Wilhelm Richard Wagner (/vnr/; German: [iat van];

22 May 1813 13 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre

director, polemicist, and conductor who is primarily known for his
operas (or, as some of his later works were later known, "music
dramas"). Unlike most opera composers, Wagner wrote both
the libretto and the music for each of his stage works. Initially
establishing his reputation as a composer of works in
the romantic vein of Weber and Meyerbeer, Wagner revolutionised
opera through his concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk ("total work of
art"), by which he sought to synthesise the poetic, visual, musical
and dramatic arts, with music subsidiary to drama, and which was
announced in a series of essays between 1849 and 1852. Wagner
realised these ideas most fully in the first half of the four-opera cycle Der Ring des
Nibelungen (The Ring of theNibelung).

Giacomo Antonio Domenico Michele Secondo Maria

Puccini (Italian: [dakomo puttini]; 22 December 1858 29
November 1924) was an Italian composer whose operasare
among the important operas played as standards.[n 1]
Puccini has been called "the greatest composer of Italian opera
after Verdi".[1] While his early work was rooted in traditional late-19thcentury romantic Italian opera, he successfully developed his work in the realistic verismo style, of
which he became one of the leading exponents.

Georges Bizet (French: [ biz]; 25 October 1838 3 June 1875),

registered at birth as Alexandre Csar Lopold Bizet, was a French composer of the romantic era.
Best known for his operas in a career cut short by his early death, Bizet achieved few successes
before his final work, Carmen, which has become one of the most popular and frequently performed
works in the entire opera repertoire.
During a brilliant student career at the Conservatoire de Paris, Bizet won many prizes, including the
prestigious Prix de Rome in 1857. He was recognised as an outstanding pianist, though he chose
not to capitalise on this skill and rarely performed in public. Returning to Paris after almost three
years in Italy, he found that the main Parisian opera theatres preferred the established classical

repertoire to the works of newcomers. His keyboard and orchestral compositions were likewise
largely ignored; as a result, his career stalled, and he earned his living mainly by arranging and
transcribing the music of others. Restless for success, he began many theatrical projects during the
1860s, most of which were abandoned. Neither of his two operas that reached the stage in this time
Les pcheurs de perles and La jolie fille de Perthwere immediately successful.

Giuseppe Fortunino Francesco Verdi (Italian: [duzppe verdi]; 9

or 10 October 1813 27 January 1901) was an Italian Romantic composer primarily known for his
operas.
He is considered, with Richard Wagner, the preeminent opera composer of the 19th century.[1] Verdi
dominated the Italian opera scene after the eras of Bellini, Donizetti andRossini. His works are
frequently performed in opera houses throughout the world and, transcending the boundaries of the
genre, some of his themes have long since taken root in popular culture, examples being "La donna
mobile" from Rigoletto, "Libiamo ne' lieti calici" (The Drinking Song) from La traviata, "Va, pensiero"
(The Chorus of the Hebrew Slaves) from Nabucco, the "Coro di zingari" (Anvil Chorus) from Il
trovatore and the "Grand March" from Aida.
Moved by the death of compatriot Alessandro Manzoni, Verdi wrote Messa da Requiem in 1874 in
Manzoni's honour, a work now regarded as a masterpiece of the oratorio tradition and a testimony to
his capacity outside the field of opera.[2] Visionary and politically engaged, he remains
alongside Garibaldi and Cavour an emblematic figure of the reunification process
(the Risorgimento) of the Italian Peninsula.

Romantische OperA (literally German romantic opera) was a genre of early nineteenthcentury German opera, developed not from the German Singspiel of the eighteenth-century but from
the opras comiques of the French Revolution. It offered opportunities for an increasingly important
role for the orchestra, and greater dramatic possibilities for reminiscence motifs - phrases that are

identified with a place, person or idea and which, when re-used in a work, remind the listener of the
place, person or idea in question.
Carl Maria von Weber's Der Freischtz (1821) inaugurated the genre, which increasingly became
associated with a distinctively German national style, as exemplified by composers such as Heinrich
Marschner (e.g. Der Vampyr and Hans Heiling), Albert Lortzing (e.g. Undine) and Louis Spohr.
Themes explored included Nature, the supernatural, the Middle Agesand popular culture,
specifically folklore. Musically, German folksong also served as an inspiration. Spoken dialogue
continued to be used between musical numbers.
The genre reached its apogee in the early works of Richard Wagner, specifically Die Feen, The
Flying Dutchman andTannhuser, although these differed from their predecessors in not using
spoken dialogue. His later operas developed the reminiscence motif into the more
protean Leitmotif and gradually abandoned many of the themes of romantische Oper, while still
largely focused on myths, legends and Nature.

