Grain Drying Fundamentals: Chapter Contents

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
Iowa State University
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Chapter 7
Grain Drying Fundamentals
C.R. Hurburgh, Jr., C.J. Bern and T.J. Brumm
2004
Chapter Contents
7.1 Basic Principles............................................................................................................................7-1
7.1.1 Aeration rates.........................................................................................................................7-1
7.1.2 Deep-bed natural-air bin drying...........................................................................................7-1
Aeration rate...............................................................................................................................7-2
Air conditions.............................................................................................................................7-2
Adiabatic absorption...................................................................................................................7-4
Equilibrium point.......................................................................................................................7-5
Drying rate..................................................................................................................................7-6
Drying time.................................................................................................................................7-6
Drying zone................................................................................................................................7-8
Shelled Corn Storage Time.........................................................................................................7-8
Minimum airflow rate................................................................................................................7-9
7.1.3 Deep-bed grain dryer with heat added................................................................................7-10
Addition of heat........................................................................................................................7-10
Aeration rate.............................................................................................................................7-10
Air Conditions, Adiabatic Absorption and Equilibrium Point.................................................7-10
Drying rate................................................................................................................................7-10
Drying time...............................................................................................................................7-10
Drying zone..............................................................................................................................7-12
Shelled Corn Storage Time.......................................................................................................7-12
Summary of Comparison to Natural-Air Drying.....................................................................7-12
7.2 Overdrying..................................................................................................................................7-13
7.2.1 Stirring.................................................................................................................................7-13
7.2.2 Stirring Example.................................................................................................................7-13
Air Conditions, Adiabatic Absorption and Equilibrium Point.................................................7-13
Drying rate................................................................................................................................7-15
Drying time...............................................................................................................................7-15
Shelled Corn Storage Time.......................................................................................................7-15
Summary of Comparison to Drying Without Stirring..............................................................7-16
7.2.3 Batch removal.....................................................................................................................7-17
7.2.3 Thin-layer drying.................................................................................................................7-17
The Table of Contents is continued on the next page

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Chapter 7
C.R. Hurburgh, Jr., C.J. Bern and T.J. Brumm
2004
Chapter Contents
(continued)
7.3 Other Considerations..................................................................................................................7-17
7.3.1 Energy Efficiency...............................................................................................................7-17
7.3.2 Limitations of the Psychrometric Analysis........................................................................7-19
7.4 Drying at High Temperatures....................................................................................................7-19
7.4.1 High temperature drying fundamentals..............................................................................7-19
7.4.2 Rating of High Temperature Dryers...................................................................................7-21
7.5 Homework Problems and Questions..........................................................................................7-24
7.6 References..................................................................................................................................7-25

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Chapter 7
The design, selection, and operation of grain drying equipment should be based on an understanding
of grain drying principles and the factors influencing dryer performance. This chapter describes the
drying process, based on an understanding of the Psychrometrics of Drying from Chapter 4.
7.1 Basic Principles

7.1.1 Aeration rates
The process of drying grain is something like evaporating water from a damp towel by placing the
towel in an airstream. You pass air through the grain so that the air can pick up and carry away
water. The process of moving air through grain is often called aeration.
Aeration rates are often specified in cfm/bu. Table 7-1 gives some common aeration rates, which
depend on the type of application. The term fluidization in Table 7-1 refers to grain becoming
suspended or fluidizing as the force of the air from underneath approaches grain weight.
Table 7-1. Typical grain aeration rates.
Application
Grain aeration rate

cfm/bu*
Quality maintenance
1/50 to 1
Natural-air bin drying
1 to 3
Heated-air bin drying
2 to 12
Batch or continuous-flow column dryers
50 to 150
Fluidization
~ 400
* The definition of the bushel may vary. Most common is 1 bu = 1.245 ft3.
What happens in a grain mass when air is passed through? We will answer this question by
examining the simplest possible drying system: natural air moving through a stationary grain mass
several feet deep.
7.1.2 Deep-bed natural-air bin drying.
Figure 7-1 illustrates a natural-air bin drying situation that we will use to describe the process of
drying grain.
7-1

Cylindrical
Grain Bin
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500,000 lbs of
20% moisture corn
Fan
Perforated steel
drying floor
10,000 cfm
atmospheric
air
Figure 7-1. Deep-bed, natural-air grain drying example.
Aeration rate
The bin in Figure 7-1 contains 50,000 lb of corn at 20% moisture. Assuming 1 bu = 56 lb @ 15.5%
(equivalent to 47.32 lbs of dry matter per bushel), the amount of grain is calculated as:
500,000 lbs wet corn
0.8 lb dry matter

