&KGNGEVTKE

Charge
+Q

Electric
field E

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GNGEVTKE EQPUVCPV 6JG VGTO KPUWNCVQT KU IGPGTCNN[ WUGF VQ

KPFKECVG GNGEVTKECN QDUVTWEVKQP YJKNG VJG VGTO FKGNGEVTKE KU
WUGF VQ KPFKECVG VJG GPGTI[ UVQTKPI ECRCEKV[ QH VJG OCVG
TKCN
D[ OGCPU QH RQNCTK\CVKQP # EQOOQP GZCORNG QH
C FKGNGEVTKE KU VJG GNGEVTKECNN[ KPUWNCVKPI OCVGTKCN DGVYGGP
VJG OGVCNNKE RNCVGU QH C ECRCEKVQT 6JG RQNCTK\CVKQP QH VJG
FKGNGEVTKE D[ VJG CRRNKGF GNGEVTKE GNF KPETGCUGU VJG ECRCE
KVQTU UWTHCEG EJCTIG HQT VJG IKXGP GNGEVTKE GNF UVTGPIVJ=?

-Q
dielectric

6JG VGTO FKGNGEVTKE YCU EQKPGF D[ 9KNNKCO 9JGYGNN

HTQO FKCGNGEVTKE KP TGURQPUG VQ C TGSWGUV HTQO

/KEJCGN (CTCFC[=?=? # QFSGFDU EJFMFDUSJD KU C OCVGTKCN
YKVJ \GTQ GNGEVTKECN EQPFWEVKXKV[
EH RGTHGEV EQPFWE
VQT=? VJWU GZJKDKVKPI QPN[ C FKURNCEGOGPV EWTTGPV VJGTG
HQTG KV UVQTGU CPF TGVWTPU GNGEVTKECN GPGTI[ CU KH KV YGTG CP
KFGCN ECRCEKVQT

Plate
area A

Plate separation d

2 Electric susceptibility

" QPMBSJ[FE EJFMFDUSJD NBUFSJBM

/CKP CTVKENG RGTOKVVKXKV[

# dielectric material
dielectric HQT UJQTV KU CP GNGEVTK
ECN KPUWNCVQT VJCV ECP DG RQNCTK\GF D[ CP CRRNKGF GNGEVTKE
GNF 9JGP C FKGNGEVTKE KU RNCEGF KP CP GNGEVTKE GNF
GNGEVTKE EJCTIGU FQ PQV QY VJTQWIJ VJG OCVGTKCN CU VJG[
FQ KP C EQPFWEVQT DWV QPN[ UNKIJVN[ UJKHV HTQO VJGKT CX
GTCIG GSWKNKDTKWO RQUKVKQPU ECWUKPI dielectric polarization $GECWUG QH FKGNGEVTKE RQNCTK\CVKQP RQUKVKXG EJCTIGU
CTG FKURNCEGF VQYCTF VJG GNF CPF PGICVKXG EJCTIGU UJKHV
KP VJG QRRQUKVG FKTGEVKQP 6JKU ETGCVGU CP KPVGTPCN GNGE
VTKE GNF VJCV TGFWEGU VJG QXGTCNN GNF YKVJKP VJG FKGNGE
VTKE KVUGNH=? +H C FKGNGEVTKE KU EQORQUGF QH YGCMN[ DQPFGF
OQNGEWNGU VJQUG OQNGEWNGU PQV QPN[ DGEQOG RQNCTK\GF
DWV CNUQ TGQTKGPV UQ VJCV VJGKT U[OOGVT[ CZGU CNKIP VQ VJG
GNF=?

6JG electric susceptibility QH C FKGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCN

KU C OGCUWTG QH JQY GCUKN[ KV RQNCTK\GU KP TGURQPUG VQ
CP GNGEVTKE GNF 6JKU KP VWTP FGVGTOKPGU VJG GNGEVTKE
RGTOKVVKXKV[ QH VJG OCVGTKCN CPF VJWU KPWGPEGU OCP[
QVJGT RJGPQOGPC KP VJCV OGFKWO HTQO VJG ECRCEKVCPEG
QH ECRCEKVQTU VQ VJG URGGF QH NKIJV
+V KU FGPGF CU VJG EQPUVCPV QH RTQRQTVKQPCNKV[
YJKEJ OC[
DG C VGPUQT TGNCVKPI CP GNGEVTKE GNF E VQ VJG KPFWEGF FK
GNGEVTKE RQNCTK\CVKQP FGPUKV[ P UWEJ VJCV
P = 0 e E,

