Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Air Pollution Management
Air Pollution Management
lang@mail.bme.hu
INTRODUCTION, NOTIONS
Environmental sustainability;
Economic;
Social;
(Cultural Diversity).
Waste Reduction
Waste Generation
Reuse
On-site handling (treatment), storage and processing (near to the location of the
generation);
Collection
Transfer and transport
Processing and recovery;
Disposal.
I. Waste Reduction
1. INDUSTRIAL WASTE
Reasons of generation of industrial wastes:
o There is no absolutely pure raw material;
o Chemical reactions are equilibrium processes, the conversion is less than
100%.
A B; K=[A]/[B]; K = equilibrium constant.
o
Application of recycling
Mainly in the cases where the conversion is low.
Synthesis of NH3 (Haber)
3H2 +N2 2NH3 (P=300 bar, T=500 oC)
Further Possibilities:
a) Increase the duration of usage of products:
improvement of quality, changing of customers habits;
b) Increase of technological discipline;
c) Improvement of maintenance;
d) Renewal of equipment.
Residual Waste
Waste left from household sources containing materials that cannot be separated out
or sent for reprocessing.
1986
37.5
17.9
8.3
8.3
6.7
6.7
6.3
8.3
2000
38.1
14.8
11.2
7.7
5.9
6.1
7.2
9.0
The quantity and quality of MSW depends strongly on the living standard.
NYC
Budapest
Nigeria (Small Town)
kg/capita/day (1988)
1.8
1.1
0.46
The greatest landfill for MSW in the world was the Fresh Kill Landfill in NYC (Staten Island,
closed in 1986, temporarily open after Sept. 11 attacks ):
-3706 acres, 15,000 tons/day, 150 methane wells, 106 gallon/day leachate treated
Billion
1
2
3
4
5
6
Year
1800
1930
1960
1975
1987
2000
3. Hazardous Wastes
A waste is considered hazardous if it exhibits one or more of the following characteristics:
1 Ignitability
3 Reactivity
5 Pathogenicity
7 - Radioactivity
2 Corrosivity
4 Toxicity
6 Mutagenity
etc.
Basel Convention
The Basel Convention is an international treaty that was designed to reduce the transboundary
movements of hazardous waste between nations, and specifically to prevent transfer of
hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries.
The Convention was opened for signature on 22 March 1989, and entered into force on 5 May
1992.
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B. Thermal decomposition
- Endothermic
- Chemical decomposition in
oxygen free medium (or which
is poor in O2):
pyrolysis, gasification.
Conditions required:
o Air in excess: usually 1.5 2.5 (min 1.1 1.2) times more air than necessary,
EU: in the flue gas min 6 v% O2
o
Convenient turbulence
o
o
o
o
o
o
Proximate analysis
Determination of fixed carbon, volatile combustible matter, moisture and ash content of the
waste in order to estimate its capability as a fuel.
-The fixed carbon, volatile combustible matter can be burnt while moisture and ash not. The
vaporisation of the moisture consumes heat.
Method of analysis (tests):
1. Moisture: Determination from the loss of weight by heating at 105 C for one hour.
2. Volatile combustible matter: the additional loss of weight after ignition at 950 C in a
covered crucible (O2 is excluded).
3. Fixed carbon: combustible residue after the volatile combustible matter is removed; ignition
at 600 to 900 C.
4. Ash: the weight of residue after combustion in an open crucible.
% fixed carbon=100 %-% moisture -% ash-% volatile matter
It does not provide any information of possible pollutants emitted during combustion. These
data are determined by ultimate analysis.
Ultimate analysis
Total elemental analysis (percentage of each individual element (C,H,O,N,S) present
It is used
-mainly to characterise the organic fraction of the waste and also
-for assessing the suitability of waste as fuel,
-for predicting emissions from combustion,
-for ensuring suitable nutrient ratios (e.g. C/N) for composting.
A chemical formula can be given for the waste e.g. C655H1029O408N10.1S
Heating value
Two heating values: high and low. The high heat of combustion includes the latent heat of
vaporisation of water molecules generated during the combustion process.
Ash reduces the heating value (J/kg waste) and retains heat when removed from the furnace
(loss of heat).
Even a dry sample of MSW generates moisture (free water) which must be evaporated. The
energy demanded can be considerable and may result in an inefficient combustion process.
Density:
Important information for predicting storage volume (in collection truck, in a landfill cell)
It is increased by compaction whose extent can be characterised by the
compaction ratio: r=0/c
and
degree of volume reduction F=Vc/V0
The density of the
- raw uncompacted solid waste: 115-180 kg/m3 (in USA)
- compacted SW in landfill after compaction: 300-900 kg/m3
=f(composition, moisture content, physical shape, degree of compaction)
Glass, ceramic, ash and metals increase it.
Moisture replaces the air occurring in voids and increases .
Increase of
-decreases the cost of collection and hauling (transport),
-by shredding, baling and other size reduction technics (by decrease of irregularity, as well).
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Bale: large mass of paper, straw, goods pressed together and tied with rope/wire, ready to be
moved.
