Theme 2

Weather and Climate

The characteristics of one European and one tropical climate type.
Tropical climates

Tropical climates are found within 15 degrees of latitude either side of the equator.
The climate close to the equator is hot throughout the year. No matter what time of
year, the sun at midday is always high overhead and there are no seasonal variations.
The climate of tropical regions is dominated by the tropical rain belt. For example, in
the Amazon region there is between 1500mm and 2000mm of rainfall a year.
Regions between 5 degrees and 15 degrees of latitude either side of the equator have
a seasonal pattern of rainfall with distinct wet and dry seasons.
Greatest rainfall occurs when the Sun at midday is overhead. On the equator this
occurs twice a year in March and September, and consequently there are two wet and
two dry seasons.
Further away from the equator, the two rainy seasons merge into one, and the climate
becomes more monsoonal, with one wet season and one dry season.
In the heat of the tropics, large air masses are constantly warmed by the hot ground
below. this creates massive zones of low pressure. these air masses are unstable,
Maritime Climate

Oceans cool down very slowly so they are able to transfer heat from warm latitudes to
cooler ones. Iceland's coastline is kept warm by one such current of warm water, the Gulf
Stream. This brings warm water across the Atlantic from the tropics. This warm water
heats the air above it and gives Iceland's coastal regions a maritime climate which is
warmer and wetter than other places at similar latitudes.
Average winter temperature: 0 degrees Celsius in the lowlands, 10 degrees Celsius in
the Highlands
Average summer temperature: between 10-13 degrees Celsius
Average rainfall: 300 mm a years

Ecosystems
The relationship between climate zones and biomes, illustrated using one European
biome and one tropical biome.
The Arctic - the taiga

The Arctic climate of Northern Scandinavia and Iceland has cold winters and short, cool

summers. Plants have to survive the long, dark winters when temperatures can fall will
below freezing and when strong winds or snowfall can damage the branches of trees.
In the summer, plants benefit from long hours of daylight but the growing season is very

short. Plants therefore grow slowly.

The further north you go into northern Norway and Finland, the smaller the plants

become.
South of the Arctic Circle, the ecosystem is taiga. This is a forest ecosystem of conifer
trees and birches. As you travel north the trees become shorter and grow further apart.
Eventually, a little north of the Arctic Circle, the climate becomes too extreme for trees
to grow and the treeless arctic tundra takes over.

How does the Arctic climate affect plant growth?

Nutrient cycles in the taiga

Temperatures are only above 10 degrees Celsius

Dead leaves and branches fall from

trees forming a litter layer on the
soil.
1. Leaf litter breaks down slowly in
the cold conditions.
2. Decomposers such as beetles and
fungi grow in the litter.
3. Nutrients from leaf litter return
to the soil.
4. Roots are shallow so they can
take in nutrients near the surface.
5. Plant use nutrients from the soil
to help growth.

(the temperature at which most plants grow) for

two or three months so plants have a short
growing season.
Precipitation in the winter months falls as snow
so plants have small leaves and so don't lose any
moisture.
Rocks weather slowly in the cold conditions which
means soils have few nutrients therefore the
plants grow extremely slowly.
With few trees around there is little shelter from
the wind so plants grow close to the ground
where they are less likely to be damaged.

The Tropical Rainforest

Biomes such as the tropical rainforest have climate conditions to promote rapid plant
growth. Tropical rainforest trees grow quickly and reach a height of 40m or more. Other
biomes, like the tundra, have very slow growing plants that never grow more than a few
centimetres high. The differing growth rates of the plants in these biomes can be
explained by factors such as the amount of water. These factors all depend on either
climate or latitude.
In equatorial regions the temperature is constantly above 25 degrees
Celsius so plants can grow all year and grow quickly.
There is plenty of sunlight overhead so plants grow straight and tall.
There is plenty of water, sunshine and nutrients so a wide variety of plants are able
to grow. This allows a wide diversity of insects, birds and animals.
Plants need minerals containing nitrogen and phosphates. These nutrients exist in
rocks, water and the atmosphere. The plants take them from the soil releasing them
back in to the soil when the plant dies. This process forms a continuous cycle. The
figure to the left represents nutrient stores and flows in the rainforest ecosystem.

Theme 3
Employment Structures and Opportunities
Recent changes in employment structures of countries at two contrasting stages of
economic development, and the reasons for these changes.
Malaysia

United Kingdom
In 1800 there was little in the way of service industries or manufacturing back
then most manufactured goods were made in small workshops by a few craftsmen.
In 1970 Malaysia introduced its New Economic Policy (NEP). They decided to:

Provide financial incentives for foreign trans-national companies (TNCs) to invest

in Malaysia.
Train their workforce in the necessary skills.
Use money from traditional exports to help fund this development.
They attracted inward investment with the inducement of low taxes and cheap
land.