Components of an opera
1. Libretto - text of opera
2. Overture - instrumental composition which serves as introduction
3. recitative - song dialogue
4. aria - reflects dramatic feelings
5. duo, trio and other small ensemble
6. orchestra
7. chorus
8. acts and scenes
9. Ballet

La traviata (Italian: [la traviata], The Fallen Woman)[1][2] is

an opera in three acts by Giuseppe Verdi set to an Italian libretto by Francesco Maria Piave. It is
based on La dame aux Camlias (1852), a play adapted from the novel byAlexandre Dumas,

fils. The opera was originally entitled Violetta, after the main character. It was first performed on
6 March 1853 at the La Fenice opera house in Venice.
Piave and Verdi wanted to follow Dumas in giving the opera a contemporary setting, but the
authorities at La Fenice insisted that it be set in the past, "c. 1700". It was not until the 1880s that the
composer and librettist's original wishes were carried out and "realistic" productions were staged. [3]

Madama Butterfly (Madame Butterfly) is an opera in three

acts (originally two acts) by Giacomo Puccini, with an Italian libretto by Luigi Illica and Giuseppe
Giacosa. The libretto of the opera is based in part on the short story "Madame Butterfly" (1898)
by John Luther Longwhich in turn was based partially on stories told to Long by his sister Jennie
Correll and partially on the semi-autobiographical 1887 French novel Madame
Chrysanthme by Pierre Loti.[1][2][3]
Long's short story was dramatized by David Belasco as a one-act play,Madame Butterfly: A Tragedy
of Japan (1900). After premiering in New York, Belasco's play moved to London, where Puccini saw
it in the summer of 1900.[4]
The original version of the opera, in two acts, had its premiere on 17 February 1904 at La Scala in
Milan. It was very poorly received despite the presence of such notable singers as soprano Rosina
Storchio, tenor Giovanni Zenatelloand baritone Giuseppe De Luca in the lead roles. This was due in
large part to the late completion and inadequate time for rehearsals. Puccini revised the opera,
splitting the second act into two acts and making other changes. On May 28, 1904, this version was
performed in Brescia and was a huge success.[5]
Between 1915 and 1920, Japan's best-known opera singer Tamaki Miura won international fame for
her performances as Cio-Cio San. Her statue, along with that of Puccini, can be found in the Glover
Garden in Nagasaki, the city where the opera is set.[6]

Madama Butterfly is a staple of the standard operatic repertoire for companies around the world,
ranking 7th in theOperabase list of the most-performed operas worldwide.[7]

Voice classification is the process by which human voices are evaluated and are thereby
designated into voice types. These qualities include but are not limited to: vocal range, vocal
weight, vocal tessitura, vocal timbre, and vocal transition points such as breaks and lifts within the
voice. Other considerations are physical characteristics, speech level, scientific testing, and vocal
registration.[1] The science behind voice classification developed within Europeanclassical music and
is not generally applicable to other forms of singing. Voice classification is often used within opera to
associate possible roles with potential voices. There are currently several different systems in use
including: the German Fach system and the choral music system among many others.

Ancient Greek Theater

The theater of Dionysus, Athens (Saskia, Ltd.)

This page is designed to provide a brief introduction to Ancient Greek Theater, and to provide tools for
further research. Click on any of the following topics to explore them further.
1. Timeline of Greek Drama
2. Origins of Greek Drama
3. Staging an ancient Greek play
4. Greek Theaters
5. Structure of the plays read in Humanities 110
6. English and Greek texts of the plays for word searching.
7. Bibliography and links to other on-line resources for Greek Tragedy

1. Timeline of Greek Drama

Although the origins of Greek Tragedy and Comedy are obscure and controversial, our ancient sources
allow us to construct a rough chronology of some of the steps in their development. Some of the names

and events on the timeline are linked to passages in the next section on the Origins of Greek Drama which
provide additional context.
(Works in bold are on the Hum 110 syllabus)
7th Century BC
c. 625

Arion at Corinth produces named dithyrambic choruses.

