CPU

A central processing unit (CPU) is the electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out
the instructions of a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control
and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions. The term has been used in the
computer industry at least since the early 1960s.[1] Traditionally, the term "CPU" refers to
a processor and its control unit (CU), distinguishing these core elements of a computer from external
components such as main memory and I/O circuitry.[2]
The form, design and implementation of CPUs have changed over the course of their history, but
their fundamental operation remains almost unchanged. Principal components of a CPU include
the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that performs arithmetic and logic operations,hardware registers that
supply operands to the ALU and store the results of ALU operations, and a control unit that fetches
instructions from memory and "executes" them by directing the coordinated operations of the ALU,
registers and other components.
Most modern CPUs are microprocessors, meaning they are contained on a single integrated
circuit (IC) chip. An IC that contains a CPU may also contain memory, peripheral interfaces, and
other components of a computer; such integrated devices are variously
calledmicrocontrollers or systems on a chip (SoC). Some computers employ a multi-core processor,
which is a single chip containing two or more CPUs called "cores". Array processors or vector
processors have multiple processors that operate in parallel, with no unit considered central.

I/O INTERFACE
In computing, input/output or I/O (or informally, io or IO) is the communication between
an information processing system (such as a computer) and the outside world, possibly a human or
another information processing system. Inputs are the signals or data received by the system and
outputs are the signals or data sent from it. The term can also be used as part of an action; to
"perform I/O" is to perform an input or output operation. I/O devices are used by a human (or other
system) to communicate with a computer. For instance, a keyboard or mouse is an input device for a
computer, while monitors and printers are output devices. Devices for communication between
computers, such asmodems and network cards, typically perform both input and output operations.
Note that the designation of a device as either input or output depends on perspective. Mice and
keyboards take physical movements that the human user outputs and convert them into input
signals that a computer can understand; the output from these devices is the computer's input.

Similarly, printers and monitors take signals that a computer outputs as input, and they convert these
signals into a representation that human users can understand. From the human user's perspective,
the process of reading or seeing these representations is receiving input; this type of interaction
between computers and humans is studied in the field of humancomputer interaction.
In computer architecture, the combination of the CPU and main memory, to which the CPU can read
or write directly using individual instructions, is considered the brain of a computer. Any transfer of
information to or from the CPU/memory combo, for example by reading data from a disk drive, is
considered I/O. The CPU and its supporting circuitry may provide memory-mapped I/O that is used
in low-level computer programming, such as in the implementation of device drivers, or may provide
access to I/O channels. An I/O algorithm is one designed to exploit locality and perform efficiently
when exchanging data with a secondary storage device, such as a disk drive.

MONITORING DISPLAY
A system monitor is a hardware or software component used to monitor resources and
performance in a computer system.

LAMP DRIVER

A sensor is a device that detects events or changes in quantities and provides a corresponding
output, generally as an electrical or optical signal; for example, a thermocoupleconverts temperature
to an output voltage. But a mercury-in-glass thermometer is also a sensor; it converts the measured
temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube.
Sensors are used in everyday objects such as touch-sensitive elevator buttons (tactile sensor) and
lamps which dim or brighten by touching the base, besides innumerable applications of which most
people are never aware. With advances in micromachinery and easy-touse microcontroller platforms, the uses of sensors have expanded beyond the more traditional fields
of temperature, pressure or flow measurement,[1] for example into MARG sensors. Moreover, analog
sensors such as potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are still widely used. Applications
include manufacturing and machinery, airplanes and aerospace, cars, medicine and robotics.
A sensor's sensitivity indicates how much the sensor's output changes when the input quantity being
measured changes. For instance, if the mercury in a thermometer moves 1 cm when the
temperature changes by 1 C, the sensitivity is 1 cm/C (it is basically the slope Dy/Dx assuming a
linear characteristic). Some sensors can also have an impact on what they measure; for instance, a
room temperature thermometer inserted into a hot cup of liquid cools the liquid while the liquid heats
the thermometer. Sensors need to be designed to have a small effect on what is measured; making
the sensor smaller often improves this and may introduce other advantages. [citation needed] Technological
progress allows more and more sensors to be manufactured on a microscopic scale as
microsensors using MEMS technology. In most cases, a microsensor reaches a significantly higher
speed and sensitivity compared with macroscopic approaches.
A good sensor obeys the following rules[citation needed]:

Is sensitive to the measured property only

Is insensitive to any other property likely to be encountered in its application

Does not influence the measured property

The sensitivity is then defined as the ratio between output signal and measured property. For
example, if a sensor measures temperature and has a voltage output, the sensitivity is a constant
with the unit [V/K]; this sensor is linear because the ratio is constant at all points of measurement.
For an analog sensor signal to be processed, or used in digital equipment, it needs to be converted
to a digital signal, using an analog-to-digital converter.