YJGTG 0 KU VJG GNGEVTKE RGTOKVVKXKV[ QH HTGG URCEG

6JG UVWF[ QH FKGNGEVTKE RTQRGTVKGU EQPEGTPU UVQTCIG
6JG UWUEGRVKDKNKV[ QH C OGFKWO KU TGNCVGF VQ KVU TGNCVKXG
CPF FKUUKRCVKQP QH GNGEVTKE CPF OCIPGVKE GPGTI[ KP
RGTOKVVKXKV[ r D[
OCVGTKCNU=? &KGNGEVTKEU CTG KORQTVCPV HQT GZRNCKPKPI XCT
KQWU RJGPQOGPC KP GNGEVTQPKEU QRVKEU CPF UQNKFUVCVG
RJ[UKEU
e = r 1.

5Q KP VJG ECUG QH C XCEWWO

Terminology

9JKNG VJG VGTO JOTVMBUPS KORNKGU NQY GNGEVTKECN EQPFWE e = 0.

VKQP EJFMFDUSJD V[RKECNN[ OGCPU OCVGTKCNU YKVJ C JKIJ
RQNCTK\CDKNKV[ 6JG NCVVGT KU GZRTGUUGF D[ C PWODGT ECNNGF 6JG GNGEVTKE FKURNCEGOGPV D KU TGNCVGF VQ VJG RQNCTK\CVKQP
VJG TGNCVKXG RGTOKVVKXKV[
CNUQ MPQYP KP QNFGT VGZVU CU FK FGPUKV[ P D[


%*&-&$53*$ 10-"3*;"5*0/

D = 0 E + P = 0 (1 + e )E = r 0 E.

2.1

Dispersion and causality

+P IGPGTCN C OCVGTKCN ECPPQV RQNCTK\G KPUVCPVCPGQWUN[ KP

TGURQPUG VQ CP CRRNKGF GNF 6JG OQTG IGPGTCN HQTOWNC
VKQP CU C HWPEVKQP QH VKOG KU

P(t) = 0

e (t t )E(t ) dt .

6JCV KU VJG RQNCTK\CVKQP KU C EQPXQNWVKQP QH VJG GNGEVTKE

GNF CV RTGXKQWU VKOGU YKVJ VKOGFGRGPFGPV UWUEGRVKDKNKV[
IKXGP D[ e (t)  6JG WRRGT NKOKV QH VJKU KPVGITCN ECP
DG GZVGPFGF VQ KPPKV[ CU YGNN KH QPG FGPGU e (t) = 0
HQT t < 0  #P KPUVCPVCPGQWU TGURQPUG EQTTGURQPFU VQ
&KTCE FGNVC HWPEVKQP UWUEGRVKDKNKV[ e (t) = e (t) 

