pgs 56 - 69

The Microscopic World of Cells

Body full of cells

there are single-celled or multi-celled organisms.
3 examples of cells:
muscle cells, nerve cells, red blood cells.
main tool for observing cells = microscope

Microscopes as a Window on the World of Cells

light Microscope (LM)
used by Renaissance scientists
Visible light projected through the specimen, the thing you want to observe. Glass lenses
enlarge the image + project it into a human eye or camera.
2 major factors in microscopy =
magnification + resolving power.
Magnification = increase in the objects apparent size compared w/ its actual size. clarity of
magnified image depends on resolving power.

Resolving power = ability of an optical instrument to show 2 objects separate.

-Human eye can resolve points as close as 1/10 mm (10-4 m)
- light microscopes resolving power = 0.2 micrometer.
limits the useful magnification to about 1,000X. (greater magnification
than this = blurry image.)
Robert Hooke (British Scientist) first described Cells (1665)
used a microscope to look at a thin slice of cork from oak tree bark.
next 2 centuries scientists Oh hey! there are cells in every organism we are looking at through
a microscope!
this accumulation of evidence lead to cell theory
cell theory = includes the induction that all living things are composed of cells.
later expanded now includes all cells arise from previously existing cells
electron microscopes in 1950s
led to huge growth in our knowledge about cell structure.
electron microscope (EM) = uses a beam of electrons to resolve obkects.
has much better resolving power than light microscope.
can distinguish objects as small as 0.2 nm (nanometer)
thousand times improvement over the light microscope.
highest power electron micrographs magnifications of about 100,000 X
that kind of power reveals the details of diverse parts (ORGANELLES)
2 kinds of electron microscopes:
scanning electron microscope (SEM)
used to study the detailed architecture of the surface of the cell.
transmission electron microscope(TEM)
examine the internal structure of the cell.

in order to observe cells for both types of electron microscopes must kill + preserve cells
before observation
so...light microscopes good for seeing live cells.

The Two Major categories of Cells

2 basic categories of cells:
Prokaryotic Cells

Bacteria and archaea consist of these cells.

so called Prokaryotes
smaller
Simpler in structure
DNA concentrated in nucleoid region,
which is not separated from rest of cell by
a membrane.
Lacks most organelles
Older (Appeared on Earth earlier than
Eukaryotic Cells)

Eukaryotic Cells

other organisms made up of these cells

so called eukaryotes
Larger
more complex structure
Nucleus enclosed by membrane
Contains many types of organelles

Prokaryotic cell structure:

ribosomes build proteins by linking amino acids into sequences programmed by DNA

Plasma membrane surrounds the cell + regulates the traffic of molecules into and out
of the cell.

Cell wall rigid. Surrounds the plasma membrane. Protects the cell + helps maintain its
shape.

Capsule Only in some Prokaryotes. Another layer ( a sticky outer coat) that surrounds
the cell wall. Provide protection + help prokaryote stick to surfaces.

Pili only in some Prokaryotes. Short Projections. May also help prokaryote attach to
surfaces.

Prokaryotic flagella of some cells. propel them through their liquid environment.
A Panoramic View of Eukaryotic Cells
ideal animal cell + plant cell.
Similarities

plasma membrane very thin outer

membrane. Regulates the traffic of
molecules btwn the cells + their
surroundings.
nucleus the membrane-enclosed
organelle that contains DNA.
cytoplasm the entire region of the cell
btwn the nucleus and plasma membrane.
Consists of various organelles suspended
in a fluid ( Cytosol)
(most organelles)

Differences

chloroplasts organelles that convert

light energy to the chemical energy of
food. In Plant cells. Not in Animal cells.
Protective cell wall outside of the Plasma
membrane Plant cells. Not Animal
Cells.
(other differences)

Structure of each organelle has become adapted during evolution to perform specific
functions.
Most organelles enclosed by membranes. Some arent.

Membrane Structure

key to how membrane works = its structure

The Plasma Membrane: A Fluid Mosaic of Lipids and Proteins

plasma membranes + other membranes in the cell made up of mostly lipids and proteins.
those lipids belong to special category Phospholipids
related to dietary fats...But have only 2 fatty acid tails instead of 3.
Phospholipid has a phosphate group (combination of phosphorous and
Oxygen) in place of the 3rd fatty acid.
phosphate group = electrically charged (so. its hydrophilic)
rest of phospholipid (consisting of the 2 fatty acid tails) = hydrophobic.
Phosphate group head mixes with water, while the fatty acid tails avoid it
** Makes phospholipids good membrane material.

Phospholipid bilayer the 2-layered membrane phospholipids create.

This bilayer hydrophobic parts of molecules stay away from water, while the
hydrophilic portions remain surrounded by water.
In this bilayer are proteins that do various functions.
Fluid mosaic = phospholipids and most of the proteins are free to drift about in the plane of the
membrane.

