Spherical Trigonometry

Definitions: Geometrical Properties of the Sphere and

Spherical Triangles

1.1

Great and small circles (see figure 1)

A great circle on the surface of a sphere is one whose plane passes through the center of
the sphere. For example, all meridians and the Equator. A great circle divides the sphere
into two equal parts.
A small circle is one whose plane does not passes through the center of the sphere. A
parallel of latitude, such as LL is a small circle.
The pole of a circle is that point on the surface of the sphere which is equidistant from
all points on the circle.
The angular distance, or arc, P L is called the spherical radius of a small circle LL , and
P is called the pole of that small circle. Otherwise, the radius of a small circle is usually
taken to mean OL.
P is also the pole of the great circle QQ , and clearly, the spherical radius of a great circle
is a quadrant, that is 90 . It is also clear that all great circle have two poles.
Lune is a portion of the surface of a sphere enclosed by two great circles. For instance,
P LQSAP is a lune, and LP A is the angle of the lune.
P
L

S
figure 1

1.2

Angle between planes of two great circles (see figure 2)

B is the pole of the great circle DC and A is the pole of the great circle EC.
BO is normal to plane ODC and AO is normal to the plane OEC.

 DO and EO are both normal to the line of intersection of the planes, CO.
Hence, the angle between the planes of two great circles can be defined as the arc of a
great circle between the poles of the two great circle whose planes we are considering, i.e.,
EOD. Also, EOD = BOA.
B
A

O
D
C
T

figure 2

1.3

Spherical angle between two great circle (see figure 2)

CT is the tangent to the great circle CD at C and CT is the tangent to the great circle
CE at C.
The spherical angle DCE is defined as the angle between the tangents to the great circles
drawn at the point of intersection, i.e., T CT is the spherical angle between the great
circles at C, and clearly
T CT = angle between the planes = EOD.

1.4

Spherical triangle (see figure 3a)

Spherical triangle is defined as a triangle formed on the surface of a sphere by the intersection of the arcs of three great circles, for example, P AB. Note that the sides are formed
only by arcs of great circles, never by small circles.
Similarly, a spherical quadrilateral is formed by the arcs of four great circles.
The arcs enclosing the spherical triangle are spoken of as its sides, and the angles in which
these arcs intersect are the angles of the triangle. The three sides and three angles are
collectively termed the parts of a spherical triangle, a term which is useful occasionally,
since in reality all six are angles.
The length of side of a spherical triangle is defined as the angle subtended by that side at
the center of the sphere. For example, length of side P B is P OB; side P A = P OA,
and so on. Thus, the sides like the angles, are expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds
of arc.

 If the actual length of the side is required this may easily be founded knowing the radius
of the sphere. For example,
length of AB = R ,
where R is the radius of the sphere and = AOB expressed in radians.

O
A

A
Q

figure 3a

1.5

figure 3b

Size of a spherical triangle (see figure 3b)

The arc joining two points is , by convention, always taken to mean the lesser segment of
the great circle passing through the two points, i.e., in the triangle P AB by the arc P A,
we mean the obvious one, not P QA.
Each side of a spherical triangle must be less than 180 .
Each angle of a spherical triangle must be less than 180 .
The sum of the three sides must lie between 0 to 360 .
The sum of the three angles must lie between 180 to 540 .
The area of any spherical triangle must be less than 2R2 , where R is the radius of the
sphere.

1.6

Some useful geometrical properties

Any two sides of a spherical triangle are together greater than the third.
In any spherical triangle, the greater angle is opposite to the greater side, and the converse
is also true, i.e., the greater side is opposite to the greater angle.
The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle are equal (see figure 4.)

=
figure 4

1.7

Spherical excess

It is easy to see that the sum of the three angles of a spherical triangle is not always 180 . It
lies between 180 and 540 . The extra value is called spherical excess.
For example, an octant is an example of a spherical triangle with all its angles being 90 . Thus,
the spherical excess is 90 (see figure 5.)

figure 5

2
2.1

Application of Spherical Trigonometry

Terrestrial Sphere

If we assume the earth to be a perfect sphere, the following section gives a summary of the
principal terms used, without, however, attempting to define them in any way precisely.
P
B T
V
A

D
M

figure 6
4

Referring to figure 6, in which A and B are two places on the surface of the earth, P is the pole
of the earth, O is the center of the earth. Then we can define the following terms:
Arc AN (or AON ) = latitude of A.
Arc BM (or BOM ) = latitude of B.
P A = co-latitude of A (i.e., complement of the latitude of A = 90 AON .)
P B = co-latitude of B
Length of arc AB (i.e., AOB) = the great circle distance from A to B.
P N , P M = meridians of A and B, respectively.
Arc N M (or N P M ) = difference of longitude between A and B.
Also, for a vessel on track from A towards B,
P AB = initial course (or track angle);
P BT = final course (or track angle).
V is the vertex of the great circle, i.e., the point at which the great circle is the nearest to the
pole, so that P V is at right angles to the great circle of AB.
Also AD is the distance along a parallel of latitude between the two meridians and when expressed in nautical miles, is called the departure.