bu
8,453 bu
lb wet corn
47.32 lb dry matter
With the fan delivering 10,000 cfm, the aeration rate is:
10,000 cfm
cfm
1.2
8,453 bu
bu
This is within the range for natural-air bin drying in Table 7-1.
Air conditions
Atmospheric air is being moved up through the grain in the bin of Figure 7-1. Assuming the
scenario takes place in October in central Iowa, we can estimate average conditions for the month
from the October maps of Figure 7-2.
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Figure 7-2. Wet bulb temperatures and wet-bulb depressions. (ASAE, 2003).
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Solid lines on the maps are lines of constant average temperature for the month. Locating central
Iowa on the left map and interpolating between solid lines, read an average wet bulb temperature of
47oF. From the right map, read an average wet bulb depression of 6 oF. The wet-bulb depression is
defined as:
TWBD TDB TWB
(Eq. 7-1)
Thus, the initial dry-bulb temperature of the air being moved through the grain is:
TDB TWB TWBD 47 6 53F
This condition, TWB = 47F and Tdb = 53F, defines an air state and thus a point on the psychrometric
chart. This state point (labeled as A) is shown in Figure 7-3.
47
wB
wA
B
A
Point A
TDB = 53F
TWB= 47F
RH = 65%
w = 0.0054 lb H2O/lb da
V = 13.05 ft3/lb da
Point B
TDB = 49.5F
TWB= 47F
RH = 88%
w = 0.0064 lb H2O/lb da
49.5 53
Figure 7-3. Natural-air drying example plotted on psychrometric chart.
We can determine the equilibrium moisture content of corn in the bin. Referring to Figure 2-3, the
air at state A is in equilibrium with corn at about 14.0% moisture. Since 14.0% is less than 20%,
this air is capable of removing moisture from the corn and, in fact, can eventually dry it to 14.0%
moisture.
Adiabatic absorption
As air moves up through the grain, it gives up heat which evaporates water from kernel surfaces.
This water vapor is picked up and carried out (absorbed) by the airstream. This process is adiabatic
(no heat loss or gain) since it uses no other heat but the heat which is carried in by the airstream.
This process of adiabatic absorption can be traced as a line of constant wet bulb temperature on the
psychrometric chart (from state A to state B) as sketched in Figure 7-3.
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Starting from point A, air simultaneously decreases in temperature and increases in absolute
humidity and follows a line of constant wet-bulb temperature. This also approximates a line of
constant enthalpy. Sensible heat from the air evaporates water, which raises the absolute humidity of
the air as it is picked up in vapor form. But how do we determine where point B is located?
Equilibrium point
As air moves up through the grain, it continues to cool and pick up moisture until it reaches a state of
equilibrium with the corn where the net transfer of water between corn and air is zero. This state can
be defined on the psychrometric chart as the intersection of the process line and the equilibrium
moisture line for 20% moisture corn.
Here is how to draw the equilibrium moisture line. Refer to Figure 2-3, Equilibrium Moisture
Content for Corn. Move horizontally along the 20% moisture line as it crosses the lines of constant
temperature, and record relative humidity at these intersections:
Moisture, %
20
20
20
Temp, F
40
55
70
Relative humidity, %
86
90
92
The three temperature-relative humidity combinations can be plotted on the psychrometric chart.
The smooth curve through these three points defines the conditions where 20% moisture corn is in
equilibrium with the air. This is illustrated in Figure 7-4.
92% RH
Saturation Line
20% Moisture
Equilibrium Line
90% RH
86% RH
40
55
70
Figure 7-4. Corn equilibrium moisture line for the natural-air bin drying example.
The process line can then be extended along the wet-bulb line to its end point, where it intersects the
20% equilibrium line. Thus, point B is located in Figure 7-3.
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As shown on the psychrometric chart sketch of Figure 7-4, this intersection corresponds to 49.5 oF
and 88% RH. Thus, in this process, air enters the 20% moisture corn at 53 oF, 65% RH and then
gains moisture and decreases in temperature as it moves up through the corn and eventually comes to
49.5oF, 88% RH. This is the state at which the air leaves the corn.
Equilibrium lines for other corn moistures can also be drawn on the psychrometric chart. Lines for
moistures higher than 20% will be closer to the saturation line, and for corn moistures above 25%,
the equilibrium line can be assumed to be the saturation line. This means that air moving through
corn at 25% moisture or above will come to saturation if the grain is deep enough. Figure 7-5 shows
equilibrium lines for different corn moisture contents. Note that the equilibrium moisture lines are
not the same as the relative humidity lines on the psychrometric chart.
Drying rate
Since we know the airflow rate and the beginning and ending state points for our adiabatic
absorption process, we can calculate the drying rate (rate of water removal) from the corn. In
Chapter 4, we already discussed drying rate.
DR (Qm ) ( w) (
Q 60
) ( w)
V
(Eq. 4-3)
where: DR = drying rate, lbs H2O / hr

Qm = mass airflow rate, lbs dry air/hr
w = change in absolute humidity, lbs H2O / lb dry air
Q = airflow rate, ft3/min or cfm
V = specific volume of air entering the fan, ft3/lb dry air
60 = conversion factor, minutes to hours
In this example:
(10,000)(60)
DR
(0.0064 0.0054) 45.98 lbs H2O / hr
13.05
Drying time
The ambient air in this example is capable of drying this corn to 14.0% moisture. Knowing the corn
is initially at 20% moisture, and knowing the rate of moisture removal, we can compute a drying
time from the weight loss equation developed in Chapter 2:
1
W W f Wo (
)( M f M o )(Wo )
100 M f
7-6
(Eq. 2-6)

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Figure 7-5. Equilibrium lines for various corn moistures.