Cell Surfaces
Most cells secrete materials for coats of one kind or another that are external to the plasma
membrane.
These extracellular coats help protect + support cells + facilitiate certain interactions btwn
cellular neighbors in tissues.
Plant cells cell wall protect cell, maintain shape, and keep the cells from absorbing so much
water that they would burst.
thicker + stronger than plasma membrane
made from cellulose fibrils in a matrix of other molecules.
extracellular matrix = a sticky coat secreted by most animal cells.
helps hold cells together in tissues + protect + support
cells often bound to this matrix by surface proteins in the plasma membrane.
Surfaces of most Cells contain cell junctions.
cell junctions = structures that connect them to other cells. Allow adjacent cells to
function in a coordinated way as a part of a tissue.

The Nucleus And Ribosomes: Genetic Control of the Cell

gene = a stretch of DNA that contains the code for the structure of a specific protein.

Structure and Function of the Nucleus

nuclear envelope = double membrane that borders the nucleus.
each membrane of this similar to plasma membranes structure.
Pores through the envelope allow the passage of material btwn nucleus and
cytoplasm.
chromatin = the long fibers formed by long DNA molecules + associated proteins (in the
nucleus)
Each long fiber = 1 chromosome
Different species have different numbers of chromosomes in their cells.
Each individual chromosome = one long strand of chromatin ( a combo of DNA and proteins)
nucleolus = a ball-like mass of fibers and mass that is contained within the nucleus.
produces the component parts of ribosomes.
Ribosomes
assembled from components made in the nucleus.
But...do not start to work until the components move through the pores of the nucleus and into the
cytoplasm.
responsible for protein synthesis.
Some ribosomes are suspended in cytosol. make the proteins that will remain dissolved in the
cytosol.
other ribosomes attached to the outside of a membranous organelle called the endoplasmic
reticulum.
make the proteins destined to be incorporated into membranes or secreted by the cell.
ribosomes of prokaryotes and eukaryotes similar in structure, but different in makeup.
How DNA controls the Cell
How do the DNA executives in the nucleus direct the workers in the cytoplasm?
1.

2.
3.

DNA programs protein production in the cytoplasm by transferring its coded information
to a molecule called messenger RNA (mRNA). The RNA molecule then carries the order
to build this type of protein from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
the mRNA exits through pores in the nuclear envelope + travels to the cytoplasm. (where
it binds to ribosomes)
As a ribosome moves along the mRNA, the genetic message is translated into a protein of
a specific amino acid sequence.

The Endomembrane System: Manufacturing and Distributing Cellular

Products
endomembrane system.
contains the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
and vacuoles.

Many of the membrane molecules belong here

The Endoplasmic Reticulum

endoplasmic reticulum (ER) = one of the main manufacturing facilities in the cell.
Produces an enormous variety of molecules
Membrane labyrinth of tubes and sacs running through the cytoplasm.
Er membrane completely surrounds seperates it's internal stuff from the surrounding

cytosol
2 distinct types of ER
rough ER
Smooth ER
- these two types are physically connected, but differ in structure and function
Rough ER

rough: refers to the appearance of this organelle in electron micrographs. Due

to ribosomes that study the outside of the ER membranes.

these ribosomes produce 2 main types of proteins.

membrane proteins + secretory proteins.

- Some newly manufactured memrane protiens are embeded right in the ER membrane.
Thus, one function of rough ER = production of new membrane.
- Secretory proteins = those the cell will actually export (secrete) to the fluid outside the
cell. Cells that secrete a lot have a lot of rough ER.
-Transport vesicles = membranous spheres that bud from the ER.
-Some of the products made by the rough ER are sent to other locations in the cell via
transport vesicles.
Smooth ER
smooth refers to the fact that this organelle lacks the ribosomes that populate tbe
surface of rough ER
Diversity of enzymes into the smooth ERs membrane enables it to perform many
functions
one function = the synthesis of lipids.
As liver cells are exposed to a drug the amounts of smooth ER and its
detoxifying enzymes increase.
can strengthen the bodys tolerance for the drug. (so higher
doses will be needed in the future to achieve the desired effect.)
growth in smooth ER in response to one drug can also increase
tolerance to other drugs.
The Golgi Apparatus

Golgi apparatus receives, refines, stores, and distributes chemical products of the cell.
Works closely w/ the ER.
Products made by ER reach the Golgi in transport vesicles.
Enzymes of the Golgi modify many of the ER products during their stay in the Golgi.
Golgi chemically tags protein products to mark their final destination in the cell
shipping side the finished products can be dispatched in transport vesicles to other
organelles or to the plasma membrane.
Vesciles that bind w/ the plasma membrane secrete finished chemical products to the
outside of the cell.

