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Math 535 - General Topology
Math 535 - General Topology
Math 535 - General Topology
Fall 2012
Homework 1, Lecture 8/27
Definition. Let V be a (real or complex) vector space. A norm on V is a function kk : V R
satisfying:
1. Positivity: kxk 0 for all x V and moreover kxk = 0 holds if and only if x = 0.
2. Homogeneity: kxk = ||kxk for any scalar and x V .
3. Triangle inequality: kx + yk kxk + kyk for all x, y V .
A normed vector space is the data (V, kk) of a vector space V equipped with a norm kk.
Problem 1.
Show that d is a metric on V , called the metric induced by the norm kk.
Problem 2.
for all x Rn .
Definition. Two norms kk1 and kk2 on a vector space V are equivalent if they can be
compared as in Problem 2b.
Definition. Two metrics d1 and d2 on a set X are topologically equivalent if for every
x X and > 0, there is a > 0 satisfying
d1 (x, y) < d2 (x, y) <
d2 (x, y) < d1 (x, y) < .
In other words, the identity function (X, d1 ) (X, d2 ) is a homeomorphism.
1
Problem 3.
metrics.
Problem 4. (Bredon Prop. I.1.3) Show that topologically equivalent metrics induce the
same topology (which explains the terminology). In other words, if d1 and d2 are topologically
equivalent metrics on X, then a subset U X is open with respect to d1 if and only if it is
open with respect to d2 .
Show that the collection of closed subsets of X satisfies the following properties.
C is
a.
b.
a. Show that B is a basis for the topology of X if and only if for every open subset U X
and x U , there is a B B satisfying x B U .
b.
( n
[\
)
S,i | S,i S
i=1
Homeomorphisms
Neighborhoods
Definition 3.1. Let (X, T ) be a topological space. A basis for the topology T of X is a
collection B of subsets of X satisfying
(
)
[
T =
B | B B
BB
B = X.
B for some
Definition 3.3. Let (X, T ) be a topological space. A subbasis for the topology T of X is a
collection S of subsets of X satisfying
( n
)
[\
T :=
S,i | S,i S
i=1
Comparing topologies
topologies T
such that ST
[\
TS =
S,i | S,i S
i=1
Show that d is a metric on V , called the metric induced by the norm kk.
Solution. We check the three properties of a metric.
1. Positivity:
d(x, y) = kx yk 0 for all x, y V,
d(x, y) = 0 kx yk = 0
xy =0
x = y.
2. Symmetry:
d(y, x) = ky xk
= k(1)(x y)k
= |1|kx yk
= kx yk
= d(x, y).
3. Triangle inequality:
d(x, y) = kx yk
= kx z + z yk
kx zk + kz yk
= d(x, z) + d(z, y).
Problem 2.
a.
n
X
i=1
n
X
kxk1 = 0
|xi | = 0
i=1
|xi | = 0 for 1 i n
xi = 0 for 1 i n
x = 0.
2. Homogeneity:
n
X
kxk1 =
|xi |
i=1
n
X
=
|||xi |
i=1
n
X
= ||
|xi |
i=1
= ||kxk1 .
3. Triangle inequality:
kx + yk1 =
n
X
|xi + yi |
i=1
n
X
(|xi | + |yi |)
i=1
n
n
X
X
=
|xi | +
|yi |
i=1
i=1
= kxk1 + kyk1 .
2
Remark. The norms kk1 and kk2 are special cases of the so-called p-norm, for any real number
p 1 or p = . See:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lp_spaces#The_p-norm_in_finite_dimensions.
b.
for all x Rn .
Solution. Claim: kxk2 kxk1 for all x Rn . In other words, we can take the constant
C = 1.
Proof 1. The claim is equivalent to
kxk22 kxk21
n
X
x2i
i=1
n
X
!2
n
X
|xi |
i=1
x2i
i=1
n
X
x2i +
i=1
X
|xi ||xj |
i6=j
|xi ||xj |
i6=j
z}|{
Proof 2. Write ei for the standard basis vector ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1 , 0, . . . , 0). Then we have
kxk2 = k
n
X
xi ei k2
i=1
n
X
kxi ei k2
i=1
n
X
|xi |kei k2
i=1
n
X
|xi |
i=1
= kxk1 .
n
X
|xi |
i=1
n
X
kxk2
i=1
= nkxk2
so that we can take the constant D = n.