However,
most
primary
production,
farming workforce.
in the main, was done by hand or
They
invested
heavily
in getting
an educated
simple
technology.
thean
industrial
revolution
took hold,
moreairports
peopleand
were
The
government
has But
also as
built
infrastructure
of roads,
railways,
needed
to
work
in
factories
and
so
fewer
were
employed
in
agriculture.
ports, which benefit the population but also encourage the TNCs to invest

They kept the wages low

The strict labour laws minimised disruptions and union membership was
discouraged
The working day was long.

The number of people employed in secondary industry in HICs began to decline

because automation took over mechanisation, raw materials were running out and
factories decided to locate in developing countries where they could make higher
profits.

In the meanwhile, TNCs kept up their administrative and development arms in

HICs, increasing the number of workers in tertiary and even quaternary
occupations.

 The number of people working in the primary industry in the UK is unlikely to

go any lower. However, in Malaysia it will continue to fall.
In Malaysia, the secondary industry is increasing as TNCs relocate there.
Both countries have increasing numbers involved in tertiary and quaternary
production as they are both concentrating on development and design.

Why is there an issue over water?

The mainIssues
focusand
of the
conflict is over the use and control of the river Nile. The
Development
Water
river Nile flows through Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan and Egypt.
Aninvestigation
of athe
trans
boundary
water
For a decade,
countries
in the
Nileissue.
Basin have been negotiating about how to
share and protect the river at a time of changing climate and a rising population.
The talks eventually broke down in 2010. On one side are Egypt and Sudan, which
rely heavily on the Nile's water because of their dry climates. On the other side
are the remaining countries, which actually supply most of the Nile's water.

Egypt

Uganda

Egypt's population was 79 million in 2010, but is

expected to rise to 122 million by 2050 - leading
to a massive increase in demand for water and
food.
The country relies on the Nile for 90% of its water
supply. The Nile's water is used to irrigate
farmland on either side of the river - allowing
crops to be grown for domestic use and for
export.

The Ugandan population is

expected to triple by 2050, to 97
million.
The government's priority is to
build dams to produce electricity,
which will restrict the flow of
water to the downstream
countries of Sudan and Egypt.

Ethiopia

Sudan

Ethiopia's population is expected to reach 150

million by 2050.
Ethiopia wants to keep more of the Nile's
water for its own needs. This will lead to
serious disputes with Sudan and Egypt.
The Ethiopian government wants to build big
dams to create hydroelectric power, which
can be exported to neighbouring countries to
generate much-needed income.

Southern Sudan has swamps and

rainforests, but a large part of the north
is the Nubian Desert.
Sudan is facing the problems of
desertification and a falling water table.
The Sudanese government wants to
expand the use of irrigation to increase
the food supply, which will mean taking
more water from the Nile.

How is the issue being resolved?

Pan African Conference - the Governments were invited to a conference to discuss their
views on how the River Nile should be managed. It was decided to carefully regulate the
flow of the Aswan Dam so not to affect people living in Egypt. Egypt gave money to the
Sudanese government so that communities could develop wells to help save water and
allow them to have a better quality of life. The UN has been working with communities in
Sudan to reduce desertification by placing stones in lines to trap sand and water.

Interdependence
The EU and its trade relationships

The European Union

The EU is the world's
biggest trading bloc
consisting of 27 member
states. The European
Economic Community
was first formed in 1958
by six countries
(Belgium, The
Netherlands, France,
Luxembourg, Italy and
West Germany. The
Union has slowly grown
ever since with the
latest two countries
(Romania and Hungary)
joining in 2007. The EU
now covers a population
of over 500 million
people and accounts for
over 25% of global GDP.
One aim of the EU was
to create a single
market where goods,
money and people could
travel freely between
member states.
Seventeen of the
member states also
joined in the use of a
single currency, the
EURO. The seventeen
countries make up the
an area called the
Eurozone. The aim of
the single market was to
promote trade between
member countries.
Through the relaxation
of protectionist policies,
the free movement of
labour and even the
removal of exchange
rates for Eurozone
countries it was
believed that all
member states would
benefit through
increased job creation
and income.
Despite the EU helping
growth in many member

Trade: The exchange of goods and/or services. The

exchange maybe for other goods and/or services but is
normally for money.
Trading bloc: A group of countries who have joined
together to promote trade. This might be through
relaxing protectionist barriers or even having a common
currency. Examples of trading blocs include the EU,
NAFTA and ASEAN.
Exports: Goods and/or services produced within a
country and then sold overseas.
Imports: Goods and/or services purchased overseas and
brought into a country.
Embargo: The prohibition of trade with a particular
country. An embargo might be a way of punishing a
country or an attempt to force a country to change its
policies. Probably the most famous embargo is the US
embargo of Cuba.
Sanctions: Sanctions are restrictions placed on a
country's trading. For example after Kuwait was invaded
by Iraq, Iraq was not allowed to buy any military goods
or weapons. This sanction was enforced by the UN.
Tariffs: Tax/duties placed on imported products to make
them more expensive and reduce demand for them.
Quotas: A limit placed on foreign goods to reduce the
supply of them, therefore forcing the price up reducing
the demand for them.
Subsidies: Financial help given to companies to make
their production costs less. This might be through grants,
or the reduction of taxes, relaxed planning control or
below marked price electricity and water. The aim of
subsidies is to make products cheaper and to protect
them from overseas competition.
Free trade: When trade is totally free and fair - there
are no protectionist policies in place. It is the aim of the
WTO to promote free trade around the world.
WTO: The World Trade Organisation is an organisation
aimed at protecting free global trade. It replaced GATT
in 1995 and has 153 members. To join the WTO you have
to demonstrate how your country promotes and practices