Equipment of Combustion
Classification can be done:
o By the type of combustor: with
grate or without grate
o By the aim of the equipment:
incinerator or industrial equipment
operating at high T (e.g. cement kiln).
Circumstances of burning
o Introduction of air in 2 parts
Primary (underfire) air supply (cca. 80%):
through the grates from below
- For feeding burning of the bulk of waste.
- For cooling the grates
Secondary (overfire) air supply (cca. 20%):
- in order to burn out perfectly the waste: to burn the
particulates, to eliminate CO
Criteria for wall (lining) of combustion chambers
o Mechanical strength
o Resistance to abrasive effects
o Resistance to chemical effects
o Materials: fireclay, corundum, silicone
Auxiliary burners
o Fueled by oil or gas
o Aim: stabilization or increase of power
By the direction of flow of waste and flue gases the equipment can be:
o Co-current: waste and gases move in the same direction
Disadvantage: Difficult drying and ignition of waste.
o Counter-current: waste and flue gases move in the opposite direction
Disadvantage: danger of imperfect burning: one part of the flue gases
does not go through the hottest zone.
o Cross-current (mixed current)
-Each
Each grate is turned separately by a separate electromotor
-Max. thermal charge of the grate:
grate 2000 4000 MJ/m2h
-Many
Many moving grates are also cooled with water internally for keeping the mechanical
mechanic strength
of the grate.
Scheme of a grate incinerator for combustion of MSW
1. feed hopper (funnel) and refuse shaft 2. feeder 3. combustion chamber 4. combustion
grate 5. heat recovery steam generator 6. deslag equipment 7. grate residue removal 8. fly
ash transporting system 9. primary air supply 10. secondary air supply
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Rotary Kiln
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
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Combustion chambers
o For liquids, gases and sludgy wastes.
o Fixed drum, walled up (lined with bricks)
o Mixing of waste and air is provided by nozzles and atomizers.
a. Co-Current Flow:
- Waste and gases move in the same direction
- Mixing of waste and air is slower its efficiency is lower than that of
cross and counter-current flow chambers
- Only for gaseous and liquid wastes which can be atomized easily.
b. Cross-Current Flow:
- Air inlet through radial holes
- Better mixing of waste and air shorter equipment lower
investment cost.
c. Counter-Current Flow:
- Air is blown in several free jets
- Intensive mixing and combustion
- Exclusively for liquid wastes
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o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Simple construction
No moving components
= 1.1 -1.3 (much lower than for the other types of combustor )
Residence time is also low.
Heat recovery
Cooling tubes in the eddy bed (better)
Boiler after the kiln: problem: high content of dust and fly ash of flue
gas decreases the efficiency and lifetime of the boiler.
Others types
o Plasma arc
o Infrared radiation
o Microwave and electromagnetic radiation
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Emergency condensers: combustion of waste need not be stopped when the heat
recovery system is not operating (e.g. during maintenance); designed for 50 % of the
maximal steam production
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Emissions:
SO2, NOX, HCl, HF, CO, dust, metals (including toxic ones: Pb, Hg, Cd),
organic compounds :dioxins, furans, other polycyclic aromatic compounds
Emission standards (EU directive 2000/76)):
mg/Nm3
SO2
50
NOx
200 or 400 depending on the capacity of incinerator
(>6 t/h) (<6 t/h)
Total dust
10
TOC
10
(Total organic carbon)
Dioxin/furan: 0.1 ng TE/Nm3
Philosophy of combustion:
- earlier: pollutants must remain in the slag
- nowadays: pollutants must leave with the flue gases and then they must be separated
from them during the flue gas purification
Distribution of different metals between the products (%)
Pb
Hg
Slag
60-70
0
Fly ash
30-35
20-25
Flue gas
4-5
70-80
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Flue gas contains metals and other pollutants in the form of aerosol.
Aerosol: gas + small size (10-7 - 10-3 cm) particles distributed in it
Particles can be solid (dust/smoke) or liquid (fog/mist)
Dioxins, furans:
These harmful compounds are generated during the combustion
- of chlorinated organic compounds or
- in presence of NaCl.
a. Dioxins: polychlorinated dibenzo dioxins (PCDD)
The most toxical one is 2,3,7,8 tetrachloro- dibenzo dioxin (TE=1.0, reference compound)
b. Furans: polychlorinated dibenzo furans (PCDF)
The most toxical one is 2,3,4,7,8 pentachloro- dibenzo furan (TE=0.5)
c. Other toxic organic compounds:
- polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB)
- polybrominated diphenyl ether: flame retardant used in electric circuit boards and
monitors
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2. Separation
tion of gaseous pollutants
a. wet (absorption, scrubbing, Fig.):
Two stages of absorption:
1. In acidic or neutral medium
2. In caustic (alkali)
ali) solution (PH>7, mainly for the removal of SO2)
Two stage scrubbing (in Venturi scrubbers) with evaporation of waste water
(Deutsche Babcock AG)
1. unpurified (raw) flue gas 2. purified flue gas 3. spray dryer evaporiser 4. filter separator
5. glass tube heat exchanger 6. Venturi scrubber 7. neutraliser tank 8. sludge collector
9. lime silo 10. preparation of lime milk 11. alkali storage 12. preparation of alkali solution 13.
dry final product
Problem: Hg can be accumulated in the system. The Hg content can be reduced with TMT
forming complex with Hg from 2.5 to 0.05 mg/l.