3
3.1

Basic Formulas
The cosine formula

The formula states that in any spherical triangle (see figure 7,)
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A.
A

c
a

B
a

C
E
Figure 7

Proof. Let the triangle ABC be as shown in figure 6, O is the center of the sphere. Side a, b,
c, are measured by the angles at the center of the sphere, as indicated.
AE and AD are perpendicular to OA, and EAD = A.
In the plane triangle AED (by the cosine formula,)
DE 2 = AE 2 + AD2 2AE AD cos A,

(1)

DE 2 = OE 2 + OD2 2OD OD cos a.

(2)

and in triangle OED,

Also,
OE 2 = AE 2 + OA2

and OD2 = AD2 + OA2 ,

so that (2) becomes

DE 2 = 2OA2 + AE 2 + AD2 2OD OD cos a

(3)

and equating (1) and (3).

=2OA2 2OE OD cos a = 2AE AD cos A
=OE OD cos a = OA2 + AE AD cos A
OA OA AE AD

cos A
= cos a =
OE OD OE OD
= cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A
It follows without further proof that
cos b = cos a cos c + sin a sin c cos B;
cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C.

Note:
The above is the usual proof of the cosine formula. It does assume that the two sides
including the given angle, AB and AC, are both less than 90 . Generalization to larger
than 90 is not difficult.
In the form stated above, it may be used, given two sides and the included angle, to find
the third side.
By transposing the formula, we get
cos A =

cos a cos b cos c

sin b sin c

a form in which it may be used, given three sides, to find any angle.
Example 3.1 In P XZ, P = 50 , z = 70 45 , x = 62 10 , find p and Z.

cos p = cos x cos z + sin x sin z cos P

= cos 62 10 cos 70 45 + sin 62 10 sin 70 45 cos 50 0.6906
= p =46 19
6

cos z cos p cos x

sin p sin x
cos 70 45 cos 46 19 cos 62 10
0.01128
=
sin 46 19 sin 62 10
= Z =89 21
cos Z =

3.2

The sine formula

This states that in any spherical triangle (see figure 8,)

sin a
sin b
sin c
=
=
.
sin A
sin B
sin C
A
P
c
c

E
D

b F
C

C
figure 8

Proof. Let ABC be a spherical triangle, and O be the center of this sphere. Let P be any
point on OA. From P , drop perpendicular P D to the plane OBC. Drop perpendiculars DF
and DE to OC and OB, respectively. Join P F , P E and OD.
Then P DF , P DE and P DO are all right angles, and by construction DF O, DEO are
also right angles.
To show that P F O is also a right angle, we have
P F 2 =P D2 + DF 2




= P O2 OD2 + OD2 OF 2 ,
i.e., P F 2 = P O2 OF 2 , so P F O is right angled at F . Similarly, P EO is right angled at E.
We now have, P F = P O sin b and also
P D = P F sin C = P O sin b sin C.

(4)

P D = P E sin B = P O sin c sin B.

(5)

Similarly, P E = P O sin c and

Equating (4) and (5)

sin b
sin c
=
.
sin B
sin C
Similarly, by dropping a perpendicular from a point in OB onto plane OAC, it may be shown
that
sin c
sin a
=
.
sin A
sin C
sin b sin C = sin c sin B =