Solution 2: Better bound. The 1-norm can be expressed as a dot product
kxk1 =
n
X
|xi |
i=1
n
X
sign(xi )xi
i=1
=sx
where s Rn is the vector with entries 1 given by si = sign(xi ). Lets say sign(0) = +1 by
convention.
The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality yields
kxk1 = s x
ksk2 kxk2
= n kxk2
so that we can take the constant D =
n.
Definition. Two norms kk1 and kk2 on a vector space V are equivalent if they can be
compared as in Problem 2b.
Definition. Two metrics d1 and d2 on a set X are topologically equivalent if for every
x X and > 0, there is a > 0 satisfying
d1 (x, y) < d2 (x, y) <
d2 (x, y) < d1 (x, y) < .
In other words, the identity function (X, d1 ) (X, d2 ) is a homeomorphism.
Problem 3.
metrics.
Solution. Let kk1 and kk2 be two norms on V , and let C, D > 0 be constants satisfying
kxk2 Ckxk1
kxk1 Dkxk2
for all x V . Thus the induced metrics satisfy
d2 (x, y) = kx yk2
Ckx yk1
= Cd1 (x, y)
and likewise d1 (x, y) Dd2 (x, y) for all x, y V .
Take K := max{C, D}. Let x V and > 0 be given. Pick :=
chosen uniformly, independently of x). Then we have
d1 (x, y) < d2 (x, y) Cd1 (x, y)
< C
K
=
and likewise
d2 (x, y) < d1 (x, y) Dd2 (x, y)
< D
K
= .
K
Problem 4. (Bredon Prop. I.1.3) Show that topologically equivalent metrics induce the
same topology (which explains the terminology). In other words, if d1 and d2 are topologically
equivalent metrics on X, then a subset U X is open with respect to d1 if and only if it is
open with respect to d2 .
Solution. By symmetry of the situation, it suffices to show one side of the equivalence. Let
U X be a subset which is open with respect to d1 . We want to show that U is open with
respect to d2 .
Let x U . Because U is open with respect to d1 , there is an -ball (in the d1 metric) around
x entirely contained in U , i.e. B1 (x) U , for some > 0.
Because d2 is topologically equivalent to d1 , there is some > 0 satisfying B2 (x) B1 (x). In
particular we have
B2 (x) B1 (x) U
so that U is open with respect to d2 .
Show that the collection of closed subsets of X satisfies the following properties.
C is
C is closed.
(C C 0 ) = C c C 0c
is a finite intersection of open sets, therefore open. Thus C C 0 is closed.
Remark. In fact, a collection of subsets satisfies these properties if and only if their complements form a topology. Moreover, open subsets and closed subsets determine each other.
Upshot: One might as well define a topology via a collection of closed subsets satisfying the
three properties above. Their complements then form the topology in question.
Problem 6. Let X be a set. Consider the collection of cofinite subsets of X together with
the empty subset:
Tcofin := {U X | X \ U is finite} {}.
a.
Remark. In a few lectures, we will say that such a topology is not Hausdorff, hence not metrizable.
10
Remark. We will come back to the question of mapping into a discrete space when discussing
the notion of connectedness.
b.
Remark. The proof still holds whenever X is a T1 space, a property that will be discussed in a
few lectures.
11
Problem 8.
a.
12
Problem 9.
a. Show that B is a basis for the topology of X if and only if for every open subset U X
and x U , there is a B B satisfying x B U .
Solution. () Assume B is a basis for the topology. Let U X be open
S (WLOG non-empty)
and x U . Because B is a basis, U can be written as a union U = B for some family of
subsets B B. Thus x is in at least one of those subsets Bx , yielding x Bx U .
() To show that B is a basis, there are two things to check.
1) Every union of members of B is open in X. This is automatic, because each B B was
assumed to be open.
2) Let U X be open (WLOG non-empty). We want to show that U is a union of subsets
in the collection B. By assumption
S on B, for each x U , there is some Bx B satisfying
x Bx U . Thus we have U = xU Bx .
b.
1
n
13
Problem 10.
a.
( n
[\
)
S,i | S,i S
i=1
S is in
T
Because intersections indexed by the empty family are allowed, the entire set X = S
is in T .
S T
S Tn
2. Finite intersections of members of T are in T . Let U = ni=1
S,i and V = j=1
S,j
be members of T . Their intersection is
!
!
n
n
[\
[\
U V =
S,i
S,j
i=1
n
[ \
,
j=1
S,i
i=1
n
\
!
