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Oceanictrench
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Theoceanictrenchesarehemisphericscalelongbut
narrowtopographicdepressionsoftheseafloor.They
arealsothedeepestpartsoftheoceanfloor.Oceanic
trenchesareadistinctivemorphologicalfeatureof
convergentplateboundaries.Alongconvergentplate
boundaries,platesmovetogetheratratesthatvaryfrom
afewmmtoovertencmperyear.Atrenchmarksthe
positionatwhichtheflexed,subductingslabbeginsto
descendbeneathanotherlithosphericslab.Trenchesare
generallyparalleltoavolcanicislandarc,andabout
200km(120mi)fromavolcanicarc.Oceanictrenches
typicallyextend3to4km(1.9to2.5mi)belowthe
levelofthesurroundingoceanicfloor.Thegreatest
oceandepthtobesoundedisintheChallengerDeepof
theMarianaTrench,atadepthof11,034m(36,201ft)
belowsealevel.Oceaniclithospheremovesinto
trenchesataglobalrateofabout3km2/yr.[1]

Oceaniccrustisformedatanoceanicridge,while
thelithosphereissubductedbackintothe
asthenosphereattrenches.

Contents
1Geographicdistribution
2Historyoftheterm"trench"
3Trenchrollback
3.1Processesinvolved
3.2Mantleinteractions
4Morphologicexpression
5Filledtrenches
6Accretionaryprismsandsedimenttransport
7Waterandbiosphere
8Emptytrenchesandsubductionerosion
9Factorsaffectingtrenchdepth
10Deepestoceanictrenches
11Notableoceanictrenches
12Ancientoceanictrenches
13Notes
14Seealso
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15References

Geographicdistribution
Thereareabout50,000km(31,000mi)of
convergentplatemargins,mostlyaroundthe
PacificOceanthereasonforthereference
Pacifictypemarginbuttheyarealsointhe
easternIndianOcean,withrelativelyshort
convergentmarginsegmentsintheAtlantic
OceanandintheMediterraneanSea.Trenches
aresometimesburiedandlackbathymetric
expression,butthefundamentalstructuresthat
theserepresentmeanthatthegreatnameshould
alsobeappliedhere.ThisappliestoCascadia,
Makran,southernLesserAntilles,andCalabrian
trenches.Trenchesalongwithvolcanicarcsand
zonesofearthquakesthatdipunderthevolcanic
arcasdeeplyas700km(430mi)arediagnostic
ofconvergentplateboundariesandtheirdeeper
manifestations,subductionzones.Trenchesare
MajorPacifictrenches(110)andfracturezones(1120):1.
relatedtobutdistinguishedfromcontinental
Kermadec2.Tonga3.Bougainville4.Mariana5.Izu
collisionzones(likethatbetweenIndiaand
Ogasawara6.Japan7.KurilKamchatka8.Aleutian9.
AsiatoformtheHimalaya),wherecontinental
MiddleAmerica10.PeruChile11.Mendocino12.Murray
crustentersthesubductionzone.Whenbuoyant
13.Molokai14.Clarion15.Clipperton16.Challenger17.
continentalcrustentersatrench,subduction
Eltanin18.Udintsev19.EastPacificRise(Sshaped)20.
eventuallystopsandtheconvergentplate
NazcaRidge
marginbecomesacollisionzone.Features
analogoustotrenchesareassociatedwith
collisionszonesthesearesedimentfilledforedeepsreferredtoasperipheralforelandbasins,suchasthat
whichtheGangesRiverandTigrisEuphratesriversflowalong.