Hence,

sin a
sin b
sin c
=
=
.
sin A
sin B
sin C

Note:
The sine formula gives the relation between two angles and the two sides opposite to them.
Given any three of these parts, the fourth may be found.
One big disadvantage of the sine rule is due to the fact that sin A = sin (180 A), i.e.,
both A and (180 A) are possible candidates to the solution of our equation. Usually
we overcome this ambiguity by using:
i. Physical setting of the problem.
ii. Greater side faces greater angle and hence (A B) and (a b) must be of the same
sign.
Example 3.2 In P AB, P is the pole and A, B are two place in the northern hemisphere.
Given A = 68 , AB = p = 60 30 , P = 80 16 , find the latitude of B.
sin a
sin p
sin A sin p
=
= sin a =
0.8188
sin A
sin P
sin P
=a = 54 58
Hence, the latitude of B is 35 02 N.
Note: since
P > A = p > a,
then 54 58 is the only choice, but not 125 02 .
Example 3.3 Consider a practical example, a triangle P AB in which b = 26 21 , B = 52 22 ,
A = 104 44 .
To find a, we have
sin a
sin b
sin b sin A
=
= sin a =
sin A
sin B
sin B
=a = 32 49 or a = 147 10
Since (A B) is positive, and so (a b) must also be positive. However, both values for a satisfy
this requirement; thus both are solutions of the data as given, and from the practical point of
view we are not much further ahead.
Example 3.4 Two places A and B on the earth have the follow latitudes and longitudes:
A (40 N, 18 E) and B (0 N, 58 E). Find the angle of departure from A to B of the great circle
route.

N
prime
meridian
A

equator
figure 9

By the given latitudes and longitudes, AN = 50 , BN = 90 and AN B = 58 18 = 40 .

Using the cosine formula,
cos AB = cos AN cos BN + sin AN sin BN cos AN B
= cos 50 cos 90 + sin 50 sin 90 cos 40 0.5868
= AB =54 04 .
Then by sine formula,
sin AN B
sin AN B sin BN
sin 40 sin 90
sin N AB
=
= sin N AB =
=
0.7939
sin BN
sin AB
sin AB
sin 54 4
=N AB = 52 33 or 127 27 .
From the physical setting, we know that N AB = 127 27 .

3.3
3.3.1

The polar triangle and supplemental theorem

The polar triangle
C

C
a
b
c

B
B

A
figure 10a
By the pole of a great circle we mean the point that is 90 distant from every point on the great
circle.
Let ABC be a spherical triangle in which sides a, b, c are parts of the great circle suggested by
their respective curvatures.
9

Let A be the pole of the great circle which includes a.

Let B be the pole of the great circle which includes b.
Let C be the pole of the great circle which includes c.
Then A B C is called the polar triangle of ABC, and ABC is called the primitive triangle.
Note that since every great circle has two poles, a series of such triangles might be formed by
joining the poles in different ways. By convention, the poles chosen must lie on the same side
of the arc as the opposite angle. For instance, A lies in the same direction from arc a as does
A, and so do B and B, and C and C, in relation to their respective arcs.
This is the only triangle which is referred to as the polar triangle.
If A B C is the polar triangle of ABC, then it can be shown that ABC is the polar triangle of
A B C .
Let A lie upon the same side of BC (arc a) as A.
Then if A is the pole of arc a, we can show that A is the pole of arc a .
Proof.
C
a

C
a
b

b
c

B
B

A
c

figure 10b
Join AC , AB . Since B is the pole of AC, then AB is a quadrant. Since C is the pole of AB,
then AC is a quadrant.
Hence, since both AC and AB are quadrants, it follows that A is the pole of arc a . Similarly,
B is the pole of b and C is the pole of c .
3.3.2

The supplemental theorem

This is a very important theorem relating to polar triangles. It states that:

The angles in the polar triangle are supplements of the corresponding sides in the primitive
triangle, and the sides in the polar triangle are supplements of the corresponding angles in the
primitive triangle.
Note: corresponding in the sense that we call b the side in the primitive corresponding to B
in the polar, and so on.
Hence, the supplemental theorem states that:
B = 180 b; a = 180 A ; or in radians, c = C, and so on.
10

Proof.
C
C
E

B
D
A
A
figure 11
Let side A C intersect BA and BC in D and E, respectively.
Since B is the pole of A C , i.e., the pole of DE, both BD and BE are quadrants and so arc
DE = B.
Since A is the pole of BC, then A E is a quadrant.
Since C is the pole of AB, then C D is a quadrant.
So,
C D + A E = 180
=A C + DE = 180
=A C + B = 180 .
Hence, B and side A C (i.e. b ) are supplements.
Similarly, it may be shown that A and a , C and c are supplements.
Example 3.5 In a triangle P ZX, given x = 55 14 , P = 54 01 , Z = 121 25 , solve for X.
As it stands, two angles and included side. So, in the polar triangle,
X = 180 x = 124 46 , p = 180 P = 125 59 , z = 180 Z = 58 35 .
cos x = cos p cos z + sin p sin z cos X = cos x 0.700047
=x = 134 26
=X = 180 x = 45 34