6th Century BC
600-570
Cleisthenes, tyrant of Sicyon, transfers "tragic choruses" to Dionysus
540-527
Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, founds the festival of the Greater Dionysia
536-533
Thespis puts on tragedy at festival of the Greater Dionysia in Athens
525
Aeschylus born
511-508
Phrynichus' first victory in tragedy
c. 500
Pratinus of Phlius introduces the satyr play to Athens
5th Century BC
499-496
c. 496
492
485
484
472
467
468
463?
458
456
c. 450
447
c. 445
441
438
431-404
431
c. 429
428
423
415
406
405
404
401

Aeschylus' first dramatic competition

Sophocles born
Phrynicus' Capture of Miletus (Miletus was captured by the Persians in 494)
Euripides born
Aeschylus' first dramatic victory
Aeschylus' Persians
Aeschylus' Seven Against Thebes
Aeschylus defeated by Sophocles in dramatic competition
Aeschylus' Suppliant Women
Aeschylus' Oresteia (Agamemnon, Libation Bearers, Eumenides)
Aeschylus dies
Aristophanes born
Parthenon begun in Athens
Sophocles' Ajax
Sophocles' Antigone
Euripides' Alcestis
Peloponnesian War (Athens and allies vs. Sparta and allies)
Euripides' Medea
Sophocles' Oedipus the King
Euripides' Hippolytus
Aristophanes' Clouds
Euripides' Trojan Women
Euripides dies; Sophocles dies
Euripides' Bacchae
Athens loses Peloponnesian War to Sparta
Sophocles' Oedipus at Colonus

4th Century BC

399
c. 380's
c. 330's

Trial and death of Socrates

Plato's Republic includes critique of Greek tragedy and comedy
Aristotle's Poetics includes defense of Greek tragedy and comedy

2. Origins of Greek Drama

Ancient Greeks from the 5th century BC onwards were fascinated by the question of the origins of
tragedy and comedy. They were unsure of their exact origins, but Aristotle and a number of other writers
proposed theories of how tragedy and comedy developed, and told stories about the people thought to be
responsible for their development. Here are some excerpts from Aristotle and other authors which show
what the ancient Greeks thought about the origins of tragedy and comedy.
Aristotle on the origins of Tragedy and Comedy

1. Indeed, some say that dramas are so called, because their authors represent the characters as "doing"
them (drntes). And it is on this basis that the Dorians [= the Spartans, etc.] lay claim to the invention of
both tragedy and comedy. For comedy is claimed by the Megarians here in Greece, who say it began
among them at the time when they became a democracy [c. 580 BC], and by the Megarians of Sicily on
the grounds that the poet Epicharmas came from there and was much earlier than Chionides and Magnes;
while tragedy is claimed by certain Dorians of the Peloponnese. They offer the words as evidence, noting
that outlying villages, called dmoi by the Athenians, are called kmai by them, and alleging
that kmdoi (comedians) acquired their name, not from kmazein (to revel), but from the fact that, being
expelled in disgrace from the city, they wandered from village to village. The Dorians further point out
that their word for "to do" is drn, whereas the Athenians use prattein. (Aristotle: Poetics Chapter 3)

2. And in accordance with their individual types of character, poetry split into two kinds, for the graver
spirits tended to imitate noble actions and noble persons performing them, and the more frivolous poets
the doings of baser persons, and as the more serious poets began by composing hymns and encomia, so
these began with lampoons....Thus among the early poets, some became poets of heroic verse and others
again of iambic verse. Homer was not only the master poet of the serious vein, unique in the general
excellence of his imitations and especially in the dramatic quality he imparts to them, but was also the
first to give a glimpse of the idea of comedy [in the Margites]...And once tragedy and comedy had made
their appearance, those who were drawn to one or the other of the branches of poetry, true to their natural
bias, became either comic poets instead of iambic poets, or tragic poets instead of epic poets because the
new types were more important-- i.e. got more favorable attention, than the earlier ones. Whether tragedy
has, then, fully realized its possible forms or has not yet done so is a question the answer to which both in
the abstract and in relation to the audience [or the theater] may be left for another discussion. Its
beginnings, certainly, were in improvisation [autoschediastiks], as were also those for comedy, tragedy
originating in impromptus by the leaders of dithyrambic choruses, and comedy in those of the leaders of
the phallic performances which still remain customary in many cities. Little by little tragedy grew greater
as the poets developed whatever they perceived of its emergent form, and after passing through many
changes, it came to a stop, being now in possession of its specific nature [tn hauts phusin]. It
was Aeschylus who first increased the number of the actors from one to two and reduced the role of the
chorus, giving first place to the dialogue. Sophocles [added] the third actor and [introduced] painted