Historyoftheterm"trench"
Trencheswerenotclearlydefineduntilthelate1940sand1950s.Thebathymetryoftheoceanwasofno
realinterestuntilthelate19thandearly20thcenturies,withtheinitiallayingofTransatlantictelegraph
cablesontheseafloorbetweenthecontinents.Eventhentheelongatedbathymetricexpressionoftrenches
wasnotrecognizeduntilwellintothe20thcentury.ThetermtrenchdoesnotappearinMurrayand
Hjorts(1912)classicoceanographybook.Insteadtheyappliedthetermdeepforthedeepestpartsofthe
ocean,suchasChallengerDeep.ExperiencesfromWorldWarIbattlefieldsemblazonedtheconceptofthe
trenchwarfareasanelongatedepressiondefininganimportantboundary,soitwasnosurprisethattheterm
trenchwasusedtodescribenaturalfeaturesintheearly1920s.Thetermwasfirstusedinageologic
contextbyScofieldtwoyearsafterthewarendedtodescribeastructurallycontrolleddepressioninthe
RockyMountains.Johnstone,inhis1923textbookAnIntroductiontoOceanography,firstusedthetermin
itsmodernsenseforanymarked,elongatedepressionoftheseabottom.
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Duringthe1920sand1930s,FelixAndriesVeningMeineszdevelopedauniquegravimeterthatcould
measuregravityinthestableenvironmentofasubmarineandusedittomeasuregravityovertrenches.His
measurementsrevealedthattrenchesaresitesofdownwellinginthesolidEarth.Theconceptof
downwellingattrencheswascharacterizedbyGriggsin1939asthetectogenehypothesis,forwhichhe
developedananaloguemodelusingapairofrotatingdrums.WorldWarIIinthePacificledtogreat
improvementsofbathymetryinespeciallythewesternandnorthernPacific,andthelinearnatureofthese
deepsbecameclear.Therapidgrowthofdeepsearesearchefforts,especiallythewidespreaduseof
echosoundersinthe1950sand1960sconfirmedthemorphologicalutilityoftheterm.Theimportant
trencheswereidentified,sampled,andtheirgreatestdepthssonicallyplumbed.Theheroicphaseoftrench
explorationculminatedinthe1960descentoftheBathyscapheTrieste,whichsetanunbeatableworld
recordbydivingtothebottomoftheChallengerDeep.FollowingRobertS.DietzandHarryHess
articulationoftheseafloorspreadinghypothesisintheearly1960sandtheplatetectonicrevolutioninthe
late1960sthetermtrenchhasbeenredefinedwithplatetectonicaswellasbathymetricconnotations.

Trenchrollback
Althoughtrencheswouldseemtobepositionallystableovertime,itishypothesizedthatsometrenches,
particularlythoseassociatedwithsubductionzoneswheretwooceanicplatesconverge,retrograde,thatis,
theymovebackwardintotheplatewhichissubducting,akintoabackwardmovingwave.Thishasbeen
termedtrenchrollbackorhingeretreat(alsohingerollback).Thisisoneexplanationfortheexistenceof
backarcbasins.
Slabrollbackcanalsobereferredtoashinge/trenchretreat,ortrenchrollback.
Slabrollbackisaprocesswhichoccursduringthesubductionoftwotectonicplatesresultingintheseaward
motionofthetrench.Forcesactingperpendiculartotheslab(portionofthesubductingplatewithinthe
mantle)atdepthareresponsibleforthebackwardmigrationoftheslabinthemantleandultimatelythe
movementofthehingeandtrenchatthesurface.[2]Thedrivingforceforrollbackisthenegativebuoyancy
oftheslabwithrespecttotheunderlyingmantle[3]aswellasthegeometryoftheslab.[4]Backarcbasins
areoftenassociatedwithslabrollbackduetoextensionintheoverridingplateasaresponsetothe
subsequentsubhorizontalmantleflowfromthedisplacementoftheslabatdepth.[5]

Processesinvolved
Severalforcesareinvolvedintheprocessesofslabrollback.Twoforcesactingagainsteachotheratthe
interfaceofthetwosubductingplatesexertforcesagainstoneanother.Thesubductingplateexertsa
bendingforce(FPB)whichisthepressuresuppliedduringsubduction,whiletheoverridingplateexertsa
forceagainstthesubductingplate(FTS).Theslabpullforce(FSP)iscausedbythenegativebuoyancyof
theplatedrivingtheplatetogreaterdepths.Theresisistingforcefromthesurroundingmantleopposesthe
slabpullforces.Interactionswiththe660kmdiscontinuitywillcauseadeflectionduetothebuoyancyat
thephasetransition(F660).[4]Theuniqueinterplayoftheseforcesiswhatgeneratesslabrollback.When
thedeepslabsectionobstructsthedowngoingmotionoftheshallowslabsection,slabrollbackwilloccur.
Thesubductingslabundergoesbackwardsinkingduetothenegativebuoyancyforcescausinga
retrogradationofthetrenchhingealongthesurface.Upwellingofthemantlearoundtheslabcancreate
favorableconditionsfortheformationofabackarcbasin.[5]

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Seismictomographyprovidesevidenceforslabrollback.Resultsdemonstratehightemperatureanomalies
withinthemantlesuggestingsubductedmaterialispresentinthemantle.[6]Ophiolitesareviewedas
evidenceforsuchmechanismsashighpressureandtemperaturerocksarerapidlybroughttothesurface
throughtheprocessesofslabrollbackwhichprovidesspacefortheexhumationofophiolites.
Slabrollbackisnotalwaysacontinuousprocesssuggestinganepisodicnature.[3]Theepisodicnatureofthe
rollbackisexplainedbyachangeinthedensityofthesubductingplate,suchasthearrivalofbuoyant
lithosphere(acontinent,arc,ridge,orplateau),achangeinthesubductiondynamics,orachangeinthe
platekinematics.Theageofthesubductingplatesdoesnothaveanyeffectonslabrollback.[4]Nearby
continentalcollisionshaveaneffectonslabrollback.Continentalcollisionsinducemantleflowand
extrusionofmantlematerialwhichresultsinstretchingandarctrenchrollback.[5]Intheareaofthe
SoutheastPacific,therehavebeenseveralrollbackeventsresultingintheformationofnumerousbackarc
basins.[3]