3.4

Supplemental formulas

By applying to the polar triangle A B C any formula connecting sides and angles, a supplemental
formula may be obtained for triangle ABC involving the sides and angles opposite to the angles
and sides which appear in the original formula. For example, consider
cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A.
11

If we apply it to the supplemental triangle, we have

cos a = cos b cos c + sin b sin c cos A .
Since a = 180 A, etc., this gives
cos (180 A) = cos (180 B) cos (180 C) + sin (180 B) sin (180 C) cos (180 a)
= cos A = ( cos B) ( cos C) + sin B sin C ( cos a)
= cos A = cos B cos C + sin B sin C cos a.
Example 3.6 Using the supplemental formula to solve for Example 3.5 again,
cos X = cos P cos Z + sin P sin Z cos x
= cos 54 01 cos 121 25 + sin 54 01 sin 121 25 cos 55 14
= x = 45 34 .
Important:
Giving any three quantities of a spherical triangle (which has six quantities, the three sides and
three angles,) we can solve the triangle.
Summary of formulas used
Condition for defining the spherical triangle
SSS, SAS
AAS
ASA, AAA

Suitable formula
Cosine formula
Sine formula
Supplemental formulas for polar triangle

Exercises
1. Solve the following spherical triangles:
(a) P AB, given a = 57 00 , B = 94 01 , P = 71 51.5 , find b and p.
Ans. b = 83 00 , p = 71 00
(b) P ZX, given P = 63 47.5 , Z = 83 56.5 , X = 93 34 , find p and z.
Ans. p = 64 00 , z = 85 00
(c) P ZY , given Z = 70 27 , P = 114 54 , Y = 109 42 , find p and z.
Ans. p = 127 00 , z = 56 05
(d) P ZX, given p = 87 10 , z = 62 37 , x = 100 10 , find P and Z.
Ans. P = 81 24 , Z = 61 32
(e) P ZX, given P = 88 24.5 , z = 98 10 , x = 100 09 , find p and Z.
Ans. p = 87 01 , Z = 97 46

12

(f) P AB, given A = 33 14 , a = 80 05 , b = 70 12 , find B.

Ans. B = 31 34
(g) P ZX, given P = 51 30 , Z = 113 30 , P Z = 60 20 , find P X and ZX.
Ans. P X = 92 07 , ZX = 58 31
(h) ABC, given a = 49 08 , C = 71 20 , b = 58 23 , find A and B.
Ans. A = 59 01 , B = 74 52
(i) P ZX, given P = 85 30 , P Z = 49 34 , P X = 99 58 , find Z.
Ans. Z = 100 30
(j) ABC, given A = 88 36 , B = 121 36 , C = 69 35 , find a and b.
Ans. a = 101 27 , b = 123 23

Right-angled and Quadrantal Triangle and Napiers

Rules

Definition 4.1 If a spherical triangle has one of its angles equal to 90 , it is called a rightangled triangle and if it has one of its sides equal to 90 that is to say, a quadrant, it is said
to be a quadrantal triangle.
In such circumstances, the solution of the triangle becomes a much simpler matter.
Consider the spherical triangle ABC, in which C = 90 , and let us select formula which include
C.
A
c
b

a
B
figure 12

For instance, by the cosine formula,

cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos C = cos a cos b
since cos 90 = 0.

4.1

Napiers rules

Napier established that formulas applicable to right-angled spherical triangle can be obtained
from an arrangement that can be easily memorized.
13

b
a

Cc

Bc
ac

B
c

figure 13
As shown in figure 13, five angles are set around a circle with the two sides containing the right
angle and the complements of the other three elements. The complement of an element is the
difference between 90 and the element, i.e., ac = 90 a. If we select any one of these five
circular parts, as they are called the following relations hold:
sine of middle part = product of tangents of adjacent parts
= product of cosines of opposite parts
Note that the sine, cosine and tangent of the complement of the angle or the side are
sin c = sin (90 ) = cos ;
cos c = cos (90 ) = sin ;
sin (90 )
cos
tan c =
=
= cot .

cos (90 )
sin
Example 4.1 Consider the right-angled triangle in figure 13.
For the adjacent parts, angle B, side a and side c,
sin B c = tan ac tan c
= sin (90 B) = tan (90 a) tan c
= cos B = cot a tan c.
For the opposite parts, angle B, angle C and side b,
sin B c = cos C c cos b
= cos B = sin C cos b.
Example 4.2 If C = 90 , a = 116 and b = 32 , find A.
C

b
a = 116

b = 32

Ac
cc

Bc

c
figure 12
14

Since A, b and a are the adjacent parts, then

sin b = tan Ac tan a
= sin b = cot A tan a
tan a
tan 116
= tan A =
=
sin b
sin 32

