatthewsMorleyhypothesis.
Thishypothesislinkedthesepatternstogeomagneticreversalsandwassupportedbyseverallinesof
evidence:[49]

1. thestripesaresymmetricalaroundthecrestsofthemidoceanridgesatornearthecrestoftheridge,
therocksareveryyoung,andtheybecomeprogressivelyolderawayfromtheridgecrest
2. theyoungestrocksattheridgecrestalwayshavepresentday(normal)polarity
3. stripesofrockparalleltotheridgecrestalternateinmagneticpolarity(normalreversednormal,etc.),
suggestingthattheywereformedduringdifferentepochsdocumentingthe(alreadyknownfrom
independentstudies)normalandreversalepisodesoftheEarth'smagneticfield.
Byexplainingboththezebralikemagneticstripingandtheconstructionofthemidoceanridgesystem,the
seafloorspreadinghypothesis(SFS)quicklygainedconvertsandrepresentedanothermajoradvanceinthe
developmentoftheplatetectonicstheory.Furthermore,theoceaniccrustnowcametobeappreciatedasa
natural"taperecording"ofthehistoryofthegeomagneticfieldreversals(GMFR)oftheEarth'smagnetic
field.Today,extensivestudiesarededicatedtothecalibrationofthenormalreversalpatternsintheoceanic
crustononehandandknowntimescalesderivedfromthedatingofbasaltlayersinsedimentarysequences
(magnetostratigraphy)ontheother,toarriveatestimatesofpastspreadingratesandplatereconstructions.

Definitionandrefiningofthetheory
Afteralltheseconsiderations,PlateTectonics(or,asitwasinitiallycalled"NewGlobalTectonics")
becamequicklyacceptedinthescientificworld,andnumerouspapersfollowedthatdefinedtheconcepts:
In1965,TuzoWilsonwhohadbeenapromotoroftheseafloorspreadinghypothesisandcontinental
driftfromtheverybeginning[50]addedtheconceptoftransformfaultstothemodel,completingthe
classesoffaulttypesnecessarytomakethemobilityoftheplatesontheglobeworkout.[51]
AsymposiumoncontinentaldriftwasheldattheRoyalSocietyofLondonin1965whichmustbe
regardedastheofficialstartoftheacceptanceofplatetectonicsbythescientificcommunity,and
whichabstractsareissuedasBlacket,Bullard&Runcorn(1965).Inthissymposium,EdwardBullard
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andcoworkersshowedwithacomputercalculationhowthecontinentsalongbothsidesofthe
Atlanticwouldbestfittoclosetheocean,whichbecameknownasthefamous"Bullard'sFit".
In1966Wilsonpublishedthepaperthatreferredtopreviousplatetectonicreconstructions,
introducingtheconceptofwhatisnowknownasthe"WilsonCycle".[52]
In1967,attheAmericanGeophysicalUnion'smeeting,W.JasonMorganproposedthattheEarth's
surfaceconsistsof12rigidplatesthatmoverelativetoeachother.[53]
Twomonthslater,XavierLePichonpublishedacompletemodelbasedon6majorplateswiththeir
relativemotions,whichmarkedthefinalacceptancebythescientificcommunityofplate
tectonics.[54]
Inthesameyear,McKenzieandParkerindependentlypresentedamodelsimilartoMorgan'susing
translationsandrotationsonaspheretodefinetheplatemotions.[55]

Implicationsforbiogeography
Continentaldrifttheoryhelpsbiogeographerstoexplainthedisjunctbiogeographicdistributionofpresent
daylifefoundondifferentcontinentsbuthavingsimilarancestors.[56]Inparticular,itexplainsthe
GondwanandistributionofratitesandtheAntarcticflora.

Platereconstruction
Reconstructionisusedtoestablishpast(andfuture)plateconfigurations,helpingdeterminetheshapeand
makeupofancientsupercontinentsandprovidingabasisforpaleogeography.