Mantleinteractions
Interactionswiththemantlediscontinuitiesplayasignificantroleinslabrollback.Stagnationatthe660km
discontinuitycausesretrogradeslabmotionduetothesuctionforcesactingatthesurface.[4]Slabrollback
inducesmantlereturnflowwhichcausesextensionfromtheshearstressesatthebaseoftheoverriding
plate.Asslabrollbackvelocitiesincrease,circularmantleflowvelocitiesalsoincrease,accelerating
extensionrates.[2]Extensionratesarealteredwhentheslabinteractswiththediscontinuitieswithinthe
mantleat410kmand660kmdepth.Slabscaneitherpenetratedirectlyintothelowermantle,orcanbe
retardedduetothephasetransitionat660kmdepthcreatingadifferenceinbuoyancy.Anincreasein
retrogradetrenchmigration(slabrollback)(24cm/yr)isaresultofflattenedslabsatthe660km
discontinuitywheretheslabdoesnotpenetrateintothelowermantle.[7]ThisisthecasefortheJapan,Java
andIzuBonintrenches.Theseflattenedslabsareonlytemporarilyarrestedinthetransitionzone.The
subsequentdisplacementintothelowermantleiscausedbyslabpullforces,orthedestabilizationofthe
slabfromwarmingandbroadeningduetothermaldiffusion.Slabsthatpenetratedirectlyintothelower
mantleresultinslowerslabrollbackrates(~13cm/yr)suchastheMarianaarc,Tongaarcs.[7]

Morphologicexpression
Trenchesarecenterpiecesofthedistinctivephysiographyofaconvergentplatemargin.Transectsacross
trenchesyieldasymmetricprofiles,withrelativelygentle(~5)outer(seaward)slopeandasteeper(~10
16)inner(landward)slope.Thisasymmetryisduetothefactthattheouterslopeisdefinedbythetopof
thedowngoingplate,whichmustbendasitstartsitsdescent.Thegreatthicknessofthelithosphererequires
thatthisbendingbegentle.Asthesubductingplateapproachesthetrench,itisfirstbentupwardstoform
theoutertrenchswell,thendescendstoformtheoutertrenchslope.Theoutertrenchslopeisdisruptedbya
setofsubparallelnormalfaultswhichstaircasetheseafloordowntothetrench.Theplateboundaryis
definedbythetrenchaxisitself.Beneaththeinnertrenchwall,thetwoplatesslidepasteachotheralongthe
subductiondecollement,theseafloorintersectionofwhichdefinesthetrenchlocation.Theoverridingplate
containsvolcanicarc(generally)andaforearc.Thevolcanicarciscausedbyphysicalandchemical
interactionsbetweenthesubductedplateatdepthandasthenosphericmantleassociatedwiththeoverriding

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plate.Theforearcliesbetweenthetrenchandthevolcanicarc.Forearcshavethelowestheatflowfromthe
interiorEarthbecausethereisnoasthenosphere(convectingmantle)betweentheforearclithosphereand
thecoldsubductingplate.
Theinnertrenchwallmarkstheedgeoftheoverridingplateandtheoutermostforearc.Theforearcconsists
ofigneousandmetamorphiccrust,andthiscrustactsasbuttresstoagrowingaccretionaryprism(sediments
scrapedoffthedowngoingplateontotheinnertrenchwall,dependingonhowmuchsedimentissuppliedto
thetrench).Ifthefluxofsedimentsishigh,materialwillbetransferredfromthesubductingplatetothe
overridingplate.Inthiscaseanaccretionaryprismgrowsandthelocationofthetrenchmigrates
progressivelyawayfromthevolcanicarcoverthelifeoftheconvergentmargin.Convergentmarginswith
growingaccretionaryprismsarecalledaccretionaryconvergentmarginsandmakeupnearlyhalfofall
convergentmargins.Ifthesedimentfluxislow,materialwillbetransferredfromtheoverridingplatetothe
subductingplatebyaprocessoftectonicablationknownassubductionerosionandcarrieddownthe
subductionzone.Forearcsundergoingsubductionerosiontypically
exposeigneousrocks.Inthiscase,thelocationofthetrenchwill
migratetowardsthemagmaticarcoverthelifeoftheconvergent
margin.Convergentmarginsexperiencingsubductionerosionare
callednonaccretionaryconvergentmarginsandcomprisemorethan
halfofconvergentplateboundaries.Thisisanoversimplification,
becausedifferentpartsofaconvergentmargincanexperiencesediment
accretionandsubductionerosionoveritslife.
Theasymmetricprofileacrossatrenchreflectsfundamentaldifferences
inmaterialsandtectonicevolution.Theoutertrenchwallandouter
swellcompriseseafloorthattakesafewmillionyearstomovefrom
wheresubductionrelateddeformationbeginsneartheoutertrench
swelluntilsinkingbeneaththetrench.Incontrast,theinnertrenchwall
isdeformedbyplateinteractionsfortheentirelifeoftheconvergent
margin.Theforearciscontinuouslysubjectedtosubductionrelated
earthquakes.Thisprotracteddeformationandshakingensuresthatthe
innertrenchslopeiscontrolledbytheangleofreposeofwhatever
materialitiscomposedof.Becausetheyarecomposedofigneous
rocksinsteadofdeformedsediments,nonaccretionarytrencheshave
steeperinnerwallsthanaccretionarytrenches.

