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Sensors and Transducers
Sensors and Transducers
Topics
Displacement Measurement
Resistive Sensors
Whetstone Bridge Circuits
Inductive Sensors
Capacitive
C
iti Sensors
S
Piezoelectric Sensors
Temperature Measurement
Temperature Sensors
Optical Measurements
Light Sensors
Solid-State Sensors
MEMS Sensors
Sensor Calibration
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 1
Transducers
Transducer
a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding
signal with a different energy form
Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical, etc.
take
a form
o
of
o as
sensor
so o
or a
an actuator
u o
Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
real world
world
acquires information from the real
Actuator (e.g., heater)
a device that generates a signal or stimulus
real
o d
world
sensor
actuator
intelligent
feedback
system
t
Sensors p. 2
Sensor Systems
Typically interested in electronic sensor
convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
primary
transducer
secondary
transducer
analog
signal
usable
values
sensor
sensor data
analog/digital
sensor
microcontroller
signal processing
communication
network
display
Sensors p. 3
sensor
sensor
signal timing
memory
display
handheld
a d e d instrument
st u e t
keypad
e.g., USB
A/D, communication
signal processing
PC
comm. card
sensor
processor
comm.
sensor bus
PC
sensor bus
comm. card
sensor
processor
comm.
Sensors p. 4
Primary Transducers
Conventional Transducers
thermocouple:
h
l temperature difference
diff
compass (magnetic): direction
Microelectronic Sensors
Sensors p. 5
Indirect Measurement:
When sensor measures a p
parameter that can be translated into the
parameter of interest
Example, displacement sensor measuring movement of a microphone
diaphragm
d
ap ag to quantify
qua t y liquid
qu d movement
o e e t through
t oug the
t e heart
ea t
Example, ??
Sensors p. 6
Displacement Measurements
Many biomedical parameters rely on measurements of size, shape, and
position of organs, tissue, etc.
require displacement sensors
Examples
(direct) diameter of blood vessel
(indirect) movement of a microphone diaphragm to quantify liquid movement
through the heart
Secondary Transducers
Wheatstone Bridge
Amplifiers (next chapter)
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 7
Potentiometer
Potentiometers produce output potential (voltage) change in
response to input (e.g., displacement) changes
typically
t i ll formed
f
d with
ith resistive
i ti elements
l
t e.g. carbon/metal
b / t l film
fil
V = I R
Sensors p. 8
A = wt
= resistivity,
t
w
= conductivity
Thus
R/R = L/L A/A + /
Sensors p. 9
Thus
R/R
R/R = (1+2)
(1 2 ) L/L
L/L + /
/
dimensional effect
piezoresistive effect
Sensors p. 10
gage factor, G
TCR (10-5)
Ni80 Cr20
2.1 - 2.6
10
Pt92 W8
3.6 4.4
24
Silicon (n type)
-100 to -140
70 to 700
Germanium (p type)
102
Note:
G for semiconductor materials ~ 50-70 x that of metals
due to stronger piezoresistive effect
Sensors p. 11
Strain Gage
Unbonded strain gage: end points are anchored but material
between end points is unbonded
Bonded strain gage: material is cemented to strained surface
Unbonded strain gage
diaphragm pressure
strain @ B & C
strain @ A & D
((a)) resistive
i i wire
i
(b) foil type
(c) helical wire
temperature compensation
anchor points
Sensors p. 12
Wheatstone Bridge
Wheatstone bridge is a configuration variable and fixed
elements used to monitor small variations in the elements
(and optionally compensate for temperature effects)
Consider first: resistive voltage divider
Voutt varies as RT changes
readout method for 1 element sensor
R3 is sensor element
R4 set to match nominal value of R3
If R1 = R2, Vout-nominall = 0
Vout varies as R3 changes
VCC
R1+R4
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 13
Wheatstone Bridge
Balanced bridge Vout = 0
occurs when R1/R2 = R4/R3
VCC
0.2
1E-15
Voutt/Vcc
-0.2
04
-0.4
1-element
-0.6
2-element
-0.8
-1
-1
1.2
2
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
0
x
Sensors p. 14
Wheatstone Bridge
Two element (half bridge); alternative
VCC
Vout- = VCC/2
Vout+ = VCC ((1+x)/2)
Vout = VCC ((1+x)/2 1/2)
increasing positive values of x cause Vout to become more positive
0.6
if R1
R1=R3=Ro(1+x)
R3 Ro(1+x) and R2
R2=R4=Ro(1-x)
R4 Ro(1 x)
Vout+ = ??
Vout- = ??
Vout = ??