scenery. Again, [there was a change] in magnitude; from little plots and ludicrous language (since the
change was from the satyr play), tragedy came only late in its development to assume an air of dignity,
and its meter changes from the trochaic tetrameter to the iambic trimeter. Indeed, the reason why they
used the tetrameter at first was that their form of poetry was satyric [i.e. for "satyrs"] and hence more
oriented toward dancing; but as the spoken parts developed, natural instinct discovered the appropriate
meter, since of all metrical forms the iambic trimeter is best adapted for speaking. (This is evident, since
in talking with one another we very often utter iambic trimeters, but seldom dactylic hexameters, or if we
do we depart from the tonality of normal speech. Again, [there was a change] in the number of episodes -but as for this and the way in which reportedly each of the other improvements came about, let us take it
all as said, since to go through the several details would no doubt be a considerable task.
(Aristotle: Poetics Chapter 4)

Stories about the poet Arion

3. Periander was tyrant of Corinth. The Corinthians say (and the Lesbians agree) that the greatest wonder
in his life was the voyage of Arion of Methymna to Taenarum on a dolphin. He was a kitharode second to
none at that time and the first of men whom we know to have composed the dithyramb and named it and
produced it in Corinth. (Herodotus I.23)

4. Arion, of Methymna...is said also to have invented the tragic mode (tragiko tropou) and first
composed a stationary chorus and sung a dithyramb and named what the chorus sang and introduced
satyrs speaking verses. (The Suda lexicon)

5. Pindar says the dithyramb was discovered in Corinth. The inventor of the song Aristotle calls Arion. He
first led the circular chorus. (Proculus, Chrest. xii)

6. The first performance of tragedy was introduced by Arion of Methymna, as Solon said in his Elegies.
Charon of Lampsacus says that drama was first produced at Athens by Thespis. (John the
Deacon, Commentary on Hermogenes)

Stories about Cleisthenes, Sicyon, and Hero-drama

7. I must not omit to explain that [the tyrant] Cleisthenes picked on Melanippus as the person to introduce
into Sicyon, because he was a bitter enemy of Adrastus, having killed both Mecistes, his brother, and
Tydeus his son-in-law. After settling him in his new shrine, he transferred to him the religious honors of

sacrifice and festival which had previously been paid to Adrastus. The people of Sicyon had always
regarded Adrastus with great reverence, because the country had once belonged to Polybus, his maternal
grandfather, who died without an heir and bequeathed the kingdom to him. One of the most important of
the tributes paid him was the tragic chorus, or ceremonial dance and song, which the Sicyonians
celebrated in his honor; normally, the tragic chorus belongs to the worship of Dionysus; but in Sicyon it
was not so -- it was performed in honor of Adrastus, treating his life-story and sufferings. Cleisthenes,
however, changed this: he transferred the choruses to Dionysus, and the rest of the ceremonial to
Melanippus. (Herodotus V.67)

Stories trying to explain why, if tragedy originated from Dithyrambs sung in honor of Dionysus, not all
tragedies were about Dionysus ("Nothing to do with Dionysus": (ouden pros ton Dionuson)

8. When Phrynichus and Aeschylus developed tragedy to include mythological plots and disasters, it was
said, "What has this to do with Dionysus?" (Plutarch, Symp. Quaest.)

9. Nothing to do with Dionysus. When, the choruses being accustomed from the beginning to sing the
dithyramb to Dionysus, later poets abandoned this custom and began to write "Ajaxes" and "Centaurs".
Therefore the spectators said in joke, "Nothing to do with Dionysus." For this reason they decided later to
introduce satyr-plays as a prelude, in order that they might not seem to be forgetting the god. (Zenobius
V.40)

10. Nothing to do with Dionysus. When Epigenes the Sicyonian made a tragedy in honor of Dionysus,
they made this comment; hence the proverb. A better explanation: Originally when writing in honor of
Dionysus they competed with pieces which were called satyric. Later they changed to the writing of
tragedy and gradually turned to plots and stories in which they had no thought for Dionysus. Hence this
comment. Chamaeleon writes similarly in his book on Thespis. (The Suda lexicon)

Stories about Thespis the Athenian playwright

11. From when Thespis the poet first acted, who produced a play in the city and the prize was a goat...
(Marmor Parium, under the year about 534 BC).

12. This is Thespis, who first moulded tragic song, inventing new joys for his villagers, when Bacchus led
the wine-smeared (?) chorus, for which a goat was the prize (?) and a basket of Attic figs was a prize too.

