A Wadati Filter For Mine-Induced Seismicity: J. Julià

J. JULI, A.A. NYBLADE, R.J. DURRHEIM, L.M. LINZER, R. GK, W.
WALTER,
371
S.M. SPOTTISWOODE AND P.H.G.M. DIRKS
A WADATI FILTER FOR MINE-INDUCED SEISMICITY

J. JULI
Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA
e-mail: jjulia@geosc.psu.edu
A.A. NYBLADE
Department of Geosciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16801, USA
University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, WITS, 2050 South Africa
e-mail: andy@geosc.psu.edu
R.J. DURRHEIM AND L.M. LINZER

School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits 2050, South Africa
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, PO Box 91230, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
e-mail: rdurrhei@csir.co.za; llinzer@csir.co.za
R. GK AND W. WALTER
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Avenue, Livermore, CA 94550, USA
e-mail: gok1@llnl.gov; walter5@llnl.gov
S.M. SPOTTISWOODE
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, PO Box 91230, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa
e-mail: sspottis@csir.co.za
P.H.G.M. DIRKS
School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3, Wits 2050, South Africa
e-mail: paul.dirks@wits.ac.za
2009 December Geological Society of South Africa
ABSTRACT
We introduce a procedure based on Wadati diagrams to assess and improve the consistency of P- and S-wave travel-time picks
with the assumption of propagation at constant wave-speed. Wadati diagrams are plots of S-P vs P-wave travel-times and they are
expected to lie along a straight line for a medium of constant velocity. Our procedure automatically searches for the largest
subset of (P,S-P) travel-time pairs with regression coefficient above 0.9, which effectively removes travel-times associated with
non-homogeneous ray-paths. Inaccuracies in travel-time picks due to clock drifts or complex arrivals and/or erroneous event
associations are also identified and eliminated through this procedure. An application to P- and S-wave travel-times from
11,224 events recorded during 2007 on an in-mine network in Savuka mine near Carletonville (South Africa), reveals that a high
correlation coefficient alone is not sufficient to ensure consistency. The histogram of vp /vs values inferred from the slopes of
the Wadati diagrams peaks at values of 1.62 to 1.63, in agreement with the underlying geology, but a significant portion of the
catalogued events show unrealistic vp /vs values. Adding realistic constraints on the slopes of the linear fits to the Wadati filter is
critical to ensure the consistency of the travel-time picks. Event relocations obtained for the filtered data set assuming propagation
at constant wave-speed do not deviate significantly from locations reported by the in-mine network operator.
Introduction
Monitoring of mine-induced seismic activity is routinely
performed through 3D networks of high-frequency
geophones deployed inside the mines. Perhaps the most
important parameter obtained from such networks is
the event location, as all other source parameters (e.g.
magnitude, energy, corner frequency, fmax) depend on
it. In general, the medium between the source and the
receivers is heterogeneous and not accurately characterised. A major difficulty during the location process
is thus to properly account for wave propagation in
insufficiently known 3D structures. A range of
techniques, with varying degrees of sophistication and
underlying assumptions, have been devised to work
around this problem (e.g. Spence, 1980; Sambridge and
Gallagher, 1993; Spottiswoode and Linzer, 2003).
In this study we take a different approach to the