S,j
j=1
()
[
[ [ n\
U =
S,i
i=1
()
n\
which is in T .
14
i=1
S,i
S Tn()
i=1
} be a family of
S,i
b. Show that T is the topology TS generated by S. In other words: T contains S and any
other topology T 0 containing S must satisfy T T 0 .
Solution.
1. T contains S: Any S S can be viewed as the union of one set which is the intersection
of one set, namely S itself, which is in S. Therefore we have S T .
2. Let T 0 be
S. For any family of subsets S,i S, the finite interT a topology containing
section ni=1
S,i is in T 0 , since T 0 is a topology. Moreover, the union
n
[\
S,i
i=1
15
Subspaces
Definition 1.1. Let X be a topological space and A X any subset. The subspace topology
on A is the smallest topology TAsub making the inclusion map i : A , X continuous.
In other words, TAsub is generated by subsets V A of the form
V = i1 (U ) = U A
for any open U X.
Proposition 1.2. The subspace topology on A is
TAsub = {V A | V = U A for some open U X}.
In other words, the collection of subsets of the form U A already forms a topology on A.
Products
Before discussing the product of spaces, let us review the notion of product of sets.
2.1
Product of sets
Let X and Y be sets. The Cartesian product of X and Y is the set of pairs
X Y = {(x, y) | x X, y Y }.
It comes equipped with the two projection maps pX : X Y X and pY : X Y Y onto
each factor, defined by
pX (x, y) = x
pY (x, y) = y.
This explicit description of X Y is made more meaningful by the following proposition.
1
Proposition 2.1. The Cartesian product of sets satisfies the following universal property. For
any set Z along with maps fX : Z X and fY : Z Y , there is a unique map f : Z X Y
satisfying pX f = fX and pY f = fY , in other words making the diagram
Z
fX
!f
fY
X Y
pX
pY
"
commute.
Proof. Given fX and fY , define f : Z X Y by
f (z) := (fX (z), fY (z))
which clearly satisfies pX f = fX and pY f = fY .
To prove uniqueness, note that any pair (x, y) X Y can be written as
(x, y) = (pX (x, y), pY (x, y))
i.e. the projections give us each individual component of the pair. Therefore, any function
g : Z X Y can be written as
g(z) = (pX (g(z)), pY (g(z)))
= ((pX g)(z), (pY g)(z))
so that g is determined by its components pX g and pY g.
In slogans: A map into X Y is the same data as a map into X and a map into Y .
Yet another slogan: X Y is the closest set equipped with a map to X and a map to Y .
As usual with universal properties, this characterizes X Y up to unique isomorphism. This
statement is made precise in the following proposition.
Proposition 2.2. Let W be a set equipped with maps X : W X and Y : W Y satisfying
=
XY
the universal property of the product. Then there is a unique isomorphism : W
commuting with the projections, i.e. making the diagrams
W
X
X Y
#
X Y
pX
Y
commute.
pY
Proof. Starting from the data of the maps X : W X and Y : W Y , the universal property
of X Y provides a unique map : W X Y commuting with the projections.
Likewise, starting from the data of the maps pX : X Y X and pY : X Y Y , the universal
property of W provides a unique map : X Y W commuting with the projections.
We claim that is an isomorphism, with inverse .
The composite : W W is a map into W commuting with the projections. But so is the
identity map idW : W W . By uniqueness (guaranteed in the universal property of W ), we
obtain = idW .
Likewise, the composite : X Y X Y is a map into X Y commuting with the
projections. But so is the identity map idXY : X Y X Y . By uniqueness (guaranteed
in the universal property of X Y ), we obtain = idXY .
2.2
Product topology
The next goal is to define the product X Y of topological spaces X and Y such that it satisfies
the analogous universal property in the category of topological spaces.
In other words, we want to find a topology on X Y such that the projection maps pX : X Y
X and pY : X Y Y are continuous, and such that for any topological space Z along with
continuous maps fX : Z X and fY : Z Y , there is a unique continuous map f : Z X Y
satisfying pX f = fX and pY f = fY .
Definition 2.3. Let X and Y be topological spaces. The product topology TXY on X Y
is the smallest topology on X Y making the projections pX : X Y X and pY : X Y Y
continuous.
In other words, TXY is generated by strips of the form
p1
X (U ) = U Y
p1
Y (V ) = X V
for some open U X or some open V Y .