The young change all this. Length of time will discover many new things. But mine is mine. (Dioscorides,
Anth. Pal. VII. 410)

13. The unknown poetry of the tragic Muse Thespis is said to have discovered and to have carried poems
on wagons, which they sang and acted, their faces smeared with wine-lees. (Horace, Ars Poetica 275-277)

14. As of old tragedy formerly the chorus by itself performed the whole drama and later Thespis invented
a single actor to give the chorus a rest and Aeschylus a second and Sophocles a third, thereby completing
tragedy... (Diogenes Laertius III. 56)

15. Thespis: Of the city of Ikarios in Attica, the sixteenth tragic poet after the first tragic poet, Epigenes of
Sicyon, but according to some second after Epigenes. Others say he was the first tragic poet. In his first
tragedies he anointed his face with white lead, then he shaded his face with purslane in his performance,
and after that introduced the use of masks, making them in linen alone. He produced in the 61st Olympiad
(536/5-533/2 BC). Mention is made of the following plays: Games of Pelias or Phorbas, Priests, Youths,
Pentheus. (The Suda lexicon)

3. Staging an ancient Greek play

Attending a tragedy or comedy in 5th century BC Athens was in many ways a different experience than
attending a play in the United States in the 20th century. To name a few differences, Greek plays were
performed in an outdoor theater, used masks, and were almost always performed by a chorus and three
actors (no matter how many speaking characters there were in the play, only three actors were used; the
actors would go back stage after playing one character, switch masks and costumes, and reappear as
another character). Greek plays were performed as part of religious festivals in honor of the god
Dionysus, and unless later revived, were performed only once. Plays were funded by the polis, and
always presented in competition with other plays, and were voted either the first, second, or third (last)
place. Tragedies almost exclusively dealt with stories from the mythic past (there was no "contemporary"
tragedy), comedies almost exclusively with contemporary figures and problems.
In what follows, we will run through an imaginary (but as far a possible, accurate) outline of the
production of a Greek tragedy in 5th century BC Athens from beginning to end. The outline will bring out
some of the features of creating and watching a Greek tragedy that made it a different process than it is
today. Staging a play.

4. Greek Theaters

Greek tragedies and comedies were always performed in outdoor theaters. Early Greek theaters were
probably little more than open areas in city centers or next to hillsides where the audience, standing or
sitting, could watch and listen to the chorus singing about the exploits of a god or hero. From the late 6th
century BC to the 4th and 3rd centuries BC there was a gradual evolution towards more elaborate theater
structures, but the basic layout of the Greek theater remained the same. The major components of Greek
theater are labled on the diagram above.
Orchestra: The orchestra (literally, "dancing space") was normally circular. It was a level space where
the chorus would dance, sing, and interact with the actors who were on the stage near the skene. The
earliest orchestras were simply made of hard earth, but in the Classical period some orchestras began to
be paved with marble and other materials. In the center of the orchestra there was often a thymele, or
altar. The orchestra of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was about 60 feet in diameter.
Theatron: The theatron (literally, "viewing-place") is where the spectators sat. The theatron was usually
part of hillside overlooking the orchestra, and often wrapped around a large portion of the orchestra (see
the diagram above). Spectators in the fifth century BC probably sat on cushions or boards, but by the
fourth century the theatron of many Greek theaters had marble seats.
Skene: The skene (literally, "tent") was the building directly behind the stage. During the 5th century, the
stage of the theater of Dionysus in Athens was probably raised only two or three steps above the level of
the orchestra, and was perhaps 25 feet wide and 10 feet deep. The skene was directly in back of the stage,
and was usually decorated as a palace, temple, or other building, depending on the needs of the play. It
had at least one set of doors, and actors could make entrances and exits through them. There was also
access to the roof of the skene from behind, so that actors playing gods and other characters (such as the
Watchman at the beginning of Aeschylus' Agamemnon) could appear on the roof, if needed.
Parodos: The parodoi (literally, "passageways") are the paths by which the chorus and some actors (such
as those representing messengers or people returning from abroad) made their entrances and exits. The
audience also used them to enter and exit the theater before and after the performance.

Greek Theaters Click here to explore more about Greek theaters in Perseus, with descriptions, plans, and
images of eleven ancient theaters, including the Theater of Dionysus in Athens, and the theater at
Epidaurus.