problem, and try to improve on the consistency
between the data set and the medium through the data
set itself, not the method. We introduce a simple
algorithm based on the linearity of Wadati diagrams
(Wadati, 1933) to filter out outliers that deviate from the
assumption of propagation at constant wave-speed.
The assumption of propagation through a medium of
constant velocity has the advantage of simplifying
the mathematical framework behind the location
procedures (e.g. Gibowicz and Kijko, 1995), but it is
only justified if the ray-paths joining sources and
receivers are confined inside homogeneous geological
formations or travel across formations of similar wavespeed. In a mining environment, we expect this
assumption to hold for P- and S-waves radiating from
S O U T H A F R I C A N J O U R NA L O F G E O L O G Y, 2 0 0 9 , VO L U M E 1 1 2 PAG E S 3 7 1 - 3 8 0
doi:10.2113/gssajg.112.3-4.371
372
1a
1b
Figure 1. (a) Wadati diagram for a ML = 0.4 event recorded at Savuka mine, South Africa. The solid squares are measurements rejected
by the Wadati filter. The time at the top of the diagram is the time when the first station was triggered by the event and is used as a reference
time. ( b) Recordings for the same events, sorted by P-wave travel-time. Note that the waveforms have been normalised to their maximum
amplitude. Stations SAV80, SAV63, SAV64, SAV78, and SAV09 have failing channels.
SOUTH AFRICAN JOURNAL OF GEOLOGY
J. JULI, A.A. NYBLADE, R.J. DURRHEIM, L.M. LINZER, R. GK, W. WALTER,
373
seismic sources close to t h e recording stations, and to

break down for other phases or as the hypocentral
distances increase.
We assess the plausibility of our assumption with
data recorded by the underground monitoring network
at Savuka gold mine, near Carletonville, South Africa.
Our results reveal that, for a given event, it is generally
possible to find a subset of travel-times consistent with
propagation at constant wave-speed, although linearity
alone is not enough to ensure consistency. A careful
selection of the minimum number of stations and
constraints on the vp /vs ratio are critical to obtain a
consistent data subset. We show that event relocations
obtained with the filtered data set and assuming a simple
medium of constant wave-speed migrate only
moderately with respect to the original locations
provided by the mine-network operator, suggesting our
algorithm is successful in finding a subset consistent
with a medium of constant wave-speed.
Wadati filter
Representations of the S-P vs P-wave travel-times, or
Wadati diagrams (Wadati, 1933), convey basic but
important information on both the propagating medium
and the seismic source. For a medium of constant
velocity, one can write
tP = t0 + d/vP
tS = t0 + d/vS,
(1)
where tp and tS are the P-wave and S-wave travel-times,

respectively, d is the hypocentral distance, t0 is the
origin time, and vp and vS are the P-wave and S-wave
wave-speeds, respectively. Combining equations (1) one
can obtain
tS tP = (vp /vs 1) (tP t0),
(2)
which is the equation of a line with slope (vp /vs - 1) and

intercept with the abscissa at tP = t0. The slope of
the Wadati line conveys information on the vp /vs ratio
of the propagating medium, while the intercept with the
abscissa yields corrections on the events origin time.
Our Wadati filter is a search of P- and S-wave traveltimes associated to an event in the (tP,tS-tP) space.
For each event, we start by fitting a straight line to all the
points in the space. If the correlation coefficient is 0.9 or
larger the picks are considered compatible with an
homogeneous medium and the event passes the filter.
If not, we construct all possible subsets by removing one
data point at a time and fit a straight line to each of
them. We then pick the subset with the largest
correlation coefficient and, if larger than 0.9, the event
passes the filter. If not, we then proceed to construct all
possible subsets by removing two data points at a time,
and so on. If no subset with at least three data points
matches a straight line with a correlation coefficient of
0.9 or larger, the event is rejected.
Figure 2. Histogram of local magnitudes for events accepted and rejected by the Wadati filter. The rejected events represent ~4.0% of the
total (i.e. 444 out of 11224). Note how the ratio of rejected over total number of events is larger at negative magnitudes. Local magnitudes
were taken from ISSIs catalogue.
S O U T H A F R I C A N J O U R NA L O F G E O L O G Y
374
Application to Savuka mine