Filledtrenches
Thecompositionoftheinnertrenchslopeandafirstordercontrolon
trenchmorphologyisdeterminedbysedimentsupply.Active
accretionaryprismsarecommonfortrenchesnearcontinentswhere
largeriversorglaciersreachtheseaandsupplygreatvolumesof
sedimentwhichnaturallyflowtothetrench.Thesefilledtrenchesare
ThePeruChileTrench
confusingbecauseinaplatetectonicsensetheyareindistinguishable
fromotherconvergentmarginsbutlackthebathymetricexpressionofa
trench.TheCascadiamarginofthenorthwestUSAisafilledtrench,
theresultofsedimentsdeliveredbytheriversoftheNWUSAandSWCanada.TheLesserAntilles
convergentmarginshowstheimportanceofproximitytosedimentsourcesfortrenchmorphology.Inthe
south,nearthemouthoftheOrinocoRiver,thereisnomorphologicaltrenchandtheforearcplus
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accretionaryprismisalmost500km(310mi)wide.Theaccretionaryprismissolargethatitformsthe
islandsofBarbadosandTrinidad.Northwardtheforearcnarrows,theaccretionaryprismdisappears,and
onlynorthof17Nthemorphologyofatrenchisseen.Intheextremenorth,farawayfromsediment
sources,thePuertoRicoTrenchisover8,600m(28,200ft)deepandthereisnoactiveaccretionaryprism.
Asimilarrelationshipbetweenproximitytorivers,forearcwidth,andtrenchmorphologycanbeobserved
fromeasttowestalongtheAlaskanAleutianconvergentmargin.Theconvergentplateboundaryoffshore
Alaskachangesalongitsstrikefromafilledtrenchwithbroadforearcintheeast(nearthecoastalriversof
Alaska)toadeeptrenchwithnarrowforearcinthewest(offshoretheAleutianislands).Anotherexampleis
theMakranconvergentmarginoffshorePakistanandIran,whichisatrenchfilledbysedimentsfromthe
TigrisEuphratesandIndusrivers.Thickaccumulationsofturbiditesalongatrenchcanbesuppliedby
downaxistransportofsedimentsthatenterthetrench1,0002,000km(6201,240mi)away,asisfound
forthePeruChileTrenchsouthofValparasoandfortheAleutianTrench.Convergenceratecanalsobe
importantforcontrollingtrenchdepth,especiallyfortrenchesnearcontinents,becauseslowconvergence
causesthecapacityoftheconvergentmargintodisposeofsedimenttobeexceeded.
Thereanevolutionintrenchmorphologycanbeexpectedasoceanscloseandcontinentsconverge.While
theoceaniswide,thetrenchmaybefarawayfromcontinentalsourcesofsedimentandsomaybedeep.As
thecontinentsapproacheachother,thetrenchmaybecomefilledwithcontinentalsedimentsandbecome
shallower.Asimplewaytoapproximatewhenthetransitionfromsubductiontocollisionhasoccurredis
whentheplateboundarypreviouslymarkedbyatrenchisfilledenoughtoriseabovesealevel.