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c. semi-dry
dry method (Fig.):
The sorbent is suspension or solution (e.g. lime milk)
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Cyclone
Cyclonic separation is a method of removing particulates from an air, gas or liquid
stream, without the use of filters, through vortex separation. Rotational effects and
gravity are used to separate
rate mixtures of solids and fluids. The method can also be used
to separate fine droplets of liquid from a gaseous stream.
A high speed rotating (air) flow is established within a cylindrical or conical container.
In the cyclone air flows in a helical pattern,, beginning at the top (wide end) of the
cyclone and ending at the bottom (narrow) end before exiting the cyclone in a straight
stream through the center of the cyclone and out the top (chimney).
mney). Larger (denser)
particles in the rotating stream have too
too much inertia to follow the tight curve of the
stream, and strike the outside wall,
wall then falling to the bottom of the cyclone where
they can be removed.
In a conical system,, as the rotating flow moves towards the narrow end of the cyclone,
the rotational radius of the stream is reduced, thus separating smaller and smaller
particles. The cyclone geometry, together with flow rate,, defines the cut point of the
cyclone, which is the size of particle
p
that will be removed with 50% efficiency. Particles
larger than the cut point will be removed with a greater efficiency and smaller particles
with a lower efficiency.
Scheme of a cement kiln with pyrolysis kiln suitable for incineration of wastes
A. Clinker kiln B. Clinker cooler C. Pyrolysis kiln D. Electrofilter
1. coal (primary fuel) 2. liquid waste (secondary fuel) 3. clinker outlet 4. sintering (shrinking)
zone 5. calcination zone 6. drying zone 7. flue gases (cca. 150 C) 8. raw sludge 9. separated
dust tank 10. water 11. solid waste 12. tarry, viscous (pasty) waste 13. slag removal
c. Blast furnace
d. Other high temperature industrial technologies e.g. glass-making
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Gasification of char
1. The pyrolysis (or devolatilization) process occurs as the carbonaceous particle heats
up. Volatiles are released and char is produced resulting in considerable weight loss..
2. The combustion process occurs as the volatile products and some of the char reacts
with oxygen to form CO and CO2, which provides heat for the subsequent gasification
reactions. The basic reaction here :
3. The gasification process occurs as the char reacts with carbon dioxide and steam to
produce CO and hydrogen:
4. In addition, the reversible water gas shift reaction reaches equilibrium very fast. This
balances the concentrations of carbon monoxide, steam, carbon dioxide and
hydrogen.
A limited amount of oxygen or air is introduced into the reactor to allow some of the organic
material to be "burned" to produce CO and energy,, which drives a second reaction that
converts further organic material to H2 and additional CO2.
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Natural protection:
They form a passive protection system exploiting favourable
- geological,
- hydrological,
- soil,
- geo-morphological,
- meteorological conditions.
The migration (diffusion) of the water must be slow. The soil/rock is suitable for natural
protection if
- its permeability is very low: k<10-6 cm/s,
- it forms uninterrupted (continuous) and undisturbed (permanent) layer
Suitable materials: clay (if not sandy), granite (if not cracked (ruptured))
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Landfilling of MSW
Before dumping the organic and recyclable parts (paper, plastics) of the MSW are selected and
separated. The organic wastes are composted.
Composting: aerobic decomposition of biodegradable organic matter, producing compost
(substratum for plants). Main parts of the composting process:
addition of natural materials (to set the C/N ratio), digestion (aging), putrefaction.
The Directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill of waste is intended to prevent or reduce the
adverse effects of the landfill of waste on the environment, in particular on surface water,
groundwater, soil, air and human health.
It defines the different categories of waste (municipal waste, hazardous waste, non-hazardous
waste and inert waste) and applies to all landfills, defined as waste disposal sites for the
deposit of waste onto or into land. Landfills are divided into three classes:
landfills for hazardous waste;
landfills for non-hazardous waste;
landfills for inert waste.
A standard waste acceptance procedure is laid down so as to avoid any risks:
waste must be treated before being landfilled;
hazardous waste within the meaning of the Directive must be assigned to a hazardous
waste landfill;
landfills for non-hazardous waste must be used for municipal waste and for nonhazardous waste;
landfill sites for inert waste must be used only for inert waste.
The following wastes may not be accepted in a landfill:
liquid waste;
flammable waste;
explosive or oxidising waste;
hospital and other clinical waste which is infectious;
used tyres, with certain exceptions;
any other type of waste which does not meet the acceptance criteria laid down (in
Annex II.)
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Acknowledgement
Many thanks to Eduardo Nicolas Orthmann da Silva for preparing the first part of the
lecture notes.
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