Gold mining at Savuka mine near Carletonville, South
Africa, occurs along two horizons: the Ventersdorp
Contact Reef (VCR) and the Carbon Leader Reef (CLR).
The VCR is mined at depths around 3000 m, and is
bounded by the Ventersdorp Supergroup lavas in the
hangingwall and a thin layer of shales (~200 m) in
the footwall. The CLR is mined at depths around 3500 m,
and is separated from the shallower VCR mostly by a
~700 m thick layer of quartzites.
Seismic monitoring is performed through a 3D
network of ~20 triaxial geophones, with natural
frequencies of 4.5, 14.0 and 28.0 Hz. Seismic stations are
deployed along both the VCR and CLR, thus providing
excellent depth-coverage for the induced seismicity.
Sampling rates range from 2,000 Hz to 10,000 Hz, and
time is synchronised through common GPS time
keeping. Seismic events are recorded through a trigger
algorithm that stores the waveforms for a finite-length
time-window determined by the signal-to-noise ratio.
P- and S-wave travel-times for all the waveforms are
manually picked by the mine-network operator,
Integrated Seismic Systems International (ISSI).
Figure 1a displays a Wadati diagram for a ML = 0.4
event recorded at eight stations, that passed our Wadati
filter. Note that only six stations were used to match a
straight line to the Wadati diagram. The corresponding
waveforms are shown in Figure 1b, along with the
manual travel-time picks. Figure 1a suggests that station
SAV61 has either a S-P travel-time that is too large or a
P-wave pick that is too early. The picks displayed in the
record section for this station, however, seem accurate

enough. Station SAV09, on the other hand, clearly has a
defective S-wave pick. Figure 1b shows that the S-P time
is inconsistent with the P-wave pick. In this case, the
trigger algorithm stopped saving the waveform before
the S-wave arrived at the sensor.
After randomly inspecting other events we noticed
that inaccurate picks from complex arrivals, such as the
S-wave in SAV61 in the example above, occur
frequently. Realise that station SAV61 has a large S-P
travel-time, suggestive of a large hypocentral distance.
We think the ray-paths associated with this station
might be non-homogeneous, add complexity to the
waveforms, and result in arrival times that depart from
the assumption of propagation at constant velocity.
In addition, we also noticed that defective picks from
truncated waveforms (i.e. recordings missing either a
P-wave or a S-wave) such as SAV09 in Figure 1b, or from
failed event associations due to swarms (i.e. multiple
events closely spaced in time within the same recording
window), were also quite common.
When the seismic event is recorded at a small
number of seismic stations, the Wadati filter rejects the
event. Figure 2 overlays the histograms of local
magnitude for the accepted and rejected events, along
with the percentage of rejected events with magnitude.
The total number of rejected events is 444, out of a
total of 11224 events catalogued for Savuka during 2007.
Note that the smaller events, which are harder to detect
by the seismic network, have higher rejection ratios than
the larger events.
Figure 3. Histograms of vp /vs ratios obtained from the slopes of the filtered Wadati diagrams. In the figure, N refers to the minimum number
of stations required by the Wadati filter. Note the distributions peak at values of 1.62-1.63.
375
Figure 4. Wadati diagram for a ML = 1.1 event recorded at Savuka

mine. The two straight lines correspond to linear regression matches
to the data points selected by the constrained (dashed) and
unconstrained (solid) runs. The solid squares are the data points
rejected in both runs, and the encircled squares are the two
additional data points rejected in the constrained run. The time at
the top of the diagram is the time when the first station was triggered
by the event and is used as a reference time.
A constrained Wadati filter

Estimates of the vp /vs ratio for the propagating
medium can be obtained from the slopes of the
Wadati lines (equation 2). Figure 3 displays a histogram
of vp /vs ratios obtained from the LSQ fit to the data
subsets selected by our Wadati filter. The histogram
peaks at a value of 1.62 to 1.63, which is in good
agreement with a low vp /vs ratio expected for quartzites
(e.g. Christensen, 1996). Figure 3 also reveals that a
significant portion of events have unrealistically high or
low vp /vs ratios, and that they are mostly contributed by
events recorded at a small number of stations. A detailed
inspection of these outliers reveals that the associated
travel-time picks are affected by the same issues as
described before, with the difference that they combine
to keep a high correlation coefficient.
Two parameters control the performance of the
Wadati filter: the correlation coefficient () and
the number of stations (N). Increasing the cut-off value
for the correlation coefficient for the Savuka data set
increased the number of rejections from 444 for = 0.90
(~4.0%) to 4378 for = 0.95 (~39.0%), but the increase
in rejections did not imply a reduction of unrealistic
vp /vs ratios. As mentioned above, many diagrams had
high correlation coefficients in spite of their unrealistic
slope. On the other hand, increasing the cut-off value for
the number of stations to four, for instance, rid the
histogram of most of its long tails and increased the