=A = 104 30 .
Example 4.3 A ship leaves a place (lat. 35 40 N, long. 141 E) and follows a great circle track.
If the initial course is 60 30 , find the latitude of the vertex, i.e., the point with the shortest
distance from the pole.
The path that gives the shortest distance between the pole and the course of the ship travelling
is the great circle passing through the pole and perpendicular to the travelling course of the ship.
P
v

vc

Pc

Ac

a
p

figure 13
So, V = 90 , A = 60 30 and v = 90 35 40 = 54 20 . By Napiers rule,
sin a = cos Ac cos v c = sin A sin v = sin 60 30 sin 54 20
=a = 45 00 or 135 00 .
Since A is less than 90 , so a must also be less than 90 , based on the physical setting. Hence,
the latitude of V is
90 45 00 = 45 00 N.
Example 4.4 In P XY , p = 53 20 , X = 92 05 , Y = 90 . Find the other parts.

Pc

yc

p
Xc
figure 14
15

For y,
sin X c = tan y c tan p
tan 53 20
tan P
=
= y = 91 33 .
= tan y =
cos X
cos 92 05
For P ,
sin P c = cos p cos X c
= cos P = cos p sin X = cos 53 20 sin 92 05 = P = 53 22 .
For x,
sin x = tan p tan P c
= sin x = tan p cot P = tan 53 20 cot 53 22 = x = 87 11 or 92 49 .
Since X > Y , then x > y, i.e., x = 92 49 .

4.2

Quadrantal triangle

Napiers Rules apply to quadrantal triangle with one important modification, which must be
noted:
Theorem 4.1 In a quadrantal triangle, if both adjancents or both opposites are both
sides or both angles, put in a minus sign (i.e. put a minus sign in front of the product.)
In ABC, let c (AB) be the quadrant (90 .) Then A and B are next to the quadrant, the
other three parts are written down as complements. For example, given b and C, find A. (b is
the middle part, the other two are adjacent, and are both angles, so put in a minus sign.)
A
c = 90

bc

b
C

Cc

ac

B
figure 15
By Napiers Rules,
sin bc = tan A tan C c
= cos b = tan A cot C.

This means for instance, that if b and C are both less than 90 , then A is greater than 90 since
tan A is negative.
Or again, for B
sin B = cos bc cos C c = sin b sin C (no minus sign this time.)
16

Example 4.5 In the quadrantal triangle ABC in which a = 90 , b = 78 14 and c = 49 08 ,

find A and B.
A

Ac
c = 49 08

b = 78 14

bc

cc
B

a = 90

C
B

C
figure 16

Since A is the middle part with b and c are the adjacent parts, then
sin Ac = tan bc tan cc
= cos A = cot b cot c = cot 78 14 cot 49 08 = A = 100 23 .
Since b is the middle part with B and c are the opposite parts, then
sin bc = cos B cos cc
cos b
cos 78 14
= cos B =
=
= B = 74 21 .

sin c
sin 49 08
Exercises
1. Solve the spherical triangle ABC in which A = 90 , a = 75 49 and b = 46 12 .
Ans. B = 48 07 , c = 69 16 , C = 74 43
2. Solve the spherical triangle ABC in which C = 90 , a = 109 16 and B = 38 45 .
Ans. b = 37 09 , c = 105 15 , A = 101 55
3. The initial course for a great circle track from New York (lat. 42 42 N, long.74 01 W) is
30 10 . Find the position on the track which is neartest to the North pole. Find also the
distance along the track.
Ans. 68 20 N, 5 32 W, 2588.082 nautical miles
4. Find the shortest distance between two position in latitude 49 50 N if their difference of
longitude is 50 .
Ans. 1898.27 nautical miles
5. Solve the spherical triangle ABC in which a = 90 , B = 45 and c = 72 .
Ans. C = 65 20 , b = 47 44 , A = 107 10
6. Solve the spherical triangle XY Z in which X = 73 01 , XZ = 47 47 and Y Z = 90 .
Ans. Y = 45 06 , Z = 114 27 , XY = 107 52

17

7. A vessel in lat. 40 S, long. 30 E, sails along a great circle track. If the initial course is
128 , and the distance steamed is 5400 nautical miles, find the position reached.
Ans. 28 08 S, 146 40 E
8. Find the shortest distance between city A in lat. 48 24 N and long. 124 44 W, and city
B in lat. 34 50 N and long. 139 50 W.
Ans. 1054 nautical miles

18