Accretionaryprismsandsedimenttransport
Accretionaryprismsgrowbyfrontalaccretion,wherebysedimentsarescrapedoff,bulldozerfashion,near
thetrench,orbyunderplatingofsubductedsedimentsandperhapsoceaniccrustalongtheshallowpartsof
thesubductiondecollement.Frontalaccretionoverthelifeofaconvergentmarginresultsinyounger
sedimentsdefiningtheoutermostpartoftheaccretionaryprismandtheoldestsedimentsdefiningthe
innermostportion.Older(inner)partsoftheaccretionaryprismaremuchmorelithifiedandhavesteeper
structuresthantheyounger(outer)parts.Underplatingisdifficulttodetectinmodernsubductionzonesbut
mayberecordedinancientaccretionaryprismssuchastheFranciscanGroupofCaliforniaintheformof
tectonicmlangesandduplexstructures.Differentmodesofaccretionarereflectedinmorphologyofthe
innerslopeofthetrench,whichgenerallyshowsthreemorphologicalprovinces.Thelowerslopecomprises
imbricatethrustslicesthatformridges.Themidslopemaycompriseabenchorterraces.Theupperslopeis
smootherbutmaybecutbysubmarinecanyons.Becauseaccretionaryconvergentmarginshavehighrelief,
arecontinuouslydeformed,andaccommodatealargefluxofsediments,theyarevigoroussystemsof
sedimentdispersalandaccumulation.Sedimenttransportiscontrolledbysubmarinelandslides,debris
flows,turbiditycurrents,andcontourites.Submarinecanyonstransportsedimentfrombeachesandrivers
downtheupperslope.Thesecanyonsformbychannelizedturbiditesandgenerallylosedefinitionwith
depthbecausecontinuousfaultingdisruptsthesubmarinechannels.Sedimentsmovedowntheinnertrench
wallviachannelsandaseriesoffaultcontrolledbasins.Thetrenchitselfservesasanaxisofsediment
transport.Ifenoughsedimentmovestothetrench,itmaybecompletelyfilledsothatturbiditycurrentsare
abletocarrysedimentswellbeyondthetrenchandmayevensurmounttheouterswell.Sedimentsfromthe
riversofSWCanadaandNWUSAspilloverwheretheCascadiatrenchwouldbeandcrosstheJuande
Fucaplatetoreachthespreadingridgeseveralhundredkilometrestothewest.
Theslopeoftheinnertrenchslopeofanaccretionaryconvergentmarginreflectscontinuousadjustmentsto
thethicknessandwidthoftheaccretionaryprism.Theprismmaintainsacriticaltaper,establishedin
conformancewithMohrCoulombtheoryforthepertinentmaterials.Apackageofsedimentsscrapedoff
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thedowngoinglithosphericplatewilldeformuntilitandtheaccretionaryprismthatithasbeenaddedto
attainacriticaltaper(constantslope)geometry.Oncecriticaltaperisattained,thewedgeslidesstablyalong
itsbasaldecollement.Strainrateandhydrologicpropertiesstronglyinfluencethestrengthofthe
accretionaryprismandthustheangleofcriticaltaper.Fluidporepressuresmodifyrockstrengthandare
importantcontrolsofcriticaltaperangle.Lowpermeabilityandrapidconvergencemayresultinpore
pressuresthatexceedlithostaticpressureandarelativelyweakaccretionaryprismwithashallowlytapered
geometry,whereashighpermeabilityandslowconvergenceresultinlowerporepressure,strongerprisms,
andsteepergeometry.
TheHellenicTrenchoftheHellenicarcsystemisunusualbecausethisconvergentmarginsubducts
evaporites.TheslopeofthesurfaceofthesouthernflankoftheMediterraneanRidge(itsaccretionary
prism)islow,about1,whichindicatesverylowshearstressonthedecollementatthebaseofthewedge.
Evaporitesinfluencethecriticaltaperoftheaccretionarycomplex,astheirmechanicalpropertiesdiffer
fromthoseofsiliciclasticsediments,andbecauseoftheireffectuponfluidflowandfluidpressure,which
controleffectivestress.Inthe1970s,thelineardeepsoftheHellenictrenchsouthofCretewereinterpreted
tobesimilartotrenchesatothersubductionzones,butwiththerealizationthattheMediterraneanRidgeis
anaccretionarycomplex,itbecameapparentthattheHellenictrenchisactuallyastarvedforearcbasin,and
thattheplateboundaryliessouthoftheMediterraneanRidge.[8]