Satyr plays were an ancient Greek form of tragicomedy, similar in spirit to the bawdy satire
of burlesque. They featured choruses of satyrs, were based on Greek mythology, and were rife with
mock drunkenness, brazen sexuality (including phallic props), pranks, sight gags, and general
merriment.
Satyric drama was one of the three varieties of Athenian drama, the other two
beingtragedy and comedy. It can be traced back to Pratinas of Phlius, c. 500 BC. After settling in
Athens, he probably adapted the dithyramb, customary in his native home, with its chorus of satyrs,
to complement the form of tragedy which had been recently invented in Athens. It met with approval
and was further developed by his son Aristeas, by Choerilus, by Aeschylus, and others.
In the Athenian Dionysia, each playwright customarily entered four plays into the competition:
three tragedies and one satyr play to be performed either at the end of the festival or between the
second and third tragedies of a trilogy, as a spirited entertainment, a comic relief to break the
oppression of hours of gloomy and fatalistic tragedy. They were short, half the duration of a tragedy.
The general theme of heaven, fate, and the gods affecting human affairs in the tragedies was carried
through into the festivities of the chorus of satyrs and Sileni, companions of Dionysus.

Roman Theater The similarities of Roman theatres to those of earlier Greek theatres are due in
large part to the influence of Ancient Greece on the Roman triumvir Pompeii. Indeed, much of the
architectural influence on the Romans came from the Greeks, and theatre structural design was no
different from other buildings. However, Roman theatres have specific differences, such as being
built upon their own foundations instead of earthen works or a hillside and being completely
enclosed on all sides. Roman theatres derive their basic design from the Theatre of Pompey, the
first permanent Roman theatre.

In the Renaissance (Re-nais-sance) period, from the fourteenth to the seventeenth centuries, an interest in classical
Greek and Roman art, culture and theater returned. Two major theater design traditions were developed at this time
in Italy: the proscenium (pro-scen-i-um) arch that frames and divides the stage from the audience and the art of
painting cloths as backdrops for scenery.
Another major influence from this region was thecommedia dell arte (com-med-i-a dell art-e), which means comedy
of the profession. This form of theater was an improvised, quick-witted performance by wandering players. They wore
masks to portray a regular cast of characters and made up their
lines as they went along. The daughters and wives of the players
were some of the first women to perform in theater.
In England, Queen Elizabeth I strongly supported the theater.
During Elizabethan times, as they are known, the most famous
playwright in history began his career. Born in 1564, William
Shakespeare was an actor and poet, who wrote plays for his
company, theLord Chamberlains Men, to perform. Many of his
plays, such as Romeo and Juliet, Hamlet, and A Midsummer
Night's Dream, are still studied and performed all over the world
today.

Medieval theatre refers to the theatre in the period between the fall of the Western Roman
Empire in the 5th century A.D. and the beginning of the Renaissance in approximately the 15th
century A.D. Medieval theatre covers all drama produced in Europe over that thousand year period

and refers to a variety of genres, includingliturgical drama, mystery plays, morality

plays, farces andmasques. Beginning with Hrosvitha of Gandersheim in the 10th century, Medieval
drama was for the most part very religious and moral in its themes, staging and traditions. The most
famous examples of Medieval plays are the English cycle dramas, the York Mystery Plays,
the Chester Mystery Plays, the Wakefield Mystery Plays and the N-Town Plays, as well as
the morality play, Everyman.
Due to a lack of surviving records and texts, a low literacy rate of the general population, and the
opposition of the clergy to some types of performance, there are few surviving sources on Medieval
drama of the Early and High Medieval periods. However, by
the late period, drama and theatre began to become more secularized and a larger number of
records survive documenting plays and performances.

Baroque theatre (or theater) is a term which describes the period between the 17th and 18th
centuries in Europe when theater became extravagant. This form of theater lacked the elements and
direction typically associated with neoclassicism and the era of enlightenment. Themes of plays
became less focused on religion and more focused on the interactions or discoveries of humanity.
The Baroque style of the theater was unusual for the time, often lively and considered vulgar due to
gaudy costume designs, elaborate stage settings, and special effects. In addition, the era produced
some of the worlds most respected playwrights and was the basis for modern theater.
Prior to this period, the Church produced most of the plays to enhance the teachings of religion.
Productions also served to inform the public of appropriate social behavior. With the discovery of
America and technological advancements, playwrights began to focus more on the accomplishments
of man. They began to view the entire world as their stage and wrote plays according to their
personal beliefs rather than those of the church. Playwrights of Baroque theatre, such as
William Shakespeare and Jean Baptiste Poquelin Moliere, wrote plays about politics, the universe,
or the propriety of private life.