7-7

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In this example:
1
W W f Wo (
)(14.0 20)(500,000) -34,884 lbs
100 14.0
The time required to remove this amount of water is:

t
W
DR
where:
(Eq. 7-2)
t = drying time, hr
W = weight of water to be removed, lbs H2O, from Equation 2-6
DR = drying rate from Eq. 4-3, lbs H2O/hr
Assuming the drying rate stays constant until all water that can be removed is removed, drying will
take:
34,884 lbs H 2 O
W
757.9 hrs 31.6 days

DR 45.98 lbs H 2 O / hr
Drying zone
t
The process of adiabatic absorption takes place in a drying zone which may be one to ten feet thick,
depending on airflow rate, grain moisture, and air conditions. Grain above this zone is in
equilibrium with air at the end of the process line (point B) and grain below this zone is in
equilibrium with air at the start of the process line (point A). If air is moving up through grain
supported on a full perforated floor as in this example, the drying zone forms at the bottom of the bin
and then slowly moves up through the grain until its top (the drying front) and later its bottom move
out through the top surface of the grain.
Figure 7-6 shows the drying zone about halfway up through the grain mass. Above the drying zone,
grain remains at 20% moisture and is cooled to 49.5F by the air. Below the drying zone, grain at
14.0% moisture is in equilibrium with, and at the temperature of, the incoming air.
Shelled Corn Storage Time
Corn near the top surface of the grain mass has the highest risk of spoilage because it remains at
20% moisture until the drying front passes through, and is the last to dry. In our example, this grain
remains at 20% moisture until nearly the end of drying, that is, 30.5 days.
Will this corn spoil? It is being stored at 49.5F. Referring to Table 5-1 to determine the Shelled
Corn Storage Time (SCST):
SCST20%, 49.5 = 67 days
Since 67 days > 30.5 days, the grain is not at risk of spoilage. In fact, we could dry it much more
slowly and still not risk spoilage. But we have used up approximately half of the SCST.
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Grain
Depth
20%
88%
49.5 F
Wet Corn
20% moisture
Drying Zone
14.0% moisture
Q
14.0%
moisture
65%
RH
53 F
Grain Temperature
Figure 7-6. Property changes within the drying zone for natural-air drying example.
Minimum airflow rate
If we set t in Equation 7-2 to the SCST, we can find the minimum airflow rate necessary to dry the
corn and yet avoid spoilage.
t = 67 days = 1,608 hours
DR
34,884 lbs H 2 O
W
21.05 lbs H2O/hr

t
1,608 hrs
Now, we can solve for the airflow rate, Q, in the drying rate equation (4-3) for Q:
Q
(V )( DR)
(13.05)(21.05)
4,578 cfm or approximately 4,600 cfm

(60)( w)
(60)(0.0010)
This says that we could replace the 10,000 cfm fan with a 4,600 cfm fan and still complete drying
within the SCST. It is likely that the smaller fan would require less total energy to complete drying.
Note, however, that it is unlikely that the ambient air conditions would remain, on average, the same
for the entire 67 days. Thus, the drying rate would not be constant. The SCST would also change,
because the temperature of the grain would decrease as well. A more detailed analysis is necessary
to account for these changes.
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7.1.3 Deep-bed grain dryer with heat added.

Addition of heat
In the natural-air drying example in section 7.1.2, a fan moved 10,000 cfm of ambient air through a
bin of 20%-moisture corn. What happens if heat is added to this ambient air before it enters the
corn? Here, will examine the same system with 11F of heat added to the airstream. This is
illustrated in Figure 7-7.
The 11F occurs because of 2F due to fan and motor inefficiency (a common assumption for bintype dryers) and 9F from a heater. The heater could be an electrical resistance type or a gas burner.
The source of heat does not affect results.
Aeration rate
In this example, the aeration rate does not change. The corn is still being aerated with 10,000 cfm of
air, a rate of 1.2 cfm/bu.
Air Conditions, Adiabatic Absorption and Equilibrium Point
The psychrometric chart process for this example is shown in Figure 7-8. The starting point (State
A) is the same as the natural-air example. The horizontal process line (heating) shows the addition
of heat, causing air to change from 53F and 65% RH (State A) to 64F and 44% RH (State C). Just
as in the natural-air example, the process line follows the wet-bulb line (adiabatic absorption) until it
intersects with the 20% equilibrium moisture content line (State D). The 20% equilibrium moisture
content line is the same as in the natural-air example (from Figure 7-5).
Drying rate
The drying rate will increase with the addition of heat. In fact, this is the main reason heat is added.
DR (Qm ) (w) (
Q 60
(10,000)(60)
) (w)
(0.0079 0.0054) 114.94 lb
V
13.05
H2O/hr
This drying rate is 2.5 times the rate of the natural-air example.
Drying time
While there is an increase in drying rate (114.94 vs 45.98 lb H 2O/hr) , there is also an increase in the
amount of water that must be removed, as evidenced by the decrease in the Equilibrium Moisture
Content (14.0% vs. 10.5%). The amount of water to be removed is calculated as:
W (
1
)( M
100 M f
M o )(Wo )
1
(10.5 20)(500,000) 53,073 lbs H2O
(100 10.5)
The drying time is:
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W
53,073
461.7 hr = 19.2 days

