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General Fabrication of Steel Structures I
General Fabrication of Steel Structures I
General Fabrication of Steel Structures I
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STEEL CONSTRUCTION:
FABRICATION AND ERECTION
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STEEL CONSTRUCTION: FABRICATION AND ERECTION
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1. INTRODUCTION
The objective of this lecture is to give an insight into the fabrication aspects of steel
structures. Optimum design of steel structures can only be achieved if fabrication and
erection are considered together with the functional, architectural and structural
requirements.
To minimize total costs and optimise the design of the steel structure, it is important that
the various disciplines involved work in a coordinated way as a project team during the
various stages.
Fabrication costs do not depend only on the fabrication itself but are also influenced by the
contract scope, contracting procedures and organisation. Costs are very sensitive to the
labour involved in the fabrication. Good design concentrates on minimising material
handling and preparation; in this regard it should be noted that fabrication procedures and
sequencing may be influenced by the protection required to the steelwork. Careful
attention should also be given to other aspects such as material characteristics, distortions
and tolerances.
Engineer's Drawings.
Conditions of Contract.
Technical Specification.
Contract Programme.
2.3 Planning
The success of any contract generally depends on compliance with the requirements of the
project programme; deviations from the programme can have very serious effects on costs;
delays can be traumatic for the other participating trades and subsequently for the client.
The programme is usually made out in bar-line format and based on network techniques,
including critical path analysis.
Essential elements are:
Erection sequence;
Purchasing the material from the steelmill;
Preparation of fabrication drawings;
Material preparation;
Fabrication;
Assembly;
Protective treatment;
Delivery to site.
Each element is planned to a set timescale, and co-ordinated with parallel actions from
other contracts occurring during the same period. If the erection programme imposes
demands for shop fabrication in excess of the fabricator's capacity, then sub-letting of work
will be necessary, coupled with the requisite QA- and QC-assessment.
The time and cost involved in preparing drawings will largely depend upon the degree of
repetition and the complexity of the design; careful consideration of these matters prior to
starting setting out and detail work should result in drawings that, efficiently and
unambiguously, communicate the structural requirements to the workshop operatives and
the site erection team.
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Work stations equipped with modern computer graphics, when used by trained
draughtsmen, can result in higher rates of drawing production. They can also result in a
higher quality of drawing with modifications being more easily incorporated. Longdistance transfer by telephone is possible. Automatic listings of materials and tapes for
numerically controlled (NC) fabrication may also be produced advantageously by these
facilities.
3. FABRICATION PROCEDURES
3.1 Workshop Layout
Fabricators range from small general firms to large specialised producers with different
facilities at their disposal. In either case the fabrication must always be organised in such a
way that the material will pass through a one-way system from receipt to final despatch
(Slide 1). A flow chart, as indicated in Slide 2, shows the main areas of activity in a
modern fabrication shop; the specific activities for a simple steel beam can also be
organised as a production line (Slide 3).
Slide 1
Slide 2
Slide 3
Most fabrication shops are equipped with overhead travelling cranes, sometimes remotely
controlled from the shop floor. Mechanised conveyor systems are common in the larger
shops. They can greatly reduce handling costs.
Special facilities must be provided for the storage of flammable materials; pipelines for gas
and oxygen must be installed. Welding areas require a heavy power supply and screening
to protect eyes from ultraviolet glare. Some operations are very dusty and noisy, such as
mechanical chipping and arc gouging. Where possible, they should be separated, therefore,
from the other production areas.
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Slide 4
Slide 5
When required, the steel is shot blasted in a separate location, either by hand or
automatically. Sometimes the automatic installations can sense the size of the members.
Paint-spraying (done either by hand or automatically) may follow directly after blast
cleaning, depending on the production programme; if, for example, welding is required
then painting will take place after fabrication.
Circular saw;
Band saw;
Motor operated hacksaw.
By far the most popular choice is the circular cold saw, as its productivity is better than
that of the band saw or the hack saw. These saws are, in many cases, integrated in
automatic sawing lines, equipped with mechanised longitudinal and transverse conveyors
and measuring devices, as shown in Slides 6 and 7.
Slide 6
Slide 7
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A saw can perform within an accuracy of a fraction of a millimetre on length and within a
squareness of 0,2% of the depth of the cut. The most accurate type is equipped with a
swivelling arm enabling the blade to descend onto the bar. The blade speed adjusts itself
automatically on its way through the work piece. A fully automated saw system will be
operated through a computer program.
The better equipped fabrication shops nowadays have automatic beam-line systems (Slide
8) which are generally linked to the conveyors of the sawing line. The beam (Slide 9)
moves by longitudinal conveyors along the Y-axis, denoted V and X for each flange, while
the web drilling heads move along the Z-axis.
Slide 8
Slide 9
Slide 10
Slide 11
Slide 12
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New twist drills are currently available which are capable of higher speeds and greater
efficiency as follows:
Slide 13
Slide 14
Slide 15
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Manual Metal-Arc Welding for fittings and for some profile and positional welding
(Slide 16);
Metal Active Gas Welding (MAG) and Cored Wire Welding with and without gas
(Slide 17);
Submerged Arc Welding (Slide 18) for fully automatic processes; particularly
useful for heavy welding in the flat or horizontal-vertical position and for the longrun welds in plate and box girders.
Electric Arc Stud Welding, principally used in composite construction of steel and
concrete.
Slide 16
Slide 17
Slide 18
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The plates for the girders receive an NDT check for laminations or other defects;
they are then flame cut to the required dimensions and shot blasted.
The girders are firmly clamped into position and tack welded; submerged welding
then follows, the welding heads moving along the weld lines (Slides 19 and 20).
Any stiffeners required are then tacked and welded, usually by MAG welding.
Slide 19
Slide 20
Simultaneous welding of the flanges will reduce distortion.
Slide 21
Unacceptable levels of hardness at the edge of the plate, often caused by burning, can be
removed by planing.
End planing of members is used to get a higher standard of squareness than can be
achieved by sawing. Optical laserbeam methods are used to align the axis of the member to
the cutting head.
Surface machining is only necessary for special bearing surfaces and sometimes for the
slab base plates of columns.
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Slide 22
Close liaison should always be maintained between the QC staff and the Drawing Office.
4. CONCLUDING SUMMARY
Good design makes efficient use of material and makes proper provisions for
tolerances in fabrication and erection.
Good interaction between shop floor and drawing office is indispensable for
economical and efficient fabrication and erection.
Labour should be used as effectively as possible so that labour costs are minimised.
Automatic processes should be used where feasible and appropriate.
Quality control is essential.
5. ADDITIONAL READING
1. Davies, B. J. and Crawley, E. J., Structural Steelwork Fabrication, British
Constructional Steelwork Association (BCSA), London, 1980.
2. Arch, W. H., Structural Steelwork - Erection, British Constructional Steelwork
Association (BCSA), London, 1989.
3. Firkins, A., Fabrication Cost of Structural Steelwork, Steel Construction, Vol. 24,
No. 2, Australian Institute of Steel Construction, 1990.
4. Wardenier, J., Design and Fabrication of Steel Structures, Engineering Design of
Welded Construction, IIW 1992, Houdremont lecture, Pergamon Press, 1992.
5. Various authors, Steel Construction Today, Vol. 5, No 3, Steel Construction
Institute, May 1991.
6. Eurocode 3: "Design of Steel Structures": ENV 1993-1-1: Part 1.1: General Rules
and Rules for Buildings, CEN, 1992.