Neoclassical theatre often spelled as theater refers to a movement in the mid-17th to early18th centuries in which the theatrical arts were defined by the ideas and styles of ancient Greek and
Roman societies. People of the time placed a heavy focus on decorum, or dignified behavior, and
realism, and they believed that the primary reasons for a play were to provide entertainment and to
teach a lesson. Grand, intricate scenery, elaborate drama and strict concern for the classics were
earmarks of the movement, with most productions also characterized through the use of five acts,
few performances and a high level of improvisation. The movement began in France but quickly
spread throughout Europe and beyond.

Theatrical elements
Music, design, and drama have all played important roles in the evolution of dance, and
in many cultures dance has actually been inseparable from these arts. The Greek
word mousik, for example, referring to music, poetry, and dance as one form, reflected
the integral relation between these three arts in classical Greek drama. In the early
European ballets, dance, music, drama, and spectacle were equally inseparable.

Famous Filipino Playwrights

Francisco Balagtas y de la Cruz (April 2, 1788 February 20, 1862),

also known as Francisco Baltazar, was a prominent Filipino poet, and is widely considered as one
of the greatest Filipino literary laureate for his impact on Filipino literature. The famous epic, Florante
at Laura, is regarded as his defining work.
The name "Baltazar", sometimes misconstrued as a pen name, was a legal surname Balagtas
adopted after the 1849 edict of Governor-General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua, which mandated that
the native population adopt standard Spanish surnames instead of native ones.

Severino Reyes (February 11, 1861 September 15, 1942) was

a Filipinowriter, playwright, and director of plays. He used the pen name Lola Basyang.[1][2] He was
nicknamed "Don Binoy". Reyes is known as the "Father of Tagalog Plays" and as the "Father of the
Tagalog Zarzuela".[3]
He is one of the children of Andrea Rivera and Rufino Reyes. He was born inSta. Cruz, Manila. He
studied at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran. He started writing plays when he stopped studying at
the University of Santo Tomas after the death of his father. He translated Spanish-language plays
into the Tagalog language, until he was able to create his own original works. Reyes is one of the
followers of plays performed at the Teatro Zorrilla, where he witnessed both the period of popularity
and then the abandonment of the said theater house.

What is ACTIVE RECREATION?

a type of leisure treatment where a person actively takes part in an operation,
like running, which demands actual physical and cognitive effort.
ACTIVE RECREATION: "Laura's favorite types of active recreation are the
samba and running.

Psychology Dictionary: What is ACTIVE RECREATION? definition of ACTIVE RECREATION

(Psychology Dictionary)

Parasuicide (from Greek , para-, "near" or "resembling" and suicide) is a suicideattempt or

gesture and self-harm where there is no result in death. It is a non-fatal act in which a person
deliberately causes injury to him or herself or ingests any prescribed or generally recognised
therapeutic dose in excess. The term was first coined in Edinburgh by Norman Kreitman.[1] It is
considered to be a serious public health issue. Parasuicide is the strongest known indicator for a
future successful suicide attempt.[2]Other researchers also include those in the definition who attempt
suicide with the intent to kill themselves. Studies have found that about half of those who complete
suicide have a history of parasuicide.[3] Parasuicide is most common in adolescentsand young adults.
[4]

Suicide (Latin suicidium, from sui caedere, "to kill oneself") is the act of intentionally causing one's
own death. Suicide is often carried out as a result ofdespair, the cause of which is frequently
attributed to a mental disorder such as depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, borderline
personality disorder,[1] alcoholism, or drug abuse.[2] Stress factors such as financial difficulties or

troubles with interpersonal relationships often play a role. Efforts to prevent suicide include limiting
access to method of suicide such as firearms and poisons, treating mental illness and drug misuse,
and improving economic circumstances. Although crisis hotlines are common, there is little evidence
for their effectiveness.[3]
The most commonly used method of suicide varies by country and is partly related to availability.
Common methods include: hanging, pesticide poisoning, and firearms. Suicide resulted in 842,000
deaths in 2013 up from 712,000 deaths in 1990. [4] This makes it the 10th leading cause of death
worldwide.[2][5]Rates are higher in men than in women, with males three to four times more likely to kill
themselves than females.[6] There are an estimated 10 to 20 millionnon-fatal attempted
suicides every year.[7] Non-fatal suicide attempts may lead to injury and long term disabilities.
Attempts are more common in young people and females.