0.4
0.2
1E-15
Vo
out/Vcc
discuss relative
performance
of configurations
-0.2
1-element
-0.4
0.4
2-element-alt
-0.6
4-element
-0.8
2-element
-1
-1.2
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2
0
x
Sensors p. 15
Wheatstone Bridge
Full bridge configuration
all bridge elements are variable (sensors)
increasing
i
i & decreasing
d
i elements
l
t arranged
d to
t maximize
i i sensitivity
iti it
Example: unbounded strain gage
Temperature Compensation
Sensors p. 16
diffused/doped
/ p semiconductor
top view
side view
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 17
Sensors p. 18
Sensors p. 19
Sensors p. 20
Other
O h stuff
ff to know
k
elastic strain gage is typically linear with 1% for 10% of maximal
extension
thus,
h
strain gages are only
l good
d measuring smallll displacements
d l
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 21
Sensors p. 22
Capacitive Sensors
Capacitance, C = A/x
= dielectric constant
A = area of capacitor plate
x = plate separation distance
Many
M
methods
h d for
f capacitance
i
readout
d
switched capacitor amplifier
may cover later
example:
l dc-excited
d
i d circuit
i i
when capacitor stationary
no current through C V1 = E
when x C,
C Vo = V1 - E
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 23
Piezoelectric Sensors
Piezoelectric materials generate electric potential when
mechanically strained or visa versa
Used
U d to
t measure physiological
h i l i l displacements
di l
t and
d record
d heart
h t
sounds
Modes of operation
p
sensor
cables
amp
K = constant
Sensors p. 24
Sensors p. 25
Temperature Measurement
Temperature is extremely important to human physiology
example: low temperature can indicate onset of problems, e.g., stroke
example: high temperature can indicate infection
Sensors p. 26
Sensors p. 27
Sensors p. 28
Thermocouples
Seebeck-Peltier Effect
dissimilar metals at diff. temps. signal
electromotive force (emf) is established by the contact of two dissimilar
metals at different temperatures
Thermocouple features:
rugged and good for very high temperatures
not as accurate as other Temp sensors (also non-linear and drift)
Sensors p. 29
Thermistors
Heavily used in biomedical applications
Resistance vs
vs. temperature
keep current low to avoid self-heating
Sensors p. 30
Shorter wavelengths
ultraviolet, ~100nm
x-ray, ~1nm
gamma rays, ~0.1nm
01
(=1)
( 1)
Longer wavelengths
infrared IR: broad spectrum
near IR, ~1000nm
000
= 1m
thermal IR, ~100m
far IR, ~1mm
microwave, ~1cm
microwave
radar, ~1-10cm
TV & FM radio, ~1m
AM radio,
radio ~100m
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 31
Radiation Thermometry
Radiant power of an object is related to its temperature
makes it possible to measure temperature without physical contact
at body temperatures
temperatures, radiant spectrum in far infrared
infrared spectrum:
p
~0.7 to 300
m
spectral sensitivity of photon and thermal detectors
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 32
Sensors p. 33
Sensors p. 34
Optical Measurement
Widely used in medical diagnosis
clinical-chemistry lab: blood and tissue analysis
cardiac catheterization: measure oxygen saturation of hemoglobin
Solid
Solid-state
state (semiconductor) optical system
miniaturize and simplify
Sensors p. 35
Optical/Radiation Sources
Tungsten lamp
LASER
Sensors p. 36
Example Spectrum
(a) source spectrum
(b) filter
fl
spectrum
(c) detector response
eye
S4 phototube
Si p-n junction
visual spectrum
(e) energy
less than 1eV too weak to
measure
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 37
Fiber
Fib Optics
O ti
efficient transmission of optical signals over distance
example medical application:
endoscope
d
Filters
control transmitted power
determine wavelengths (colors) transmitted
produce wavelength spectrum (diffraction grating)
ECE 445: Biomedical Instrumentation
Sensors p. 38
Radiation Sensors
Spectral response
Si, no response above 1100nm
special
p
materials (InSb)
(
)
monitor skin radiation (300K)
Thermal sensors
Quantum sensors
transform photon energy into electron release
sensitive over a limited spectrum of wavelengths
example
p quantum
q
sensors: eye,
y , photographic
p
g p
emulsion,, sensors below
Sensors p. 39
Photoemissive Sensors
Construction & Operation
photocathode coated with alkali metal
g photons
p
(with
(
enough
g energy,
gy, >1eV or 1200nm)) release electrons
incoming
from photocathode
released electrons attracted to anode and form a current proportional to
incoming photon energy
Example:
E
l phototube,
h t t b like
lik the
th S4 in
i the
th spectrum
t
plots
l t
Photomultiplier: phototube combined with electron amplifier
very (the most?) sensitive photodetector
cooled to prevent thermal excitation of electrons
can count individual photons
Sensors p. 40
photoresistor
photoresistor
Photojunction sensors
photodiode
Photon coupler
LED-photodiode combination
photovoltaic
Sensors p. 41
Microaccelerometer
cantilever beam
suspended mass
Rotation
oa o
gyroscope
Pressure
Electrodes
Ring
structure
5-10mm
Sensors p. 42
Sensor Calibration
Sensors can exhibit non-ideal effects
offset: nominal output nominal parameter value
nonlinearity:
y output
p not linear with parameter
p
changes
g
cross parameter sensitivity: secondary output variation with, e.g., temperature
T1
T = a + bV +cV2,
Compensation
remove secondary sensitivities
must have sensitivities characterized
can remove with polynomial evaluation
P = a + bV + cT + dVT + e
V2,
T2
o
offset
T3
-30
-20
-10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Sensors p. 43