Definingplateboundaries
Currentplateboundariesaredefinedbytheirseismicity.[57]Pastplateboundarieswithinexistingplatesare
identifiedfromavarietyofevidence,suchasthepresenceofophiolitesthatareindicativeofvanished
oceans.[58]

Pastplatemotions
Tectonicmotionfirstbeganaroundthreebillionyearsago.[59]
Varioustypesofquantitativeandsemiquantitativeinformationareavailabletoconstrainpastplate
motions.Thegeometricfitbetweencontinents,suchasbetweenwestAfricaandSouthAmericaisstillan
importantpartofplatereconstruction.Magneticstripepatternsprovideareliableguidetorelativeplate
motionsgoingbackintotheJurassicperiod.[60]Thetracksofhotspotsgiveabsolutereconstructions,but
theseareonlyavailablebacktotheCretaceous.[61]Olderreconstructionsrelymainlyonpaleomagneticpole
data,althoughtheseonlyconstrainthelatitudeandrotation,butnotthelongitude.Combiningpolesof
differentagesinaparticularplatetoproduceapparentpolarwanderpathsprovidesamethodforcomparing

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themotionsofdifferentplatesthroughtime.[62]Additionalevidencecomesfromthedistributionofcertain
sedimentaryrocktypes,[63]faunalprovincesshownbyparticularfossilgroups,andthepositionoforogenic
belts.[61]

Formationandbreakupofcontinents
Themovementofplateshascausedtheformationandbreakupofcontinentsovertime,including
occasionalformationofasupercontinentthatcontainsmostorallofthecontinents.Thesupercontinent
ColumbiaorNunaformedduringaperiodof2,000to1,800millionyearsagoandbrokeupabout
1,500to1,300millionyearsago.[64]ThesupercontinentRodiniaisthoughttohaveformedabout1billion
yearsagoandtohaveembodiedmostorallofEarth'scontinents,andbrokenupintoeightcontinents
around600millionyearsago.Theeightcontinentslaterreassembledintoanothersupercontinentcalled
PangaeaPangaeabrokeupintoLaurasia(whichbecameNorthAmericaandEurasia)andGondwana
(whichbecametheremainingcontinents).
TheHimalayas,theworld'stallestmountainrange,areassumedtohavebeenformedbythecollisionoftwo
majorplates.Beforeuplift,theywerecoveredbytheTethysOcean.

Galleryofpastconfigurations
Interpretivesimulationofpastcontinentalmovementandshorelines,withtimegiveninmillionsofyears
ago(Ma).Formorecompletetimelineofimages,seeGalleryofcontinentalmovement.

500Ma

400Ma

Currentplates
Dependingonhowtheyaredefined,thereareusuallysevenoreight"major"plates:African,Antarctic,
Eurasian,NorthAmerican,SouthAmerican,Pacific,andIndoAustralian.Thelatterissometimes
subdividedintotheIndianandAustralianplates.
Therearedozensofsmallerplates,thesevenlargestofwhicharetheArabian,Caribbean,JuandeFuca,
Cocos,Nazca,PhilippineSeaandScotia.
Thecurrentmotionofthetectonicplatesistodaydeterminedbyremotesensingsatellitedatasets,
calibratedwithgroundstationmeasurements.

Othercelestial
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bodies(planets,
moons)
Theappearanceofplate
tectonicsonterrestrial
planetsisrelatedto
planetarymass,withmore
massiveplanetsthan
Earthexpectedtoexhibit
platetectonics.Earthmay
beaborderlinecase,
owingitstectonicactivity
toabundantwater[65]
(silicaandwaterforma
deepeutectic.)

Venus
Venusshowsnoevidenceofactiveplatetectonics.Thereisdebatableevidenceofactivetectonicsinthe
planet'sdistantpasthowever,eventstakingplacesincethen(suchastheplausibleandgenerallyaccepted
hypothesisthattheVenusianlithospherehasthickenedgreatlyoverthecourseofseveralhundredmillion
years)hasmadeconstrainingthecourseofitsgeologicrecorddifficult.However,thenumerouswell
preservedimpactcratershavebeenutilizedasadatingmethodtoapproximatelydatetheVenusiansurface
(sincetherearethusfarnoknownsamplesofVenusianrocktobedatedbymorereliablemethods).Dates
derivedaredominantlyintherange500to750millionyearsago,althoughagesofupto
1,200millionyearsagohavebeencalculated.Thisresearchhasledtothefairlywellacceptedhypothesis
thatVenushasundergoneanessentiallycompletevolcanicresurfacingatleastonceinitsdistantpast,with
thelasteventtakingplaceapproximatelywithintherangeofestimatedsurfaceages.Whilethemechanism
ofsuchanimpressivethermaleventremainsadebatedissueinVenusiangeosciences,somescientistsare
advocatesofprocessesinvolvingplatemotiontosomeextent.
OneexplanationforVenus'lackofplatetectonicsisthatonVenustemperaturesaretoohighforsignificant
watertobepresent.[66][67]TheEarth'scrustissoakedwithwater,andwaterplaysanimportantroleinthe
developmentofshearzones.Platetectonicsrequiresweaksurfacesinthecrustalongwhichcrustalslices
canmove,anditmaywellbethatsuchweakeningnevertookplaceonVenusbecauseoftheabsenceof
water.However,someresearchersremainconvincedthatplatetectonicsisorwasonceactiveonthis
planet.