E
d

+q

M -q

&MFDUSJD FME JOUFSBDUJPO XJUI BO BUPN VOEFS UIF DMBTTJDBM EJFMFD

USJD NPEFM

KP VJG IWTG 6JKU KUP V CNYC[U VJG ECUG CPF KU C OCLQT

UKORNKECVKQP DWV KU VTWG HQT OCP[ OCVGTKCNU

9JGP VJG GNGEVTKE GNF KU TGOQXGF VJG CVQO TGVWTPU VQ KVU

QTKIKPCN UVCVG 6JG VKOG TGSWKTGF VQ FQ UQ KU VJG UQECNNGF
+V KU OQTG EQPXGPKGPV KP C NKPGCT U[UVGO VQ VCMG VJG (QWTKGT TGNCZCVKQP VKOG CP GZRQPGPVKCN FGEC[
VTCPUHQTO CPF YTKVG VJKU TGNCVKQPUJKR CU C HWPEVKQP QH HTG 6JKU KU VJG GUUGPEG QH VJG OQFGN KP RJ[UKEU 6JG DGJCXKQT
SWGPE[ &WG VQ VJG EQPXQNWVKQP VJGQTGO VJG KPVGITCN DG QH VJG FKGNGEVTKE PQY FGRGPFU QP VJG UKVWCVKQP 6JG OQTG
EQOGU C UKORNG RTQFWEV
EQORNKECVGF VJG UKVWCVKQP VJG TKEJGT VJG OQFGN OWUV DG
VQ CEEWTCVGN[ FGUETKDG VJG DGJCXKQT +ORQTVCPV SWGUVKQPU
CTG
P() = 0 e ()E().
+U VJG GNGEVTKE GNF EQPUVCPV QT FQGU KV XCT[ YKVJ VKOG!
0QVG VJG UKORNG HTGSWGPE[ FGRGPFGPEG QH VJG UWUEGRVK
#V YJCV TCVG!
DKNKV[ QT GSWKXCNGPVN[ VJG RGTOKVVKXKV[ 6JG UJCRG QH VJG
&QGU VJG TGURQPUG FGRGPF QP VJG FKTGEVKQP QH VJG
UWUEGRVKDKNKV[ YKVJ TGURGEV VQ HTGSWGPE[ EJCTCEVGTK\GU VJG
CRRNKGF GNF
KUQVTQR[ QH VJG OCVGTKCN!
FKURGTUKQP RTQRGTVKGU QH VJG OCVGTKCN
/QTGQXGT VJG HCEV VJCV VJG RQNCTK\CVKQP ECP QPN[ FGRGPF
QP VJG GNGEVTKE GNF CV RTGXKQWU VKOGU
KG e (t) = 0
HQT t < 0  C EQPUGSWGPEG QH ECWUCNKV[ KORQUGU
-TCOGTU-TQPKI EQPUVTCKPVU QP VJG TGCN CPF KOCIKPCT[
RCTVU QH VJG UWUEGRVKDKNKV[ e () 

Dielectric polarization

+U VJG TGURQPUG VJG UCOG GXGT[YJGTG

JQOQIGPGKV[
QH VJG OCVGTKCN!
&Q CP[ DQWPFCTKGU QT KPVGTHCEGU JCXG VQ DG VCMGP KPVQ
CEEQWPV!
+U VJG TGURQPUG NKPGCT YKVJ TGURGEV VQ VJG GNF QT CTG
VJGTG PQPNKPGCTKVKGU!

6JG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP VJG GNGEVTKE GNF E CPF VJG

FKRQNG OQOGPV M IKXGU TKUG VQ VJG DGJCXKQT QH VJG FK
3.1 Basic atomic model
GNGEVTKE YJKEJ HQT C IKXGP OCVGTKCN ECP DG EJCTCEVGTK\GF
+P VJG ENCUUKECN CRRTQCEJ VQ VJG FKGNGEVTKE OQFGN C OCVG D[ VJG HWPEVKQP F FGPGF D[ VJG GSWCVKQP
TKCN KU OCFG WR QH CVQOU 'CEJ CVQO EQPUKUVU QH C ENQWF
QH PGICVKXG EJCTIG
GNGEVTQPU DQWPF VQ CPF UWTTQWPFKPI
C RQUKVKXG RQKPV EJCTIG CV KVU EGPVGT +P VJG RTGUGPEG QH CP M = F(E)
GNGEVTKE GNF VJG EJCTIG ENQWF KU FKUVQTVGF CU UJQYP KP VJG
9JGP DQVJ VJG V[RG QH GNGEVTKE GNF CPF VJG V[RG QH OC
VQR TKIJV QH VJG IWTG
VGTKCN JCXG DGGP FGPGF QPG VJGP EJQQUGU VJG UKORNGUV
6JKU ECP DG TGFWEGF VQ C UKORNG FKRQNG WUKPI VJG HWPEVKQP ' VJCV EQTTGEVN[ RTGFKEVU VJG RJGPQOGPC QH KP
UWRGTRQUKVKQP RTKPEKRNG # FKRQNG KU EJCTCEVGTK\GF D[ KVU VGTGUV 'ZCORNGU QH RJGPQOGPC VJCV ECP DG UQ OQFGNGF
FKRQNG OQOGPV C XGEVQT SWCPVKV[ UJQYP KP VJG IWTG CU KPENWFG
VJG DNWG CTTQY NCDGNGF . +V KU VJG TGNCVKQPUJKR DGVYGGP
VJG GNGEVTKE GNF CPF VJG FKRQNG OQOGPV VJCV IKXGU TKUG
4GHTCEVKXG KPFGZ
VQ VJG DGJCXKQT QH VJG FKGNGEVTKE
0QVG VJCV VJG FKRQNG
OQOGPV RQKPVU KP VJG UCOG FKTGEVKQP CU VJG GNGEVTKE GNF
)TQWR XGNQEKV[ FKURGTUKQP