number of rejected events from 444 to 1656. Those that
were rejected included events in the range of the
physically plausible vp /vs ratios, but the ratios had large
confidence bounds.
Nonetheless, even increasing the cut-off value for the
number of stations to more conservative values, still
yielded diagrams with anomalous vp /vs ratios. A ratio
of 1.88, for instance, might be physically plausible, but it
is certainly unexpected in the mine. For those events,
one might wonder if there exists a slightly smaller subset
of travel-times that yields a more realistic vp /vs ratio.
We re-ran the Wadati filter with additional constraints
on the vp /vs ratio. The filter then searched for the
largest subset with a correlation coefficient of 0.9 or
larger, a minimum number of stations of four, and an
associated vp /vs ratio bounded between 1.55 and 1.70.
As expected, the number of rejected events increased
dramatically, going from 1656 (i.e. ~14.8%) in
the unconstrained run to 3060 (i.e. ~27.3%) in the
constrained run. The bulk of the events that passed both
filters yielded similar parameters: ~82% of the origin
times shifted less than 0.1 s (~70% shifted less than
1 ms), and ~76% of the vp /vs ratios shifted less than 0.1.
Perhaps more importantly, this constrained run revealed
that a significant percentage of events do contain a
smaller subset of travel-times that match more realistic
vp /vs ratios (Figure 4).
Event relocation
As a final illustration, we have relocated the 8164 events
selected by our constrained Wadati filter by using
a simple Geiger inversion scheme, which assumes a
propagating medium of constant P- and S-wave velocities.
Realise that one expected property of the travel-time
subsets obtained from applying the constrained Wadati
filter is that the travel-times associated with a given
event should be consistent with the constant wavespeed assumption. The details of the Geiger inversion
can be found in many textbooks (e.g. Lay and Wallace,
1995), but are briefly outlined in this section.
The forward equations for the event relocation
problem are given by the travel-time equations in
(equation 1). These equations are non-linear, so we
follow the standard approach and linearise them through
a Taylor series expansion. The forward problem then
becomes:
t1
1 -(x1-x0)/d1v -(y1-y0)/d1v -(z1-z0)/d1v
t0
t2
1 -(x2-x0)/d2v -(y2-y0)/d2v -(z2-z0)/d2v
x0
=
.
tn
(3)
.
..
..
..
1 -(xn-x0)/dnv -(yn-y0)/dnv -(zn-z0)/dnv
y0
z0
where (xi,yi,zi ) are the coordinates for the i-th station,