Proposition 2.4. The collection of rectangles
{U V | U X is open and V Y is open}
is a basis for the product topology on X Y .
Proof. Finite intersections of strips
(U Y ) (X V ) = U V
provide all rectangles. However a finite intersection of rectangles
(U1 V1 ) (U2 V2 ) = (U1 U2 ) (V1 V2 )
is again a rectangle, since U1 U2 X is open and V1 V2 Y is open.
Proposition 2.5. The topological space (X Y, TXY ) along with the projections pX : X Y
X and pY : X Y Y satisfies the universal property of a product.
3
pY
!f
(X Y, TXY )
pX
pY
y
%
Infinite products
Q
Q
Proposition 1.2. The topological space ( X , Tprod ) along with the projections p : X
X satisfies the universal property of a product.
Proof. Let Z be a topological space along with continuous maps f : Z X for all A.
In particular, these continuous maps are functions, so that there is a unique function f : Z
Q
X whose components are p f = f . In other words, f is given by
f (z) = (f (z))A .
It remains to check that f is continuous. The product topology is generated by subsets of the
form p1
(U ) for U X open. Its preimage under f is
1
f 1 p1
(U ) = (p f ) (U )
= f1 (U )
which is open in Z since f : Z X is continuous.
Definition 1.3. The box topology Tbox on the Cartesian product
which the collection of boxes
Y
{ U | U X is open}
is a basis.
1
Note that we always have Tprod Tbox , and equality holds for finite products. For an infinite
product, the inequality is usually strict.
Q
Exercise 1.4. Show that the projection maps p : X X are open maps in the box
topology (and therefore also in the product topology).
Disjoint unions
In this section, we describe a construction which is dual to the product. The discussion will be
eerily similar to that of products, because the ideas are the same, and because of copy-paste.
2.1
X
iX
iY
X qY
fX
!f
fY
Z t
commute.
Proof. Given fX and fY , define f : X q Y Z by
(
fX (w) if w X
f (w) :=
fY (w) if w Y
which clearly satisfies f iX = fX and f iY = fY .
To prove uniqueness, note that any element w X q Y is in one of the summands:
(
iX (w) if w X
w=
iY (w) if w Y.
2.2
Coproduct topology
The next goal is to define the coproduct X q Y of topological spaces X and Y such that it
satisfies the analogous universal property in the category of topological spaces.
In other words, we want to find a topology on XqY such that the inclusion maps iX : X XqY
and iY : Y X q Y are continuous, and such that for any topological space Z along with
continuous maps fX : X Z and fY : Y Z, there is a unique continuous map f : X qY Z
whose restrictions are f iX = fX and f iY = fY .
Definition 2.2. Let X and Y be topological spaces. The coproduct topology is the largest
topology on X q Y making the inclusions iX : X X q Y and iY : Y X q Y continuous.
1
This means that a subset U X q Y is open if and only if i1
X (U ) is open in X and iY (U ) is
open in Y .
1
More concretely, noting i1
X (U ) = U X and iY (U ) = U Y , open sets can be described as
U = UX q UY where UX = U X is open in X and UY = U Y is open in Y .
U where
(
X
U =
if =
if =
6
`
Remark 2.5. More generally, the same proof shows that each inclusion map i : X X
is an open map.
`
Proposition
2.6.
The
topological
space
(
X , Tcoprod ) along with the inclusions i : X
`
X is a coproduct of topological spaces.
Proof. We verify the universal property of a coproduct.
Let Z be a topological space along with continuous maps f : X Z for all `
A. In
particular, these continuous maps are functions, so that there is a unique function f : X
Z whose restrictions are f i = f . In other words, f is given by
f (w) = f (i (w)) = f (w)
where is the unique index for which w X .
It remains`to check that f is continuous. Let U Z be open and consider its preimage
f 1 (U ) X . To show that this subset is open, it suffices to check that its restriction to
each summand is open:
i1
f 1 (U ) = (f i )1 (U )
= f1 (U )
is indeed open in X since f : X Z is continuous.
`
Upshot: A map f : X Z is continuous if and only if its restriction f i : X Z to
each summand is continuous.
Problem 2. (Bredon Exercise I.3.8) Let X be a topological space that can be written as a
union X = A B where A and B are closed subsets of X. Let f : X Y be a function,
where Y is any topological space. Assume that the restrictions of f to A and to B are both
continuous. Show that f is continuous.