free trade.
Fairtrade: Fairtrade does not produce goods itself, but instead lends its labels to
companies that treat suppliers, host communities and the environment fairly and
sustainably.
Balance of trade surplus: When the value of your exports is greater than the value of
your imports.
Balance of trade deficit: When the value of your imports is greater than the value of
your exports.
Top-down Development: Development that Bottom-up Development: Development
is led by international organisations who
that is run by local communities for the
dictate and implement policies and schemes
benefit of the community.
with little local input.
Usually large scale policies or
schemes

Usually small scale initiatives

Involves more local communities

Usually carried out by governments or and local workers. The schemes are
international organisations
usually led by the local people
themselves
Work is often carried out by outside
Projects are often labour intensive
contractors
and for the benefit of the local
Schemes usually have plenty of
community e.g building a well or
funding.
repairing irrigation ditches.
Often quick to respond after natural
disasters

Funds are very limited

Teach local people new skills

Local people are often not consulted

in decision making

Schemes are appropriate and

sustainable long-term.

Schemes are not always appropriate

and not always sustainable long term
because of lack of local knowledge.

Examine trade patterns that over rely on one form of foreign income
Ghana
Almost 90% of all of Ghana's cocoa is grown on smallholdings: tiny farms that are
smaller than 3 hectares in size. About 2.5 million smallholders in Ghana grow cocoa as
their main crop. Most of the cocoa is sold for export; only about 5% of Ghana's cocoa
crop is processed into chocolate in Ghana.

Currently about 75% of Ghana's cocoa beans are exported to the European Union. The
main importing countries are the Netherlands, Germany, Belgium and France. The
beans are ground into cocoa powder in these countries. Some of this powder is then
exported to other EU countries where the chocolate is made.
The main producers of chocolate are in Belgium, Germany, Ireland, the UK and
Austria. The production of cocoa beans goes up and down from year to year.
Production depends on a number of factors such as weather conditions, pests and
diseases. The production has fluctuated over a ten-year period.
Most cocoa beans are processed into cocoa powder before being used in the
manufacture of chocolate. When the demand is higher than supply the price for cocoa
beans export is high.
The problem with the
cocoa trade
One major problem for
cocoa growers is that
the price they get for
their crop is so low. The
average income for a
cocoa farmer is only
about 160 a year. This
is because of the way in
which primary
commodities such as

Fair trade
The Kuapa Kokoo cooperative of coca
farmers
Kuapa Kokoo is a cooperative of farmers in
Ghana. The co-operative
sells part of its cocoa
bean crop to Divine
Chocolate Ltd.in the UK
who make Fairtrade
chocolate products such
as Divine and Dubble.
The main benefits of
this arrangement are:
Farmers receive
an extra US$150
per tonne for
their cocoa which

The concept of fair trade has been around for more than
30 years. The Fair Trade Foundation was established in
1992 as an independent certification body that licenses
the FAIRTRADE Mark to products that meet international
standards that are set by Fairtrade Labelling
Organisation International (FLO).
The FAIRTRADE Mark guarantees a better deal for farmers
and workers in developing countries so that they can
enjoy a better standard of living.
The farmer receives a payment that is agreed and
stable.
The farmer also receives an additional payment
called a Fairtrade Premium.
One of the many aims of Fairtrade is to develop a
long-term trading partnership with the producers.

The concept of the Millennium Development Goals

In September 2000, the
Millennium Declaration
was ratified by 189
heads of state at the
United Nations
Millennium Summit. The

The Millennium Development Goals are:

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Targets: Halve the proportion of
people living on less than $1 a day. Achieve Decent
Employment for Women, Men, and Young People. Halve
the proportion of people who suffer from hunger.

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

Targets: By 2015, all children can complete a full course of primary schooling, girls and
boys. This has not been achieved.
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
Targets: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education preferably by
2005, and at all levels by 2015.
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
Targets: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five mortality rate.
Goal 5: Improve maternal health
Targets: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal mortality
ratio. Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health.
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
Targets: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of HIV/AIDS. Achieve, by
2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for all those who need it. Have
halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of malaria and other major
diseases.
Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
Targets: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and
programs; reverse loss of environmental resources. Reduce biodiversity loss. Halve, by
2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
basic sanitation. By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at
least 100 million slum-dweller
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development
Targets: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading
and financial system. Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed Countries

(LDC). Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing countries through
measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long term. Provide access to
affordable, essential drugs in developing countries. In co-operation with the private
sector, make available new technologies, especially information and communications