Sensor deviations[edit]
If the sensor is not ideal, several types of deviations can be observed:

The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified. This is called a sensitivity error.

Since the range of the output signal is always limited, the output signal will eventually reach
a minimum or maximum when the measured property exceeds the limits. The full scale range
defines the maximum and minimum values of the measured property.

If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has an offset
or bias. This is defined as the output of the sensor at zero input.

If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called non linearity.
Usually this is defined by the amount the output differs from ideal behavior over the full range of
the sensor, often noted as a percentage of the full range.

If the deviation is caused by a rapid change of the measured property over time, there is
a dynamic error. Often, this behavior is described with a bode plot showing sensitivity error and
phase shift as function of the frequency of a periodic input signal.

If the output signal slowly changes independent of the measured property, this is defined
as drift (telecommunication). Long term drift usually indicates a slow degradation of sensor
properties over a long period of time.

Noise is a random deviation of the signal that varies in time.

Hysteresis is an error caused by when the measured property reverses direction, but there is
some finite lag in time for the sensor to respond, creating a different offset error in one direction
than in the other.

If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured
property. The approximation error is also called digitization error.

If the signal is monitored digitally, limitation of the sampling frequency also can cause a
dynamic error, or if the variable or added noise changes periodically at a frequency near a
multiple of the sampling rate may induce aliasing errors.

The sensor may to some extent be sensitive to properties other than the property being
measured. For example, most sensors are influenced by the temperature of their environment.

All these deviations can be classified as systematic errors or random errors. Systematic errors can
sometimes be compensated for by means of some kind of calibration strategy. Noise is a random
error that can be reduced by signal processing, such as filtering, usually at the expense of the
dynamic behavior of the sensor.

Both transducers and transmitters convert energy from one form to another and give an output
signal. The signal is directed to any device that interprets it and uses it to display record or alter the
pressure in a system.
Transducers and transmitters are virtually the same thing, the main difference being the kind of
electrical signal each sends. A transducer sends a signal in volts (V) or millivolt (mV) and a
transmitter sends a signal in milliamps (mA). If the electrical connections in your process are short,
such as in laboratory or inside an electronics enclosure, a pressure transducer is more desirable as
they tend to be smaller and there are very few active electronic components that can be upset by
electromagnetic interference.

In automatic control, a regulator is a device which has the function of maintaining a designated
characteristic. It performs the activity of managing or maintaining a range of values in a machine.
The measurable property of a device is managed closely by specified conditions or an advance set
value; or it can be a variable according to a predetermined arrangement scheme. It can be used
generally to connote any set of various controls or devices for regulating or controlling items or
objects.
Examples are a voltage regulator (which can be a transformer whose voltage ratio of transformation
can be adjusted, or an electronic circuit that produces a defined voltage), apressure regulator, such
as a diving regulator, which maintains its output at a fixed pressure lower than its input, and a fuel
regulator (which controls the supply of fuel).
Regulators can be designed to control anything from gases or fluids, to light or electricity. Speed can
be regulated by electronic, mechanical, or electro-mechanical means. Such instances include;

Electronic regulators as used in modern railway sets where the voltage is raised or lowered
to control the speed of the engine

Mechanical systems such as valves as used in fluid control systems. Purely mechanical preautomotive systems included such designs as the Watt centrifugal governorwhereas modern
systems may have electronic fluid speed sensing components directing solenoids to set the
valve to the desired rate.

Complex electro-mechanical speed control systems used to maintain speeds in modern cars
(cruise control) - often including hydraulic components,

An aircraft engine's constant speed unit changes the propellor pitch to maintain engine
speed.

Control valves are valves used to control conditions such as flow, pressure, temperature,
and liquid level by fully or partially opening or closing in response to signals received from controllers
that compare a "setpoint" to a "process variable" whose value is provided by sensors that monitor
changes in such conditions.[1] Control Valve is also termed as the Final Control Element.
The opening or closing of control valves is usually done automatically
by electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic actuators. Positioners are used to control the opening or closing
of the actuator based on electric, or pneumatic signals. These control signals, traditionally based on
3-15psi (0.2-1.0bar), more common now are 4-20mA signals for industry, 0-10V for HVAC systems,
and the introduction of "Smart" systems, HART, Fieldbus Foundation, and Profibus being the more
common protocols. Some of the control valve available are Reverse Double-Ported Globe-Style
Valve Body, Three-Way Valve with Balanced Valve Plug, Flanged Angle-Style Control Valve Body,
Valve Body with Cage-Style Trim, Balanced Valve Plug, and Soft Seat.[2]
A control valve consists of three main parts in which each part exist in several types and designs:

Valve's actuator

Valve's positioner

Valve's body

Servo motors have been around for a long time and are used in many applications. They are small in size but pack a big
punch and are very energy efficient. Because of these features, they can be used to operate remote-controlled or radiocontrolled toy cars, robots and airplanes. Servo motors are also used in industrial applications, robotics, in-line
manufacturing, pharmaceutics and food services. But how do the little guys work?
The servo circuitry is built right inside the motor unit and has a positionable shaft, which usually is fitted
with a gear (as shown below). The motor is controlled with an electric signal which determines the amount
of movement of the shaft.