DR 114 .94
Cylindrical
Grain Bin
500,000 lbs of
20% moisture corn
Fan and motor

adds 2F
Perforated steel
drying floor
10,000 cfm
LP burner adds 9F
Figure 7-7. Deep-bed dryer with added heat example.
52
47
A
53
Point A
TDB = 53F
TWB= 47F
RH = 65%
w = 0.0054 lb H2O/lb da
V = 13.05 ft3/lb da
Point C
TDB = 64F
TWB= 52F
wD
RH = 44%
w = 0.0054 lb H2O/lb da
Point
D
wA=wc
TDB = 54F
TWB= 52F
RH = 88%
w = 0.0079 lb H2O/lb da
64
Figure 7-8. Heated-air drying example plotted on psychrometric chart.
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Drying zone
The drying zone for this heated-air, deep-bed drying example is similar to that natural-air example.
Grain above this zone is in equilibrium with air at the end of the process line (point D) at 54F, 88%
RH and 20% moisture content. Grain below this zone is in equilibrium with air at the start of the
process line (point C), 64F, 44% RH and 10.5% moisture content.
Corn near the top surface of the grain mass has the highest risk of spoilage because it remains at
20% moisture until the drying front passes through, and is the last to dry, just like in the natural-air
drying example. In the heated-air example, this grain remains at 20% moisture until nearly the end
of drying, that is, 19.2 days.
Will this corn spoil? It is being stored at 54F. Referring to Table 5-1 to determine the Shelled Corn
Storage Time (SCST):
SCST20%, 54 = 46 days
This compares with 67 days in the natural-air example where the grain temperature was lower,
49.5F.
Since 46 days > 19.2 days, the grain is not at risk of spoilage. In fact, we could dry it much more
slowly and still not risk spoilage. But we have used up approximately 40% of the SCST, compared
to approximately 50% in the natural-air example.
Summary of Comparison to Natural-Air Drying
The effect of heating the air is summarized in Table 7-2. Some key points:
Air entering grain changes to 64F, 44% RH. Because of this, grain will be dried to 10.5%,
and an additional 18,189 lbs of water must be removed.
The absolute humidity of the air exiting the corn increases to 0.0079 lb water/lb dry air. This
results in an increased drying rate, and a reduced drying time.
Air leaving the corn (and all the wet corn) is at 54F. The SCST decreases from 67 to 46
days.
Table 7-2 Effects of 11F temperature rise on natural-air drying example.

Drying Air
Final
moisture
(%)
Wet grain
storage
temperature
(F)
Shelled Corn
Storage Time
during drying
(days)
Drying rate
(lb H2O/hr)
Drying time
(days)
Natural air
14.0
49.5
67
46.0
31.6
11F rise
10.5
54
46
114.9
19.2
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7.2 Overdrying
One of the problems of fixed-bed dryers such as those illustrated in the previous natural-air and
heated-air examples is that all the grain must be dried to equilibrium in order to dry the wet grain at
the top of the bin. This often results in overdrying--drying the grain to a lower moisture then is
necessary. Overdrying is undesirable for several reasons:
Energy for heat and fan operation is wasted.

Mass, and thus saleable weight, is decreased.
Grain is left in a state more susceptible to breakage.
Stirring and batch removal can be used to avoid overdrying.