$KTGHTKPIGPEG
5GNHHQEWUKPI
*CTOQPKE IGPGTCVKQP

3.2

Dipolar polarization

&KRQNCT RQNCTK\CVKQP KU C RQNCTK\CVKQP VJCV KU GKVJGT KP

JGTGPV VQ RQNCT OQNGEWNGU
orientation polarization QT
ECP DG KPFWEGF KP CP[ OQNGEWNG KP YJKEJ VJG CU[OOGV
TKE FKUVQTVKQP QH VJG PWENGK KU RQUUKDNG
distortion polarization 1TKGPVCVKQP RQNCTK\CVKQP TGUWNVU HTQO C RGTOC
PGPV FKRQNG GI VJCV CTKUKPI HTQO VJG q CPING DG
VYGGP VJG CU[OOGVTKE DQPFU DGVYGGP QZ[IGP CPF J[FTQ
IGP CVQOU KP VJG YCVGT OQNGEWNG YJKEJ TGVCKPU RQNCTK\C
VKQP KP VJG CDUGPEG QH CP GZVGTPCN GNGEVTKE GNF 6JG CU
UGODN[ QH VJGUG FKRQNGU HQTOU C OCETQUEQRKE RQNCTK\C
VKQP

ECWUGF D[ VJG NKPKPI WR QH VJG QTKGPVCVKQPU QH RGTOCPGPV

FKRQNGU CNQPI C RCTVKEWNCT FKTGEVKQP KU ECNNGF CP orderdisorder phase transition 6JG VTCPUKVKQP ECWUGF D[
KQPKE RQNCTK\CVKQPU KP ET[UVCNU KU ECNNGF C displacive phase
transition

4 Dielectric dispersion
+P RJ[UKEU dielectric dispersion KU VJG FGRGPFGPEG QH VJG
RGTOKVVKXKV[ QH C FKGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCN QP VJG HTGSWGPE[ QH
CP CRRNKGF GNGEVTKE GNF $GECWUG VJGTG KU C NCI DGVYGGP
EJCPIGU KP RQNCTK\CVKQP CPF EJCPIGU KP VJG GNGEVTKE GNF
VJG RGTOKVVKXKV[ QH VJG FKGNGEVTKE KU C EQORNKECVGF HWPEVKQP
QH HTGSWGPE[ QH VJG GNGEVTKE GNF &KGNGEVTKE FKURGTUKQP KU
XGT[ KORQTVCPV HQT VJG CRRNKECVKQPU QH FKGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCNU
CPF HQT VJG CPCN[UKU QH RQNCTK\CVKQP U[UVGOU