Waterandbiosphere
ThevolumeofwaterescapingfromwithinandbeneaththeforearcresultsinsomeofEarthsmostdynamic
andcomplexinteractionsbetweenaqueousfluidsandrocks.Mostofthiswateristrappedinporesand
fracturesintheupperlithosphereandsedimentsofthesubductingplate.Theaverageforearcisunderrunby
asolidvolumeofoceanicsedimentthatis400m(1,300ft)thick.Thissedimententersthetrenchwith50
60%porosity.Thesesedimentsareprogressivelysqueezedastheyaresubducted,reducingvoidspaceand
forcingfluidsoutalongthedecollementandupintotheoverlyingforearc,whichmayormaynothavean
accretionaryprism.Sedimentsaccretedtotheforearcareanothersourceoffluids.Waterisalsoboundin
hydrousminerals,especiallyclaysandopal.Increasingpressureandtemperatureexperiencedbysubducted
materialsconvertsthehydrousmineralstodenserphasesthatcontainprogressivelylessstructurallybound
water.Waterreleasedbydehydrationaccompanyingphasetransitionsisanothersourceoffluidsintroduced
tothebaseoftheoverridingplate.Thesefluidsmaytravelthroughtheaccretionaryprismdiffusely,via
interconnectedporespacesinsediments,ormayfollowdiscretechannelsalongfaults.Sitesofventingmay
taketheformofmudvolcanoesorseepsandareoftenassociatedwithchemosyntheticcommunities.Fluids
escapingfromtheshallowestpartsofasubductionzonemayalsoescapealongtheplateboundarybuthave
rarelybeenobserveddrainingalongthetrenchaxis.Allofthesefluidsaredominatedbywaterbutalso
containdissolvedionsandorganicmolecules,especiallymethane.Methaneisoftensequesteredinanice
likeform(methaneclathrate,alsocalledgashydrate)intheforearc.Theseareapotentialenergysourceand
canrapidlybreakdown.Destabilizationofgashydrateshascontributedtoglobalwarminginthepastand
willlikelydosointhefuture.
Chemosyntheticcommunitiesthrivewherecoldfluidsseepoutoftheforearc.Coldseepcommunitieshave
beendiscoveredininnertrenchslopesdowntodepthsof7000minthewesternPacific,especiallyaround
Japan,intheEasternPacificalongNorth,CentralandSouthAmericacoastsfromtheAleutiantothePeru
Chiletrenches,ontheBarbadosprism,intheMediterranean,andintheIndianOceanalongtheMakranand
Sundaconvergentmargins.Thesecommunitiesreceivemuchlessattentionthanthechemosynthetic
communitiesassociatedwithhydrothermalvents.Chemosyntheticcommunitiesarelocatedinavarietyof
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geologicalsettings:aboveoverpressuredsedimentsinaccretionaryprismswherefluidsareexpelled
throughmudvolcanoesorridges(Barbados,NankaiandCascadia)alongactiveerosivemarginswith
faultsandalongescarpmentscausedbydebrisslides(Japantrench,Peruvianmargin).Surfaceseepsmay
belinkedtomassivehydratedepositsanddestabilization(e.g.Cascadiamargin).Highconcentrationsof
methaneandsulfideinthefluidsescapingfromtheseaflooraretheprincipalenergysourcesfor
chemosynthesis.

Emptytrenchesandsubductionerosion
Trenchesdistantfromaninfluxofcontinentalsedimentslackanaccretionaryprism,andtheinnerslopeof
suchtrenchesiscommonlycomposedofigneousormetamorphicrocks.Nonaccretionaryconvergent
marginsarecharacteristicof(butnotlimitedto)primitivearcsystems.Primitivearcsystemsarethosebuilt
onoceaniclithosphere,suchastheIzuBoninMariana,TongaKermadec,andScotia(SouthSandwich)arc
systems.Theinnertrenchslopeoftheseconvergentmarginsexposesthecrustoftheforearc,including
basalt,gabbro,andserpentinizedmantleperidotite.Theseexposuresalloweasyaccesstostudythelower
oceaniccrustanduppermantleinplaceandprovideauniqueopportunitytostudythemagmaticproducts
associatedwiththeinitiationofsubductionzones.Mostophiolitesprobablyoriginateinaforearc
environmentduringtheinitiationofsubduction,andthissettingfavorsophioliteemplacementduring
collisionwithblocksofthickenedcrust.Notallnonaccretionaryconvergentmarginsareassociatedwith
primitivearcs.Trenchesadjacenttocontinentswherethereislittleinfluxofsedimentscarriedbyrivers,
suchasthecentralpartofthePeruChileTrench,mayalsolackanaccretionaryprism.
Igneousbasementofanonaccretionaryforearcmaybecontinuouslyexposedbysubductionerosion.This
transfersmaterialfromtheforearctothesubductingplateandcanbeaccomplishedbyfrontalerosionor
basalerosion.Frontalerosionismostactiveinthewakeofseamountsbeingsubductedbeneaththeforearc.
Subductionoflargeedifices(seamounttunneling)oversteepenstheforearc,causingmassfailuresthatcarry
debristowardsandultimatelyintothetrench.Thisdebrismaybedepositedingrabenofthedowngoing
plateandsubductedwithit.Incontrast,structuresresultingfromsubductionerosionofthebaseofthe
forearcaredifficulttorecognizefromseismicreflectionprofiles,sothepossibilityofbasalerosionis
difficulttoconfirm.Subductionerosionmayalsodiminishaoncerobustaccretionaryprismifthefluxof
sedimentstothetrenchdiminishes.
Nonaccretionaryforearcsmayalsobethesiteofserpentinemudvolcanoes.Theseformwherefluids
releasedfromthedowngoingplatepercolateupwardsandinteractwithcoldmantlelithosphereofthe
forearc.Mantleperidotiteishydratedintoserpentinite,whichismuchlessdensethanperidotiteandsowill
risediapiricallywhenthereisanopportunitytodoso.Somenonaccretionaryforearcsaresubjectedto
strongextensionalstresses,forexampletheMarianas,andthisallowsbuoyantserpentinitetorisetothe
seafloorwheretheyformserpentinitemudvolcanoes.Chemosyntheticcommunitiesarealsofoundonnon
accretionarymarginssuchastheMarianas,wheretheythriveonventsassociatedwithserpentinitemud
volcanoes.