7.2.1 Stirring
Some dryers are equipped with stirrers which mix grain during drying. Stirring is done with small
open augers suspended vertically in the grain or with recirculation of grain drawn off the bottom. If
grain is kept stirred, the drying zone consists of the entire grain depth. Moisture content will be
nearly uniform throughout the grain mass, and drying can be stopped when the desired moisture is
reached. Equilibrium moisture content need not be reached anywhere.
Stirring also lengthens the Shelled Corn Storage Time because all wet grain begins to dry
immediately. Airflow is increased by the loosening effect of stirring. Since all grain begins to dry
when drying is started, no wet layer remains above the drying zone to allow air to pick up its
maximum moisture load. As a result, energy efficiency decreases since the water-holding capacity
of the air is not being fully utilized.
Airflow effects of stirring are discussed in Chapter 8. Drying methods using stirring are discussed in
Chapter 9.
7.2.2 Stirring Example
Consider the previous heated-air example, where average air in October in central Iowa is heated
11F. This time, however, the grain will be stirred and the drying will be stopped at 15% moisture
content. This example is illustrated in Figure 7-9. Note that the aeration rate was chosen to be the
same as the previous examples.
Air Conditions, Adiabatic Absorption and Equilibrium Point
The psychrometric chart process for this example is shown in Figure 7-10. The starting point (State
A) is the same as the natural-air example. The horizontal process line (heating) shows the addition
of heat, causing air to change from 53F and 65% RH (State A) to 64F and 44% RH (State C).
Then, just as in the natural-air example, the process line follows the wet-bulb line (adiabatic
absorption) until it intersects with the 20% equilibrium moisture content line (State D). The 20%
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equilibrium moisture content line is the same as in the natural-air example and is found on the
psychrometric chart in Figure 7-5.
500,000 lbs of
20% moisture corn
Mechanical
Stirrers
Cylindrical
Grain Bin
Fan and motor
adds 2F
Perforated steel
drying floor
10,000 cfm
LP burner adds 9F
Figure 7-9. Example of deep-bed heated-air drying with stirring.
With stirring, however, the entire grain mass begins to dry. As this happens, the end-point of the
process line will gradually move from the 20% equilibrium moisture content (State D) to the 15%
equilibrium moisture content line (State D).
52
47
D'
53
64
7-14
Point A
TDB = 53F
TWB= 47F
RH = 65%
w = 0.0054 lb H2O/lb da
V = 13.05 ft3/lb da
Point C
TDB = 64F
TWB= 52F
RH = 44%
w = 0.0054 lb H2O/lb da
Point D
TDB = 54F
wD
TWB= 52F
wD'
RH = 88%
wA=wc w = 0.0079 lb H O/lb da
2
Point D'
TDB = 58F
TWB= 52F
RH = 67%
w = 0.0069 lb H2O/lb da

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Figure 7-10. Heated-air drying with stirring example plotted on psychrometric chart.
Drying rate
The drying rate is not constant, unlike the previous examples. At the beginning of drying, the drying
rate is determined by the difference in absolute humidity (w) from State C to D. At the end of
drying, the drying rate is determined by w from State C to D. The average drying rate can be
estimated by using the average of the two absolute humidity differences.
DRaverage (Qm ) (w) average (
where
waverage
(w w } (w w )
D
Q 60
) (w) average
V
(Eq. 7-3)
In this example:
waverage
(0.0079 0.0054} (0.0069 0.0054) 0.0020 lbs H O / lb dry air

2
DRaverage (
Q 60
(10,000)(60)
) ( w) average
0.0020 91.95 lbs H2O / hr
V
13.05
Drying time
The amount of water to be removed is calculated as:
W (
1
)( M
100 M f
M o )(Wo )
1
(15 20)(500,000) 29,412 lbs H2O
(100 15)
The drying time is:

t
W
29,412
319.9 hr = 13.3 days

DR
91.95

Determining the Shelled Corn Storage Time (SCST) is more difficult than the situations where the
grain is not stirred. At the beginning of the drying time, the SCST is determined by the starting
moisture content (20%) and the dry-bulb temperature of the air within the grain mass (54F):
SCST20%, 54 = 46 days (from Table 5-1)
However, because of stirring, the entire grain mass begins to dry and the temperature begins to
slowly rise to 58F. Just at the end of drying, the SCST is:
SCST15%, 58 = 329 days (from Table 5-1)
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Which SCST should be used? Obviously the answer is somewhere between the two extremes. A
fairly precise determination could be made by predicting the grain conditions on a continuous basis,
and calculating the continuous consumption of the SCST. This method, however, would require
numerous calculations and most likely, a computer.
A simpler, but unfortunately less accurate method is to determine the SCST for the average
conditions of 17.5% moisture content (average of 15% and 20%) and 56F (average of 54 and 58):
SCST17.5%, 56 = 102 days (interpolating from Table 5-1).
Use the SCST of the average conditions during drying for deep-bed drying with stirring. This result
is conservative in that it is smaller than the average of the two SCSTs of the starting and ending
conditions (187.5 days = [46+329]). Thus in this example, the amount of SCST used during the
drying process is:
% SCST used
t
SCST17.5%, 56
100%
13.3
100% 12.9%
102
Thus, at the end of drying, the grain mass at 15% moisture and 58F, the remaining SCST is:
SCST15%, 58 1 ( SCST used ) 329 (1 0.129) 286 days remaining
Summary of Comparison to Drying Without Stirring

Table 7-3 summarizes the differences between the examples of natural-air drying, heated-air drying,
and heated-air drying with stirring.
Table 7-3. Effects of Stirring and 11F temperature rise on natural-air drying example.
Drying Air
Final
moisture
(%)
Wet grain
storage
temperature
(F)
Shelled Corn
Storage Time
during drying
(days)
Drying rate
(lb H2O/hr)
Drying time
(days)
Natural air
14.0
49.5
67
46.0
31.6
11F rise
10.5
54
46
114.9
19.2
11F rise
with
stirring
15.0
(chosen)
54 to 58
102
92.0
(average)
13.3
Notice that stirring overcomes the problem of overdrying the final moisture content does not
depend on the ambient air conditions. Adding heat to the drying air increases the drying rate and
decreases the drying time.
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7.2.3 Batch removal