6JKU KU QPG KPUVCPEG QH C IGPGTCN RJGPQOGPQP MPQYP CU

OCVGTKCN FKURGTUKQP C HTGSWGPE[FGRGPFGPV TGURQPUG QH C
9JGP CP GZVGTPCN GNGEVTKE GNF KU CRRNKGF VJG FKUVCPEG OGFKWO HQT YCXG RTQRCICVKQP
DGVYGGP EJCTIGU YKVJKP GCEJ RGTOCPGPV FKRQNG YJKEJ KU
TGNCVGF VQ EJGOKECN DQPFKPI TGOCKPU EQPUVCPV KP QTKGPVC 9JGP VJG HTGSWGPE[ DGEQOGU JKIJGT
VKQP RQNCTK\CVKQP JQYGXGT VJG FKTGEVKQP QH RQNCTK\CVKQP
KVUGNH TQVCVGU 6JKU TQVCVKQP QEEWTU QP C VKOGUECNG VJCV FG
 FKRQNCT RQNCTK\CVKQP ECP PQ NQPIGT HQNNQY VJG QUEKN
RGPFU QP VJG VQTSWG CPF UWTTQWPFKPI NQECN XKUEQUKV[ QH
NCVKQPU QH VJG GNGEVTKE GNF KP VJG OKETQYCXG TGIKQP
VJG OQNGEWNGU $GECWUG VJG TQVCVKQP KU PQV KPUVCPVCPGQWU
CTQWPF 10 *\
FKRQNCT RQNCTK\CVKQPU NQUG VJG TGURQPUG VQ GNGEVTKE GNFU
 KQPKE RQNCTK\CVKQP CPF OQNGEWNCT FKUVQTVKQP RQNCTK\C
CV VJG JKIJGUV HTGSWGPEKGU # OQNGEWNG TQVCVGU CDQWV 
VKQP ECP PQ NQPIGT VTCEM VJG GNGEVTKE GNF RCUV VJG
TCFKCP RGT RKEQUGEQPF KP C WKF VJWU VJKU NQUU QEEWTU
KPHTCTGF QT HCTKPHTCTGF TGIKQP CTQWPF 13 *\ 
11
CV CDQWV  *\
KP VJG OKETQYCXG TGIKQP 6JG FGNC[
QH VJG TGURQPUG VQ VJG EJCPIG QH VJG GNGEVTKE GNF ECWUGU
 GNGEVTQPKE RQNCTK\CVKQP NQUGU KVU TGURQPUG KP VJG WNVTC
HTKEVKQP CPF JGCV
XKQNGV TGIKQP CTQWPF 15 *\
9JGP CP GZVGTPCN GNGEVTKE GNF KU CRRNKGF CV KPHTCTGF HTG
SWGPEKGU QT NGUU VJG OQNGEWNGU CTG DGPV CPF UVTGVEJGF D[
VJG GNF CPF VJG OQNGEWNCT FKRQNG OQOGPV EJCPIGU 6JG
OQNGEWNCT XKDTCVKQP HTGSWGPE[ KU TQWIJN[ VJG KPXGTUG QH
VJG VKOG KV VCMGU HQT VJG OQNGEWNGU VQ DGPF CPF VJKU distortion polarization FKUCRRGCTU CDQXG VJG KPHTCTGF

3.3

+P VJG HTGSWGPE[ TGIKQP CDQXG WNVTCXKQNGV RGTOKVVKXKV[ CR

RTQCEJGU VJG EQPUVCPV 0 KP GXGT[ UWDUVCPEG YJGTG 0 KU
VJG RGTOKVVKXKV[ QH VJG HTGG URCEG $GECWUG RGTOKVVKXKV[
KPFKECVGU VJG UVTGPIVJ QH VJG TGNCVKQP DGVYGGP CP GNGEVTKE
GNF CPF RQNCTK\CVKQP KH C RQNCTK\CVKQP RTQEGUU NQUGU KVU
TGURQPUG RGTOKVVKXKV[ FGETGCUGU