What's Inside the Servo?

To fully understand how the servo works, you need to
take a look under the hood. Inside there is a pretty
simple set-up: a small DC motor, potentiometer and a
control circuit. The motor is attached by gears to the
control wheel. As the motor rotates, the potentiometer's
resistance changes, so the control circuit can precisely
regulate how much movement there is and in which
direction.

When the shaft of the motor is at the desired

position, power supplied to the motor is stopped. If not,
the motor is turned in the appropriate direction. The
desired position is sent via electrical pulses through
the signal wire. The motor's speed is proportional to the
difference between its actual position and desired
position. So if the motor is near the desired position, it
will turn slowly, otherwise it will turn fast. This is
called proportional control. This means the motor will
only run as hard as necessary to accomplish the task at
hand, a very efficient little guy.

Hitec HS-322HD Standard

Heavy Duty Servo

How is the Servo Controlled?

Servos are controlled by sending an electrical pulse of
variable width, or pulse width modulation (PWM),
through the control wire. There is a minimum pulse, a
maximum pulse and a repetition rate. A servo motor can
usually only turn 90 in either direction for a total of
180 movement. The motor's neutral position is defined
as the position where the servo has the same amount
of potential rotation in the both the clockwise or
counter-clockwise direction. The PWM sent to
the motordetermines position of the shaft, and based on
the duration of the pulse sent via the control wire
the rotor will turn to the desired position. The servo
motor expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds
(ms) and the length of the pulse will determine how far
the motor turns. For example, a 1.5ms pulse will make
the motor turn to the 90 position. Shorter than 1.5ms
moves it to 0 and any longer than 1.5ms will turn the
servo to 180, as diagramed below.

The
guts of a servo motor (L) and an assembled
servo (R)

Variable Pulse Width Control Servo

Position

When these servos are commanded to move, they will move to the position and hold that position. If an

external force pushes against the servo while the servo is holding a position, the servo will resist from
moving out of that position. The maximum amount of force the servo can exert is called the torque
rating of the servo. Servos will not hold their position forever though; the position pulse must be repeated
to instruct the servo to stay in position.

Types of Servo Motors

There are two types of servo motors: AC and DC. AC servos can handle higher current surges and tend
to be used in industrial machinery. DC servos are not designed for high current surges and are usually
better suited for smaller applications. Generally speaking, DC motors are less expensive than their AC
counterparts. These are also servo motors that have been built specifically for continuous rotation,
making it an easy way to get your robot moving. They feature two ball bearings on the output shaft for
reduced friction and easy access to the rest-point adjustment potentiometer.

Servo Motor Applications

Servos are used in radio-controlled airplanes to position control surfaces like elevators, rudders, walking a
robot or operatinggrippers. Servo motors are small, have built-in control circuitry and have good power for
their size.
In food services and pharmaceuticals, the tools are designed to be used in harsher environments where
the potential for corrosion is high due to being washed at high pressures and temperatures repeatedly to
maintain strict hygiene standards. Servos are also used in in-line manufacturing, where high repetition
and precise work is necessary.
Of course, you don't have to know how a servo works to use one, but as with most electronics, the more
you understand, the more doors open for expanded projects and projects' capabilities. Whether you're
a hobbyist building robots, an engineer designing industrial systems or just constantly curious, where will
servo motors take you?
Positioners are most commonly used to move a control valve to a specified position so that a process meets specific
parameters (flow, pressure, temperature).

Electro-Pneumatic Positioners
Electromechanical positioners are conventional pneumatic positioners that have an additional
integrated electro-pneumatic transducer.

Pneumatic Positioners
Pneumatic positioners receive a control signal and translates that into the appropriate pneumatic
output signal to the control valve actuator.

A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to mechanically

operate a switch, but other operating principles are also used, such as solid-state relays. Relays are
used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical
isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits as amplifiers: they repeated the
signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitted it on another circuit. Relays were used
extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an electric motor or other
loads is called a contactor. Solid-state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics
and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults;
in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called
"protective relays".