Factorsaffectingtrenchdepth
Thereareseveralfactorsthatcontrolthedepthoftrenches.Themostimportantcontrolisthesupplyof
sediment,whichfillsthetrenchsothatthereisnobathymetricexpression.Itisthereforenotsurprisingthat
thedeepesttrenches(deeperthan8,000m(26,000ft))areallnonaccretionary.Incontrast,alltrencheswith
growingaccretionaryprismsareshallowerthan8,000m(26,000ft).Asecondordercontrolontrenchdepth
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istheageofthelithosphereatthetimeofsubduction.Becauseoceaniclithospherecoolsandthickensasit
ages,itsubsides.Theoldertheseafloor,thedeeperitliesandthisdeterminesaminimumdepthfromwhich
seafloorbeginsitsdescent.Thisobviouscorrelationcanberemovedbylookingattherelativedepth,the
differencebetweenregionalseafloordepthandmaximumtrenchdepth.Relativedepthmaybecontrolled
bytheageofthelithosphereatthetrench,the
convergencerate,andthedipofthesubductedslabat
intermediatedepths.Finally,narrowslabscansinkand
rollbackmorerapidlythanbroadplates,becauseitis
easierforunderlyingasthenospheretoflowaroundthe
edgesofthesinkingplate.Suchslabsmayhavesteep
dipsatrelativelyshallowdepthsandsomaybe
associatedwithunusuallydeeptrenches,suchasthe
ChallengerDeep.

Deepestoceanictrenches
Trench

Ocean

Maximum
Depth

MarianaTrench

Pacific
Ocean

11,034m
(36,201ft)

TongaTrench

Pacific
Ocean

10,882m
(35,702ft)

PhilippineTrench

Pacific
Ocean

10,545m
(34,596ft)

KurilKamchatkaTrench

Pacific
Ocean

10,542m
(34,587ft)

KermadecTrench

Pacific
Ocean

10,047m
(32,963ft)

IzuBoninTrench(Izu
OgasawaraTrench)

Pacific
Ocean

9,810m
(32,190ft)

JapanTrench

Pacific
Ocean

9,504m
(31,181ft)

PuertoRicoTrench

Atlantic
Ocean

8,800m
(28,900ft)

SouthSandwichTrench

Atlantic
Ocean

8,428m
(27,651ft)

PeruChileTrenchor
AtacamaTrench

Pacific
Ocean

8,065m
(26,460ft)

ThePuertoRicoTrench

Notableoceanictrenches

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Trench

Location

AleutianTrench

SouthoftheAleutianIslands,westofAlaska

BougainvilleTrench

SouthofNewGuinea

CaymanTrench

WesternCaribbeanSea

CedrosTrench(inactive) PacificcoastofBajaCalifornia
HikurangiTrench

EastofNewZealand

IzuOgasawaraTrench

NearIzuandBoninislands

JapanTrench

NortheastJapan

KermadecTrench*

NortheastofNewZealand

KurilKamchatka
Trench*

NearKurilislands

ManilaTrench

WestofLuzon,Philippines

MarianaTrench*

WesternPacificoceaneastofMarianaIslands

MiddleAmericaTrench

EasternPacificOceanoffcoastofGuatemala,ElSalvador,Nicaragua,Costa
Rica

NewHebridesTrench

WestofVanuatu(NewHebridesIslands).

PeruChileTrench

EasternPacificoceanoffcoastofPeru&Chile

PhilippineTrench*

EastofthePhilippines

PuertoRicoTrench

BoundaryofCaribbeanSeaandAtlanticocean

Puysegurtrench

SouthwestofNewZealand

RyukyuTrench

EasternedgeofJapan'sRyukyuIslands

SouthSandwichTrench
SundaTrench

CurvesfromsouthofJavatowestofSumatraandtheAndamanandNicobar
Islands

TongaTrench*

NearTonga

YapTrench

WesternPacificoceanbetweenPalauIslandsandMarianaTrench

(*)The5deepesttrenchesintheworld

Ancientoceanictrenches
Trench

Location

IntermontaneTrench WesternNorthAmericabetweenIntermontaneIslandsandNorthAmerica
InsularTrench