Ionic polarization

5 Dielectric relaxation

+QPKE RQNCTK\CVKQP KU RQNCTK\CVKQP ECWUGF D[ TGNCVKXG FKU

RNCEGOGPVU DGVYGGP RQUKVKXG CPF PGICVKXG KQPU KP KQPKE
Dielectric relaxation KU VJG OQOGPVCT[ FGNC[
QT NCI
ET[UVCNU
HQT GZCORNG 0C%N
KP VJG FKGNGEVTKE EQPUVCPV QH C OCVGTKCN 6JKU KU WUWCNN[
+H C ET[UVCN QT OQNGEWNG EQPUKUVU QH CVQOU QH OQTG VJCP ECWUGF D[ VJG FGNC[ KP OQNGEWNCT RQNCTK\CVKQP YKVJ TG
QPG MKPF VJG FKUVTKDWVKQP QH EJCTIGU CTQWPF CP CVQO KP URGEV VQ C EJCPIKPI GNGEVTKE GNF KP C FKGNGEVTKE OGFKWO
VJG ET[UVCN QT OQNGEWNG NGCPU VQ RQUKVKXG QT PGICVKXG #U C
GI KPUKFG ECRCEKVQTU QT DGVYGGP VYQ NCTIG EQPFWEVKPI
TGUWNV YJGP NCVVKEG XKDTCVKQPU QT OQNGEWNCT XKDTCVKQPU KP UWTHCEGU &KGNGEVTKE TGNCZCVKQP KP EJCPIKPI GNGEVTKE GNFU
FWEG TGNCVKXG FKURNCEGOGPVU QH VJG CVQOU VJG EGPVGTU QH EQWNF DG EQPUKFGTGF CPCNQIQWU VQ J[UVGTGUKU KP EJCPIKPI
RQUKVKXG CPF PGICVKXG EJCTIGU CTG CNUQ FKURNCEGF 6JG NQ OCIPGVKE GNFU
HQT KPFWEVQTU QT VTCPUHQTOGTU 4GNCZ
ECVKQPU QH VJGUG EGPVGTU CTG CGEVGF D[ VJG U[OOGVT[ QH CVKQP KP IGPGTCN KU C FGNC[ QT NCI KP VJG TGURQPUG QH C
VJG FKURNCEGOGPVU 9JGP VJG EGPVGTU FQP V EQTTGURQPF NKPGCT U[UVGO CPF VJGTGHQTG FKGNGEVTKE TGNCZCVKQP KU OGC
RQNCTK\CVKQPU CTKUG KP OQNGEWNGU QT ET[UVCNU 6JKU RQNCT UWTGF TGNCVKXG VQ VJG GZRGEVGF NKPGCT UVGCF[ UVCVG
GSWKNKD
K\CVKQP KU ECNNGF ionic polarization
TKWO FKGNGEVTKE XCNWGU 6JG VKOG NCI DGVYGGP GNGEVTKECN
+QPKE RQNCTK\CVKQP ECWUGU VJG HGTTQGNGEVTKE GGEV CU YGNN CU GNF CPF RQNCTK\CVKQP KORNKGU CP KTTGXGTUKDNG FGITCFCVKQP
FKRQNCT RQNCTK\CVKQP 6JG HGTTQGNGEVTKE VTCPUKVKQP YJKEJ KU QH )KDDU HTGG GPGTI[

 "11-*$"5*0/4

+P RJ[UKEU dielectric relaxation TGHGTU VQ VJG TGNCZCVKQP

TGURQPUG QH C FKGNGEVTKE OGFKWO VQ CP GZVGTPCN QUEKNNCVKPI
GNGEVTKE GNF 6JKU TGNCZCVKQP KU QHVGP FGUETKDGF KP VGTOU
QH RGTOKVVKXKV[ CU C HWPEVKQP QH HTGSWGPE[ YJKEJ ECP HQT
KFGCN U[UVGOU DG FGUETKDGF D[ VJG &GD[G GSWCVKQP 1P
VJG QVJGT JCPF VJG FKUVQTVKQP TGNCVGF VQ KQPKE CPF GNGE
VTQPKE RQNCTK\CVKQP UJQYU DGJCXKQT QH VJG TGUQPCPEG QT
QUEKNNCVQT V[RG 6JG EJCTCEVGT QH VJG FKUVQTVKQP RTQEGUU
FGRGPFU QP VJG UVTWEVWTG EQORQUKVKQP CPF UWTTQWPFKPIU
QH VJG UCORNG

#P GZCORNG QH C RCTCGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCN QH JKIJ FKGNGEVTKE

EQPUVCPV KU UVTQPVKWO VKVCPCVG
6JG .K0D13 ET[UVCN KU HGTTQGNGEVTKE DGNQY  - CPF
CDQXG VJKU VGORGTCVWTG KV VTCPUHQTOU KPVQ C FKUQTFGTGF
RCTCGNGEVTKE RJCUG 5KOKNCTN[ QVJGT RGTQXUMKVGU CNUQ GZ
JKDKV RCTCGNGEVTKEKV[ CV JKIJ VGORGTCVWTGU