(x0,y0,z0) is the hypocentral location, di is the
hypocentral distance, t0 is the origin time, v is
376
the seismic velocity (either P or S), and ti are the travel
time residuals. The inverse problem is then solved
iteratively through a singular value decomposition (e.g.
Lawson and Hanson, 1974). The starting solutions are
the ISSI original locations, and the iterative process is
stopped when the change in the LSQ error is less than
1%. If more than ten iterations are required, the event is
rejected (typically, that represents less than 1% of the
database). In general, no truncation of the singular value
spectrum is required, so the travel-time residuals are
effectively minimised in a least-squares sense.
The seismic velocities of the propagating medium
must be specified a priori during the relocation
procedure. P-wave velocities utilised in ISSIs
locations range between 5.8 and 6.0 km/s, a range of
values appropriate for quartzites at shallow depths
(e.g. Christensen and Mooney, 1995), so we
experimented with P-wave velocities within that range
in our relocation scheme. S-wave velocities were
obtained by assuming a vp /vs ratio of 1.62, a value
consistent with the maximum in our vp /vs distribution
(Figure 3). The results of this relocation exercise are
summarized through a number of histograms displayed
in Figure 5. The histograms show the cumulative
distribution of hypocentral migrations with respect to
ISSIs original locations for assumed P-wave velocities of
5.8, 5.9, and 6.0 km/s. In all cases, more than 50% of the
events migrate less than 150 m, with the largest
percentage (~56.7%) being attained for a P-wave
velocity of 5.9 km/s.
Finally, Figure 6 compares the event-time corrections
obtained from the relocation exercise with those
obtained from the Wadati diagrams. Given that both
procedures assume the seismic velocity of the medium
is constant, it is perhaps not surprisingly that the
agreement is excellent.
Discussion
Figure 1 suggests that there exist two types of outliers in
the Wadati diagrams: those related to defective picks
and those related to non-homogeneous ray-paths.
To investigate the origin of the outliers more thoroughly,
we have overlayed histograms of S-P travel-times from
the unconstrained Wadati filter diagrams with and
without outliers, keeping in mind that S-P times are a
proxy for hypocentral distance and that long S-P traveltimes correspond to large distances. The histograms are
displayed in Figure 7, sorted by station. A detailed
inspection of the figure reveals that stations SAV08,
SAV21, SAV27, SAV34, and SAV61, display the largest
discrepancies between histograms with and without
outliers, with relatively large percentages of outliers in
the long S-P travel-time range. Note this behaviour
is consistent with non-homogenous ray-paths.
Indeed, station SAV21 is located near the surface of the
mine and the ray-paths cross all the geologic formations
separating the gold-bearing horizons from the mine
surface. Stations SAV29, SAV63, SAV64, SAV80, and
SAV81, on the other hand, display the least discrepancies
between histograms with and without outliers,
suggesting these stations are favourably located to
record mostly seismic waves that travel along nearhomogeneous ray-paths. The well-constrained stations
show discrepancies that are somewhere in between.
If we progressively increase the cut-off value for the
number of stations (not shown), the histograms tend to
become more similar, suggesting that the defective picks
also contribute to the outliers. The largest discrepancies,
nonetheless, are still observed at the same stations.
These stations should therefore be used with care under
the constant wave-speed assumption, at least, within the
S-P travel-time ranges where the discrepancies are
observed.
Figure 5. Cumulative histograms of hypocentral migration with respect to the original ISSI locations. The solutions closest to ISSIs are
attained for a P-wave velocity of 5.9 km/s.
377
Figure 6. Travel-time corrections from the Wadati filter vs

event-time corrections from the relocation scheme (vp = 6.0 km/s).
In the previous section we also noted that events

with anomalous vp /vs ratios passed the unconstrained
Wadati filter, even after increasing the cut-off value for
the number of stations. A potential correlation of these
anomalous vp /vs ratios with event location is
investigated in Figure 8. The left-hand panels display the
epicentral locations for events with vp /vs ratios between
1.52 and 1.72, the middle panels show the epicentral
locations for events with vp /vs ratios between 1.72 and
1.92, and the right-hand panels show the epicentral
locations for events outside the 1.52 vp /vs 1.92
range. The top panels suggest that anomalous vp /vs
ratios are obtained regardless of cluster location, even
when the cut-off value for the number of stations is as
high as 12. Zooming in around the in-mine network,
however, does show some correlations. The analysis
shows that for N12, where N is the minimum number
of stations in the filter, most of the events with vp /vs
ratio outside the 1.52 vp /vs 1.92 range concentrate
in the cluster northeast of the in-mine network; and that
the events with vp /vs ratios in the 1.72 vp /vs 1.92
range are mostly found outside the volume enclosed by
the in-mine network. This later observation suggests that
the anomalous vp /vs ratios could simply be the result of
insufficient data and/or poor event coverage; however,
contributions from non-homogeneous ray-paths cannot
be completely ruled out.
Our approach to the anomalous vp /vs ratio problem
has been to constrain the vp /vs ratios of the Wadati
diagrams to be within a range specified a priori, in our
case, a range around the maximum of the vp /vs
distribution (Figure 3). In fact, a comparison of the S-P
histograms obtained for the events selected by the
constrained Wadati filter with and without outliers