WesternNorthAmericabetweenInsularIslandsandIntermontaneIslands

FarallonTrench

WesternNorthAmerica

TethyanTrench

SouthofTurkey,Iran,TibetandSoutheastAsia

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Notes
1. Rowley,DavidB.(2002)."Rateofplatecreationanddestruction:180Matopresent".GeologicalSocietyof
AmericaBulletin114(8):927933.Bibcode:2002GSAB..114..927R
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002GSAB..114..927R).doi:10.1130/0016
7606(2002)114<0927:ROPCAD>2.0.CO2(https://dx.doi.org/10.1130%2F0016
7606%282002%29114%3C0927%3AROPCAD%3E2.0.CO%3B2).
2. Schellart&Moresi2013
3. Schellart,Lister&Toy2006
4. Nakakuki&Mura2013
5. Flower&Dilek2003
6. Hall&Spakman2002
7. Christensen1996
8. Cita,M.B.(2006)."ExhumationofMessinianevaporitesinthedeepseaandcreationofdeepanoxicbrinefilled
collapsedbasins"(http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6V6X4JW7WY9
1&_user=10&_handle=VWAAWBUMsSAYZWUUWUAAVECWDEWVAAVDAUYDWV
YCUEYECAWBU
U&_fmt=summary&_coverDate=05%2F04%2F2006&_rdoc=1&_orig=browse&_srch=%23toc%235826%239999
%23999999999%2399999!&_cdi=5826&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10
&md5=518f38816aaa5d4e6c16133f9efff5bb).SedimentaryGeology.188189:357378.
Bibcode:2006SedG..188..357C(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006SedG..188..357C).
doi:10.1016/j.sedgeo.2006.03.013(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.sedgeo.2006.03.013).Retrieved26Juy2010.
Checkdatevaluesin:|accessdate=(help)

Seealso
Oceanicridge
Physicaloceanography
Listoflandforms
Trough(geology)
Listofsubmarinetopographicalfeatures

References
Christensen,UR(1996)."TheInfluenceofTrenchMigrationonSlabPenetrationintotheLower
Mantle.".EarthandPlanetaryScienceLetters140:2739.doi:10.1016/0012821x(96)000234
(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2F0012821x%2896%29000234).
Nakakuki,TMura,E(2013)."DynamicsofSlabRollbackandInducedBackArcBasinFormation".
EarthandPlanetaryScienceLetters361(B11):287297.doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.10.031
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(https://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2012.10.031).
Schellart,WPLister,GS(2004)."OrogenicCurvature:PaleomagneticandStructuralAnalyses".
GeologicalSocietyofAmerica:237254.
Schellart,WPLister,GSToy,VG(2006)."ALateCretaceousandCenozoicReconstructionofthe
SouthwestPacificRegion:TectonicsControlledbySubductionandSlabRollbackProcesses".Earth
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Schellart,WPMoresi,L(2013)."ANewDrivingMechanismforBackarcExtensionandBackarc
ShorteningThroughSlabSinkingInducedToroidalandPoloidalMantleFlow:Resultsfromdynamic
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Hall,RSpakman,W(2002)."SubductedSlabsBeneaththeEasternIndonesiaTongaRegion:
InsightsfromTomography".EarthandPlanetaryScienceLetters:321336.doi:10.1016/s0012
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Flower,MFJDilek,Y(2003)."ArctrenchRollbackandForearcAccretion:1.ACollisionInduced
MantleFlowModelforTethyanOphiolites".Pub.geol.Soc.Lond.218:2141.
doi:10.1144/gsl.sp.2003.218.01.03(https://dx.doi.org/10.1144%2Fgsl.sp.2003.218.01.03).
Stern,R.J.(2002)."SubductionZones".ReviewsofGeophysics40(4):10121049.
Bibcode:2002RvGeo..40.1012S(http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2002RvGeo..40.1012S).
doi:10.1029/2001RG000108(https://dx.doi.org/10.1029%2F2001RG000108).
A.B.Watts,2001.IsostasyandFlexureoftheLithosphere.CambridgeUniversityPress.458p.
Wright,D.J.Bloomer,S.H.MacLeod,C.J.Taylor,B.Goodlife,A.M.(2000)."Bathymetryof
theTongaTrenchandForearc:amapseries".MarineGeophysicalResearches21(489511):2000.
Sibuet,M.Olu,K.(1998)."Biogeography,biodiversityandfluiddependenceofdeepseacoldseep
communitiesatactiveandpassivemargins".DeepSeaResearchII(45):517567.
Smith,W.H.F.Sandwell,D.T.(1997)."Globalseafloortopographyfromsatellitealtimetryand
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"Deepseatrench".McGrawHillEncyclopediaofScience&Technology,8thedition,1997.
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materialsubductedatconvergentmargins".Tectonophysics219:163175.
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J.W.Ladd,T.L.Holcombe,G.K.Westbrook,N.T.Edgar,1990."CaribbeanMarineGeology:
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W.B.Hamilton1988."Platetectonicsandislandarcs".GeologicalSocietyofAmericaBulletin:Vol.
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100,No.10,pp.15031527.
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