Domestic violence (also domestic abuse, spousal abuse, intimate partner

violence, battering or family violence) is a pattern of behavior which involves violence or
other abuse by one person in a domestic context against another, such as
in marriage or cohabitation. Intimate partner violenceis domestic violence by a spouse or partner in
an intimate relationship against the other spouse or partner. Domestic violence can take place
in heterosexualor same-sex relationships. Domestic violence can take a number of forms
including physical, emotional, verbal, economic and sexual abuse, which can range from subtle,
coercive forms to marital rape and to violent physical abuse that results in disfigurement or death.
Globally, a wife or female partner is more commonly the victim of domestic violence, though the
victim can also be the male partner, or both partners may engage in abusive or violent behavior, or
the victim may act in self-defense or retaliation. Whereas women in the developed world who
experience domestic violence are openly encouraged to report it to the authorities, it has been
argued that domestic violence against men is most often unreported because of social pressure
against such reporting, with those that do facing social stigma regarding their perceived lack
of machismo and other denigrations of their masculinity.[1][2]
Domestic violence often occurs because the abuser believes that abuse is justified and acceptable,
and may produce intergenerational cycles of abusethat condone violence. Awareness, perception,
definition and documentation of domestic violence differs widely from country to country. There may
be a cycle of abuse during which tensions rise and an act of violence is committed, followed by a
period of reconciliation and calm. Victims of domestic violence may be trapped in domestic violent
situations through isolation, power and control, insufficient financial resources, fear, shame or to
protect children. As a result of abuse, victims may experience physical disabilities, chronic health

problems, mental illness, limited finances, and poor ability to create healthy relationships. Victims
may experience post-traumatic stress disorder. Children who live in a household with violence show
dysregulated aggression from an early age that may later contribute to continuing the legacy of
abuse when they reach adulthood.[3] Domestic violence often happens in the context
of forcedand child marriage.[4]

Types of Domestic ViolenceAre you experiencing domestic violence?

WEAVE identifies 5 types of domestic violence. All of these types of abuse are done for
the purpose of gaining power and control over the victim. These types of abuse are
different but are often inflicted upon a victim in various combinations.
Physical Abuse is the use of physical force against another person in a way that ends
up injuring the person, or puts the person at risk of being injured.

Does your partner push, hit or choke you?

Does your partner threaten to hurt you with a weapon?
Emotional Abuse can be verbal or nonverbal.

Does your partner continually criticize you, call you names?

Does your partner make all decisions for you?
Financial Abuse may include withholding resources, stealing from the victim, or using
the victims name to incur debt.

Does your partner force you to work, or refuse to let you work?
Do you feel financially dependent on your partner?
Sexual Abuse is often linked to physical abuse; they may occur together, or the sexual
abuse may occur after a bout of physical abuse

Does your partner minimize the importance of your feelings about sex?
Does your partner force unwanted sex acts?
Spiritual Abuse is anything that comes in the way of you doing something or feeling
good about yourself.

Does your partner not allow you to practice your morals/religious beliefs or
culture/values?
Do you feel that you have given up things that are important you?
If you or someone you know is experiencing any of these behaviors in a relationship,
call WEAVEs 24-Hour Support Line.

LGBTQ Partner Violence

No matter the gender of either party in a relationship, many dynamics of abuse are the
same. An abusive relationship is fueled by the desire of the abuser to have power and
control over their partner. The abuser uses different types of abuse, including: physical,
sexual, emotional, financial, and spiritual.

Here are some concerns that are particular to the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered,
and questioning (LGBTQ) community:

Abuser may threaten to out the survivors sexual orientation, gender identity, or
HIV status as a control tactic.
Survivor may try to protect their community by hiding abuse, for fear that it will
be used to condemn all non-hetero relationships as abnormal or unhealthy.
For someone who is closeted, accessing services or calling police means they
must make the difficult decision to out themselves.
Survivors risk that they will be confronted with prejudice at a time when they are
very vulnerable and need understanding.
LGBTQ violence is surrounded by myths (i.e. same-sex battering is mutual,
women are never violent, or victims like the abuse).
It may be hard to remain anonymous in the LGBTQ community and survivors may
worry about how people would react, and if friends would choose sides.
When straight individuals are in abusive relationships no one claims that all
straight relationships are dysfunctional and unhealthy, but those in the LGBTQ
community know all too well that any problems within same-sex relationships can be
used as a condemnation of all same-sex relationships.
An abuser may tell their partner that no one else would love them or treat them
any better. A survivor who has internalized homophobic or transphobic beliefs may think
this is true.
If you or someone you know is experiencing any of the above in their relationship call
the 24-Hour Support and Information Line