(not shown) enhances the discrepancies outlined in
Figure 7 for stations SAV08, SAV21, SAV27, SAV34, and
SAV61 even more. This observation suggests that traveltimes from non-homogeneous ray-paths to these stations
might be sharing responsibility for the anomalous vp /vs
ratios and that our constrained filter approach succeeds
in extracting a self-consistent subset of events.
Perhaps a more conscientious use of the Wadati filter
would have been to inspect and re-pick all the outliers
and events with anomalous vp /vs ratios after the
unconstrained run, and then re-run the Wadati filter with
the re-picked travel-times. This would certainly have
minimised the influence of defective travel-time picks
and increased the quality of the data set, which would
have been especially beneficial during the relocation
exercise as event locations critically depend on the
number of measurements and station coverage.
On the other hand, the quality of the data set can always
be improved by increasing the minimum number of
stations (N) in the Wadati filter and/or by getting closer
to the in-mine network volume. This can be
demonstrated through the relocation exercise, for which
68.4% of the events within the network volume migrated
less than 150 m with respect to the original ISSI locations
(in contrast to a 56.7% for the entire data set), 83.7% if a
minimum of 12 stations were required. The locations for
the remaining events could then be improved by using
this highly accurate subset of event locations to work
out station corrections to rehabilitate the stations giving
rise to most of the outliers.
Conclusion
Summarising, we have devised a procedure to identify
subsets of P- and S-wave travel-times consistent with
propagation at constant wave-speed. The procedure is
based on the expected linearity of Wadati diagrams for
media of constant velocity and on constraining the
slopes of the Wadati diagrams with suitable a priori
values. An inspection of random diagrams built from a
database of 11224 mine tremors recorded by an in-mine
network at Savuka mine, South Africa, has shown that
outliers are contributed by a combination of defective
travel-time picks and anomalous measurements.
A detailed analysis of S-P travel-times at each station has
revealed that a large percentage of outliers concentrate
on just five seismic stations, which have been
interpreted as recording P and S waves travelling
along non-homogeneous ray-paths. Event relocations
for the events passing the Wadati filter obtained
through a simple Geiger inversion of P and S traveltimes have been found to be consistent with locations
reported by ISSI.
Acknowledgements
AngloGold Ashanti is thanked for the sharing of the
proprietary data used in this study. We are also indebted
to ISS International for their role in providing the inmine data, as well as for providing the thousands of
378
event fraction
event fraction
event fraction
event fraction
Figure 7. Histograms of S-P travel-times for the events that passed the unconstrained Wadati filter (N =4, =0.90) with (black) and without
(grey) outliers. The largest discrepancies are observed at stations SAV08, SAV21, SAV27, SAV34, and SAV61, showing the outliers concentrate
in these five stations. Note that the largest percent of outliers occur at large S-P travel-times for these stations.
379
Northing (km)
Easting (km)
Easting (km)
Northing (km)
Northing (km)
Northing (km)
Figure 8. Epicentral locations for the events that passed the unconstrained Wadati filter (N =12, =0.90), sorted by vp /vs ratio. The upper
panels display the locations for all the seismic sources passing the filter while the lower panels display only those in the neighbourhood of the
Savuka in-mine network. The stations are shown as hollow squares and the epicentres are shown as filled grey squares.
380
related P- and S-wave travel-time picks, event locations,

and magnitudes. We are also grateful to Andrew King,
Artur Cichowicz, and Shariar Talebi for critically
reviewing the original manuscript. This work has been
supported by the United States Department of Energy
(contract number DE-FC52-06NA27320) and the United
States National Science Foundation (grant OISE0530062).
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Lay, T. and Wallace, T.C. (1995). Modern Global Seismology. Academic Press,
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Editorial handling R.J. Durrheim

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J. JULI, A.A. NYBLADE, R.J. DURRHEIM, L.M. LINZER, R. GK, W.

S.M. SPOTTISWOODE AND P.H.G.M. DIRKS