Another technique for controlling overdrying is to stop drying when average moisture content of the
entire mass of grain is at the desired value. At this point, bottom grain will be very dry, the top grain
still wet as this grain is removed, mixing takes place. The batch is assumed to all be at its average
moisture content after removal. Mixing during handling, followed by aeration, is relied on to
equalize moisture content.
Grain dried in this way is at a higher storage risk because wet kernels remain above the average
moisture content of the batch. It must be dried 1 to 2 percentage points drier than grain totally dried
to equilibrium to be safe for storage under similar conditions.
7.2.3 Thin-layer drying
If grain depth is reduced to less than the thickness of the drying zone, then moisture variation across
the grain bed during drying will be reduced. The average moisture of this thin layer more closely
approximates the moisture of kernels at the top and bottom of the layer. Thin-layer drying uses more
energy because air leaves without its maximum water load.
Thin-layer drying is common in high-temperature dryers (180oF and up). Grain is usually 1 ft deep.
Energy consumption is much higher than either batch-removal or stir-dry systems. Hightemperature drying is discussed later in this chapter.
7.3 Other Considerations

7.3.1 Energy Efficiency
Energy is required to evaporate water. If no energy is added from another source, the temperature of
the air will fall--to the wet bulb temperature if the air becomes saturated. In this way, energy is
shifted from temperature (sensible heat) to evaporated water (latent heat). The latent heat of
vaporization defines the amount of energy required to evaporate free water (ASAE, 1999):
LHV 1075.9 (0.57)(TDB 32)
(Eq. 7-4)
where: LVH = latent heat of vaporization of free water at saturation, BTU/lb H2O
TDB = dry-bulb temperature, F
The rate (Btu/h) at which energy is being shifted to latent heat is the drying power output:
(Q )(60)
w LHV
V
E d DR LHV Qm w LHV
where: Ed = output drying power, Btu/hr

Q = airflow rate, cfm
7-17
(Eq. 7-5)

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LHV = latent heat of vaporization, BTU/lb H2O, from Equation 7-4

w = difference in absolute humidity of ambient air and air exiting the grain,
lb H2O/lb dry air
V = specific volume of air at Q, ft3 / lb dry air, typically at fan input
Ed is therefore the product of the drying rate and the latent heat of vaporization. Drying energy is the
useful output in a drying system.
If heat is added to an airstream, the maximum possible w will increase, but the benefit which can
be ascribed to the heat is only the increase in w over and above natural air capabilities.
Whenever energy is used to perform a task, the efficiency of its use should be considered.
Efficiency is defined as the ratio of useful output to input required. In the case of grain drying,
evaporated water is the useful output. Evaporated water can be converted to energy equivalent units
with equation 7-5. The inputs to grain drying are power to the fan and heat, if used. In its most
general form, the equation for grain drying efficiency is:
t
Ed
100%
E f Eh
(Eq. 7-6)
where: t= energy efficiency, %

Ed = drying power, BTU/hr, from Equation 7-5
Ef = input power to fan, Btu/hr
Eh = input power to heater, Btu/hr
Equations 4-4 (input power to heater) and 7-5 (output drying power) can be substituted into Equation
7-6:
(Q)(60)
(w) LHV
V
t
100%
(Q)(60)
Ef
h
V
where: h = difference in enthalpy between heated and ambient air, BTU/lb
(Eq. 7-7)
Input power to the fan (Ef) can be estimated or measured. One way to estimate it is to use a graph of
fan energy efficiency for the particular fan being used. This concept is explained in Chapter 8. Fan
efficiency (cfm/watt) is plotted against fan static pressure. If Qw is known, then Ef can be calculated:
Ef
Q
3.413
Qw
Eq. 7-8
where: Ef = input power to the fan, BTU/hr

Q = airflow rate, cfm
Qw = fan efficiency, cfm/watt
3.413 = conversion factor, BTU/watt-hr
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Substituting into equation 7-7 we obtain:
(Qw )(w)( LHV )

100%
(0.0569)(V ) (Qw )(h)
Eq. 7-9
Notice that Q, the volumetric airflow, cancels out. It is not irrelevant, however, for a given fan, Qw
will change for different values of Q.
It is possible for t to be greater than 1.0. An efficiency greater than 1.0 means that more energy is
available in the drying capabilities of the natural air than is required to move the air through the
grain. Efficiencies greater than 1.0 will most likely occur when no supplemental heat is being added.
It is impossible for supplemental heat to be fully utilized for drying. Exhaust air, even if saturated,
will be at a higher temperature than it would have been if no heat were added. Heat warmed the air
mass as well as removed moisture.
It is also possible to calculate the utilization efficiency of supplemental heat only. Only the part of
the w over and above that obtainable with the natural air can be attributed to supplemental heat.
7.3.2 Limitations of the Psychrometric Analysis
Using psychrometrics to analyze grain drying requires these assumptions:
1. Air leaves the grain in equilibrium with the wettest grain.
2. Incoming air conditions are constant over the drying period.
3. No heat is lost to, or gained from, the surroundings.
4. Latent heat of vaporization of moisture in grain equals that of free water.
These assumptions are reasonably good up to a point. Above 120 oF, the equilibrium assumption is
not necessarily good; other theories must be used to predict drying at high temperatures. If grain
depth is less than drying zone thickness, air will not leave the grain in equilibrium. Therefore,
increasing temperatures and smaller depths will both reduce drying efficiency, and will limit the
accuracy of simple psychrometric analyses.
7.4 Drying at High Temperatures