Lysosomes
lysosomes = a membrane-enclosed sac of digestive enzymes. These enzymes break down
macromolecules (like proteins, polysacchrides, fats, and nucleic acids). Are not in plant
cells. Only in Animal cells.
provides a compartment where the cell can digest macromolecules safely (w/o
committing suicide by unleashing these digestive enzymes on the cell itself.)
functions:
Digesting Food vacuoles = tiny cytoplasmic sacs where many cells put
nutrients in. Lysosomes fuse with the food vacuoles exposes the food to
enzymes that digest it. small molecules that result from this leave lysosome +
nourish the cell
Help destroy harmful bacteria.: White blood cells ingest bacteria into vacuoles
lysosomal enzymes that are in those vacuoles burst the bacterial cell walls.
Recylcing center for damaged organelles: (w/o harming cell) Lysosome engulf +
digest parts of another organelle makes it molecules available for the
construction of new organelles.
Sculpturing function in embryonic development : ex. lysosmal enzyems destroy
cells of the webbing that joins the fingers of early human embryos. (act as
suicide packs break open + cause the programmed death of whole cells)
Lysosomes are important to cell function + human health
Lysosomal storage diseases:
serious hereditary disorder
person is missing one or more of the digestive enzymes normally found in
lysosomes.
Abnormal lysosome becomes engorged w/ indigestible substances + this
eventually interferes w/ other cellular functions.
Most of these diseases = fatal in early childhood
Pompes disease
Tay-Sachs disease
Vacuoles
Vacuoles = membranous sac that bud from the ER, Golgi, or plasma membrane.

come in different shapes + have variety of functions.

Certain freshwater protists have contractile vacuoles that function as pumps to expel
excess water that flows into the cell from the outside environment.
central vacuole = another type of vacuole. Plants. Can account for more than half the
volume of a mature cell.
versatile compartment. Place where the plant stores organic nutrients.
contribute to the plant growth by absorbing water + causing cells to expand.
Central vacuoles in flower petals may have pigments that attract pollinators.
may also contain poisons protect against predators.

NOTES:
It is possible for a product made in one part of the endomembrane system to eventually
exit the cell OR become part of another organelle w/o ever crossing a membrane.
The membrane originally made by the ER can eventually turn up as part of the plasma
membrane through the fusion of secretory vesicles.

Chloroplasts and Mitochondria: Energy Conversion

2 types of cellular power stations (where cell gets power/ energy from) = Chloroplasts and
Mitochondria
Chloroplasts
Chloroplasts = the organelles that perform photosynthesis.
divided into 3 major compartments by internal membranes
1st compartment: the space btwn the 2 membranes that envelop the chloroplast.
2nd compartment: The Stroma. = The thick fluid within the chloroplast
3rd compartment: interior of a network of membrane-enclosed tubes and disks.
Suspended in the fluid of compartment 2.
the disks occur in interconnected stacks called grana
grana = the chloroplasts solar power packs (the structures that trap light
energy + convert it to chemical energy).
Mitochondria
Mitochondria = the sites of cellular respiration.
cellular respirtation = process that harvests energy from sugars and other food
molecules + converts it to another form of chemical energy called ATP.
Cells use ATP molecules as the direct energy source for most of their work.
found in almost all eukaryotic cells.
Envelope of 2 membranes encloses the mitochondrion (which contains a thick fluid
called the matrix)
the inner membrane : has numerous infoldings called cristae.
many of the enzymes + other molecules that function in cellular
respiration are built into the inner membrane.

 increase surface area of this membrane the cristae maximize ATP

output.
SIMILARITY BTWN MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS:
-Contain DNA that encodes some of their proteins
is evidence that mitochondria + chloroplasts evolved from free-living
prokaryotes in the distant past.

The CytoSkeleton: Cell Shape and Movement

Cytoskeleton = infrastructure of cell. A network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm.
Serves as both skeleton and muscles for the cell, functioning in both support + movement.
Maintaining Cell Shape
One function of the cytoskeleton = give mechanical support to cell + maintain its shape.
esp important for animal cells (which lack rigid cell walls).
cytoskeleton contains several types of fiber made from different types of protein.
One of the most important types of fibers = microtubules
Microtubules = straight, hollow tubes composed of global proteins called
tubulins.
Other kinds of cytoskeletal fibers = thiner and solid. Called filaments.
provides enchorage and reinforcement for many organelles in a cell.
the cells cytoskeleton = more dynamic than an animals bone skeleton.
can quickly dismantle in one part of the cell by removing protein subunits + reform in a new location by reattatching the subunits.
can provide rigidity in a new location, change the shape of the cell, or
even cause the whole cell or some of its parts to move.
contribute to the amoeboid (crawling) motions of amoebas and
white blood cells.
Cilia and Flagella
In some eukaryotic cells, a specialized arrangement of micrtubules functions in the
beating of flagella and cilia.
Cilia and Flagella are motile appendages (extensions form a cell that aid in movement).
Eukaryotic flagella propel the cell by undulating whip-like motion. Often occur
singly.
Cilia generally shorter and more numerous than flagella + promote movement by a
coordinated back-and-forth movement
Propel through water
Some cilia extend from nonmoving cells that are part of a tissue layer.
function to move fluid over the surface of the tissue. cleans out stuff.
Sperm of many animals, including humans, rely of flagella for movement.