Mars
MarsisconsiderablysmallerthanEarthandVenus,andthereisevidenceforiceonitssurfaceandinits
crust.
Inthe1990s,itwasproposedthatMartianCrustalDichotomywascreatedbyplatetectonicprocesses.[68]
Scientiststodaydisagree,andbelievethatitwascreatedeitherbyupwellingwithintheMartianmantlethat
thickenedthecrustoftheSouthernHighlandsandformedTharsis[69]orbyagiantimpactthatexcavated
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theNorthernLowlands.[70]
VallesMarinerismaybeatectonicboundary.[71]
ObservationsmadeofthemagneticfieldofMarsbytheMarsGlobalSurveyorspacecraftin1999showed
patternsofmagneticstripingdiscoveredonthisplanet.Somescientistsinterpretedtheseasrequiringplate
tectonicprocesses,suchasseafloorspreading.[72]However,theirdatafaila"magneticreversaltest",which
isusedtoseeiftheywereformedbyflippingpolaritiesofaglobalmagneticfield.[73]

GalileansatellitesofJupiter
SomeofthesatellitesofJupiterhavefeaturesthatmayberelatedtoplatetectonicstyledeformation,
althoughthematerialsandspecificmechanismsmaybedifferentfromplatetectonicactivityonEarth.On8
September2014,NASAreportedfindingevidenceofplatetectonicsonEuropa,asatelliteofJupiterthe
firstsignofsuchgeologicalactivityonanotherworldotherthanEarth.[74]

Titan,moonofSaturn
Titan,thelargestmoonofSaturn,wasreportedtoshowtectonicactivityinimagestakenbytheHuygens
Probe,whichlandedonTitanonJanuary14,2005.[75]

Exoplanets
OnEarthsizedplanets,platetectonicsismorelikelyifthereareoceansofwaterhowever,in2007,two
independentteamsofresearcherscametoopposingconclusionsaboutthelikelihoodofplatetectonicson
largersuperearths[76][77]withoneteamsayingthatplatetectonicswouldbeepisodicorstagnant[78]andthe
otherteamsayingthatplatetectonicsisverylikelyonsuperearthseveniftheplanetisdry.[65]

Seealso
GeologicalhistoryofEarth
Geosynclinetheory
Listofplatetectonicstopics
Supercontinentcycle
Conservationofangularmomentum
Listofsubmarinetopographicalfeatures
Tectonics

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Externallinks
ThisDynamicEarth:TheStoryofPlateTectonics
(http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/dynamic.html).USGS.
UnderstandingPlateTectonics

WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoPlate
tectonics.

(http://pubs.usgs.gov/publications/text/understanding.html).USGS.
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ThePLATESProject(http://www.ig.utexas.edu/research/projects/plates/).JacksonSchoolof
Geosciences.
Anexplanationoftectonicforces(http://www.tectonicforces.org).Exampleofcalculationstoshow
thatEarthRotationcouldbeadrivingforce.
Bird,P.(2003)Anupdateddigitalmodelofplateboundaries
(http://peterbird.name/publications/2003_PB2002/2003_PB2002.htm).
Mapoftectonicplates(http://snobear.colorado.edu/Markw/Mountains/03/week3.html).
GPlates(http://www.gplates.org/),desktopsoftwarefortheinteractivevisualizationofplate
tectonics.
MORVELplatevelocityestimatesandinformation
(http://www.geology.wisc.edu/~chuck/MORVEL/).C.DeMets,D.Argus,&R.Gordon.

Videos
KhanAcademyExplanationofevidence(http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6EdsBabSZ4g)
750millionyearsofglobaltectonicactivity(http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/geology/tectonics.html).
Movie.
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