7.4.1 High temperature drying fundamentals
Psychrometrics dictate that heated air will remove moisture much faster than the natural air alone.
When speed and high capacity are desired it is necessary to use higher air temperatures.
There are problems associated with higher temperatures--problems not found in natural air and low
heat dryers:
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1. Germination is reduced at grain temperatures above 100oF. Steffen (1962) found germination
percentage of corn fell to 0% as grain temperature was raised from 100 oF to 180oF. Air
temperature for seed grain drying is usually limited to less than 100 oF. The effect of
germination on feed value is not known.
2. Heat causes cracking of grains and brittleness of seed coats (Foster 1973). This means that
high-temperature-dried grains are more susceptible to future breakup and mold invasion of
exposed starch. The rapid cooling that occurs in many dryers is responsible for much of the
cracking. Cracking increases as grain temperatures approach 220o-230o. Grain temperature
not air temperature is the important variable.
3. Drastic overdrying can occur. In many cases, controlling over-drying will reduce fuel
consumption per bushel.
4. Air is not saturated as it leaves the grain. This means not all the drying potential of the air
has been used.
5. Wide variations in moisture content among dried kernels are possible, making storage more
difficult.
Higher drying temperatures can solve problems of capacity and Shelled Corn Storage Time.
Air over 120oF will not reach equilibrium. Also, the Latent Heat of Vaporization (LHV) of water
cannot be assumed to be that of free water, as water in grain is more difficult to evaporate since it
must migrate from the interior of the kernel. Therefore, Assumptions 1 and 4 of the psychrometric
analysis of grain drying does not hold. Complex equations are available to represent high
temperature drying, but computer simulations are needed to solve them. There is, however, a way to
estimate performance of high temperature dryers without complicated calculations.
Estimates of the Latent Heat of Vaporization (LHV) of water in grain at higher air temperatures are
given in Table 7-4. The values in the table can be used to estimate the energy required to dry grain at
higher temperature, as demonstrated in the following section.
Table 7-4. Latent Heat of Vaporization of water in grain at higher air temperatures.
Air temperature
Latent Heat of Vaporization
(F)
(BTU/lb H2O)
120 to 160
1,500
More than 160
2,200
Source: CAST (1975).
7-20

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7.4.2 Rating of High Temperature Dryers

Heated air dryers are often rated in bushels per hour (bph) at a fixed number of points of moisture
removed.
Example
Situation:
A high-temperature dryer with a propane burner is rated at 300 bph with 5

points removal when drying corn from 20.5% to 15.5% moisture content.
Questions
1. How large a burner is required? In other words, what is Eh?

2. How much fuel does it require per bushel?
3. Given airflow, what temperature is needed, or given temperature, what
airflow is needed?
Note: You must always consider the stated points removal. This dryer will not, for
example, give 300 bph drying from 24% to 15%. Also the bushel is not always defined; the
discussion here will assume 1 bu = 56 lb @ 15.5% for corn (see Chapter 2 for a discussion of
bushel definitions). The use of the standardized bushel is the most meaningful way to
compare dryers.
To answer question 1, we need the drying rate. At 20.5%, a bushel (base on 56 lbs @ 15.5%
moisture) weighs 59.5 lb. This bushel will weigh 56 lbs when dried to 15.5%. Therefore:
Water removed = W = (59.5 56.0) = 3.5 lb / bu
DR 300
lb H 2 O
bu
3.5
1,050 lb H2O / hr
hr
bu
If 2,200 BTU are required per pound of water:

E h 1,500
lb H 2 O
BTU
2,200
2,310,000 BTU/hr or 2.31 million BTU/hr
hr
lb H 2 O
Question 2 can be answered if we recognize that 1 gallon of propane provides 92,000 Btu
when it is burned.
BTU
gal
25.1
hr
92,000 BTU
gal
hr
Fuel required 25.11
0.084 gal/bu
hr
300 bu
Fuel required 2.31 10 6
gal / hr
Assuming propane costs $0.90/gallon:

Fuel Cost 0.084
gal $0.90
$0.075 / bu or 7.5 per bushel

bu
gal
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To answer question 3, assume Q is given and that you are looking for a temperature.
Suppose the airflow rate is 15,000 cfm at average October conditions in central Iowa.
Refer to Figure 7-3 for the psychrometric properties of that ambient air (State A)
Q = 15,000 cfm
V= 13.05 ft3/lb dry air
Eh= 2.31 million BTU/hr
From Equation 4-4:
Q 60
) (h)
V
(15,000)(60)
2.31 10 6
(h)
13.05
E h (Qm ) (h) (
h = 33.5 BTU / lb dry air

The enthalpy of ambient air is 19.7 BTU/lb dry air. Therefore, the enthalpy of
the heated air should be 19.7 + 33.5 = 53.2 BTU/lb dry air.
On a high temperature psychometric chart (Figure 7-11) follow the line of 53.2 Btu/lb
dry air down until it crosses the horizontal line of w = 0.0054 lb water/lb dry air.
Remember that the absolute humidity did not change in the heating.
Read Tdb = 190oF.
Thus, 2.31 million Btu/hr added to 15,000 cfm will increase its enthalpy by 33.5
BTU/lb dry air and raise its temperature from 53F to 190F from 53oF.
Had Tdb been known (and thus h), we could have solved for Q.
7-22

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Figure 7-11. High-temperature psychrometric chart.