Solution.
Lemma. Let A X be a closed subset. If C A is closed in A, then C is also closed in X.
e A for some closed subset C
e X.
Proof. Since C is closed in A, it can be written as C = C
Therefore C is an intersection of closed subsets of X, and thus is closed in X.
Let C Y be a closed subset. Its preimage under f is the union
f 1 (C) = f 1 (C) A f 1 (C) B
= (f |A )1 (C) (f |B )1 (C).
Since the restriction f |A : A Y is continuous, (f |A )1 (C) is closed in A, and thus closed in
X by the lemma. Likewise, (f |B )1 (C) is closed in X. Therefore their union
f 1 (C) = (f |A )1 (C) (f |B )1 (C).
is closed in X, so that f in continuous.
Remark. The same proof shows that the statement still holds if A and B are both open in X.
Problem 3. A map between topological spaces f : X Y is called an open map if for every
open subset U X, its image f (U ) Y is open in Y .
a. (Munkres Exercise 2.16.4) Let X and Y be topological spaces. Show that the projection
maps pX : X Y X and pY : X Y Y are open maps.
Solution.
Lemma. A map f : X Y is open if and only if f (B) Y is open in Y for every B B
belonging to some basis B of the topology on X.
Proof. () Each member B B is open in X.
() Let U X be open in X. Then U is a union U =
Its image under f is
!
[
f (U ) = f
B
f (B )
where each f (B ) is open in Y by assumption. Thus f (U ) is a union of open subsets and hence
open.
Take an open box U V X Y , where U X is open and V Y is open. Its projection
onto the first factor is
pX (U V ) = U X
which is open in X. Since open boxes form a basis of the topology on X Y , the lemma
guarantees that pX is an open map, and likewise for pY .
b. Find an example of metric spaces X and Y , and a closed subset C X Y such that the
projection pX (C) X is not closed in X.
In other words, the projection maps are (usually) not closed maps.
Solution. Take X = Y = R and consider the hyperbola in R R
1
C = {(x, ) | x 6= 0} = {(x, y) R R | xy = 1}.
x
Its projection onto the first factor is
pX (C) = R \ {0}
which is not closed in R.
To show that C is closed in RR, note that the function f : RR R defined by f (x, y) = xy
is continuous, and C is the preimage C = f 1 ({1}). Since the singleton {1} is closed in R, C
is closed in R R.
Problem 4. (Munkres Exercise 2.19.7) Consider the set of sequences of real numbers
Y
RN = {(x1 , x2 , . . .) | xn R for all n N}
R
=
nN
S
where each f 1 S
(U ) is open in X by assumption. Thus f 1 ( U ) is also open in X, so
that the union U is in T .
3. Let U and U 0 be members of T . Then we have
f 1 (U U 0 ) = f 1 (U ) f 1 (U 0 )
where f 1 (U ) and f 1 (U 0 ) are open in X by assumption. Thus f 1 (U U 0 ) is also open
in X, so that the finite intersection U U 0 is in T .
b. Show that T is the largest topology on S making f continuous.
Solution. Note that T makes f continuous by construction: for all U T , the preimage
f 1 (U ) X is open in X.
Let T 0 be a topology on S making f continuous. Then for every U T 0 , the preimage f 1 (U )
is open in X, which means U T . This proves T 0 T .
c. Let Y be a topological space. Show that a map g : S Y is continuous if and only if the
composite g f : X Y is continuous.
Solution. () The maps f and g are continuous, hence so is their composite g f .
() Assume g f is continuous; we want to show that g is continuous. Let U Y be open
and take its preimage g 1 (U ) S. To check that this subset is open, consider its preimage
f 1 g 1 (U ) = (g f )1 (U ) X
which is open in X since g f is continuous. By definition of T , g 1 (U ) is indeed open in S.
d. Show that T is the smallest topology on S with the property that a map g : S Y is
continuous whenever g f is continuous.
Solution. Let T 0 be a topology on S with said property. We know that f : X (S, T ) is
continuous, but it can be written as the composite
f
id
X
(S, T 0 )
(S, T ).
By the property of T 0 , the composite id f being continuous guarantees that the identity
id : (S, T 0 ) (S, T ) is continuous, i.e. T T 0 .
1
nN { n }
However, in the subspace topology on X, the singleton {0} is not open. Indeed, any open ball
Br (0) around 0 will contain other points n1 Br (0), for all n such that n1 < r.