7-23

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7.5 Homework Problems and Questions

7-1.
Compute the equilibrium moisture content of corn dried in ambient air for the months of
September, October, November, and December for Sioux City, IA (northwest corner) and
Keokuk, IA (southeast corner).
7-2.
A bin contains 150,000 lb of 26% moisture corn. Outside air is at 81 oF dry bulb and 58oF wet
bulb. This air is heated 4oF before reaching the corn. The fan delivers 8,800 cfm.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
7-3.
Sketch a psychrometric chart and on it show process lines, temperatures, relative

humidity and absolute humidity.
To what moisture will this corn eventually come if the fan is left on?
How much total weight of water will be removed in this drying process?
How long can drying take in order to avoid spoiled corn (days)?
How many days will it take to dry the corn?
A bin contains 600,000 lb of corn at 18% moisture. A fan delivers 20,000 cfm to this bin.
Ambient air is at 52oF dry bulb and 30% relative humidity. Power input to the fan causes an
8oF temperature rise to the air.
a.
b.
c.
d.
To what moisture content will the system dry the corn?

How long can be allowed to dry corn without spoilage?
Assuming air conditions stay the same, what is the minimum airflow rate (cfm) which
would complete drying within the Shelled Corn Storage Time (SCST)?
How many days of the SCST were lost due to the 8oF temperature?
7-4.
Corn at 26% moisture is placed in a 24-ft bin to a depth of 12 ft. This corn weighs 260,576
lbs. It is to be dried using air at a constant condition of 55 oF, 75% RH. Compute the
minimum airflow (cfm) required to complete drying without grain spoilage.
7-5.
A natural air drying system is designed for an aeration rate of 1.0 cfm/bu. Assuming average
weather conditions for October in Central Iowa, what is the maximum moisture content of
corn to be placed in this bin without spoilage during drying? Assume air is heated 2 oF by fan
heat. Assume 1 bu = 56 lb @ 15.5% moisture.
7-6.
A bin contains 500,000 lb of corn at 13% moisture. This corn is to be aerated with 99%
relative humidity air at 55F at a rate of 12,000 cfm. Assuming the equilibrium moisture
curves for corn are valid for this adsorption process, to what moisture content will this corn
eventually come? How many hours of fan operation will be required? How many hours
should the fan be operated if the manager wants to add enough moisture to bring the mass to
15.5% moisture and then stir the corn to even out the moisture content? Note: In practice, rewetting in this manner should be carried out with caution because of bin stresses which are
likely to result from expanding kernels.
7-24

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7.6 References
ASAE, 1999. ASAE Data ASAE D271.2, ASAE standards. American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
ASAE, 2003. ASAE Data ASAE D309.1, ASAE standards. American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
CAST, 1975. Potential for energy conservation in agricultural production report no. 40. Council for
Agricultural Science and Technology, Ames, IA.
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Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Iowa State University

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7.1 Basic Principles

Grain aeration rate

Natural-air bin drying

Heated-air bin drying

Batch or continuous-flow column dryers

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0.8 lb dry matter

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Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

where: DR = drying rate, lbs H2O / hr

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Figure 7-5. Equilibrium lines for various corn moistures.

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The time required to remove this amount of water is:

757.9 hrs 31.6 days

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21.05 lbs H2O/hr

4,578 cfm or approximately 4,600 cfm

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7.1.3 Deep-bed grain dryer with heat added.

The drying time is:

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

461.7 hr = 19.2 days

Fan and motor

Figure 7-8. Heated-air drying example plotted on psychrometric chart.

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Table 7-2 Effects of 11F temperature rise on natural-air drying example.

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Energy for heat and fan operation is wasted.

Stirring and batch removal can be used to avoid overdrying.

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

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(0.0079 0.0054} (0.0069 0.0054) 0.0020 lbs H O / lb dry air

The drying time is:

319.9 hr = 13.3 days

Shelled Corn Storage Time

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Summary of Comparison to Drying Without Stirring

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7.2.3 Batch removal

7.3 Other Considerations

where: Ed = output drying power, Btu/hr

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LHV = latent heat of vaporization, BTU/lb H2O, from Equation 7-4

where: t= energy efficiency, %

where: h = difference in enthalpy between heated and ambient air, BTU/lb

where: Ef = input power to the fan, BTU/hr

Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering

Substituting into equation 7-7 we obtain:

(Qw )(w)( LHV )

7.4 Drying at High Temperatures

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Latent Heat of Vaporization

More than 160

Source: CAST (1975).

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