2CTCGNGEVTKEKV[ JCU DGGP GZRNQTGF CU C RQUUKDNG TGHTKI

GTCVKQP OGEJCPKUO RQNCTK\KPI C RCTCGNGEVTKE D[ CRRN[
KPI CP GNGEVTKE GNF WPFGT CFKCDCVKE RTQEGUU EQPFKVKQPU
TCKUGU VJG VGORGTCVWTG YJKNG TGOQXKPI VJG GNF NQYGTU
VJG VGORGTCVWTG=? # JGCV RWOR VJCV QRGTCVGU D[ RQNCTK\
5.1 Debye relaxation
KPI VJG RCTCGNGEVTKE CNNQYKPI KV VQ TGVWTP VQ CODKGPV VGO
RGTCVWTG
D[ FKUUKRCVKPI VJG GZVTC JGCV DTKPIKPI KV KPVQ
Debye relaxation KU VJG FKGNGEVTKE TGNCZCVKQP TGURQPUG QH EQPVCEV YKVJ VJG QDLGEV VQ DG EQQNGF CPF PCNN[ FGRQNCT
CP KFGCN PQPKPVGTCEVKPI RQRWNCVKQP QH FKRQNGU VQ CP CNVGT K\KPI KV YQWNF TGUWNV KP TGHTKIGTCVKQP
PCVKPI GZVGTPCN GNGEVTKE GNF +V KU WUWCNN[ GZRTGUUGF KP VJG
EQORNGZ RGTOKVVKXKV[ QH C OGFKWO CU C HWPEVKQP QH VJG
GNFU HTGSWGPE[ 
7 Tunability

() = +

,
1 + i

5VOBCMF EJFMFDUSJDT CTG KPUWNCVQTU YJQUG CDKNKV[ VQ UVQTG

GNGEVTKECN EJCTIG EJCPIGU YJGP C XQNVCIG KU CRRNKGF=?=?

)GPGTCNN[ UVTQPVKWO VKVCPCVG

5T6K1
 KU WUGF HQT FGXKEGU QRGTCVKPI CV NQY VGORGTCVWTGU YJKNG
DCTKWO UVTQPVKWO VKVCPCVG
$C
Z5T
Z6K1
6JKU TGNCZCVKQP OQFGN YCU KPVTQFWEGF D[ CPF PCOGF CHVGT  UWDUVKVWVGU HQT TQQO VGORGTCVWTG FGXKEGU 1VJGT RQ
VGPVKCN OCVGTKCNU KPENWFG OKETQYCXG FKGNGEVTKEU CPF ECT
VJG RJ[UKEKUV 2GVGT &GD[G
=?
DQP PCPQVWDG
%06 EQORQUKVGU=?=?=?
YJGTG KU VJG RGTOKVVKXKV[ CV VJG JKIJ HTGSWGPE[ NKOKV
= s YJGTG s KU VJG UVCVKE NQY HTGSWGPE[
RGTOKVVKXKV[ CPF KU VJG EJCTCEVGTKUVKE TGNCZCVKQP VKOG QH
VJG OGFKWO

5.2

Variants of the Debye equation

%QNG%QNG GSWCVKQP
%QNG&CXKFUQP GSWCVKQP
*CXTKNKCM0GICOK TGNCZCVKQP

+P  OWNVKUJGGV NC[GTU QH UVTQPVKWO VKVCPCVG KPVGT

NGCXGF YKVJ UKPING NC[GTU QH UVTQPVKWO QZKFG RTQFWEGF C
FKGNGEVTKE ECRCDNG QH QRGTCVKPI CV WR VQ  )*\ 6JG
OCVGTKCN YCU ETGCVGF XKC OQNGEWNCT DGCO GRKVCZ[ 6JG
VYQ JCXG OKUOCVEJGF ET[UVCN URCEKPI VJCV RTQFWEGU UVTCKP
YKVJKP VJG UVTQPVKWO VKVCPCVG NC[GT VJCV OCMGU KV NGUU UVCDNG
CPF VWPCDNG=?

-QJNTCWUEJ9KNNKCOU9CVVU HWPEVKQP
(QWTKGT 5[UVGOU UWEJ CU $C
Z5T
VTCPUHQTO QH UVTGVEJGF GZRQPGPVKCN HWPEVKQP
Z6K1
 JCXG C RCTCGNGEVTKEHGTTQGNGEVTKE VTCPUKVKQP LWUV DGNQY
CODKGPV VGORGTCVWTG RTQXKFKPI JKIJ VWPCDKNKV[ 5WEJ
6 Paraelectricity
NOU UWGT UKIPKECPV NQUUGU CTKUKPI HTQO FGHGEVU
2CTCGNGEVTKEKV[ KU VJG CDKNKV[ QH OCP[ OCVGTKCNU
URGEKH
KECNN[ EGTCOKEU VQ DGEQOG RQNCTK\GF WPFGT CP CRRNKGF
GNGEVTKE GNF 7PNKMG HGTTQGNGEVTKEKV[ VJKU ECP JCRRGP
GXGP KH VJGTG KU PQ RGTOCPGPV GNGEVTKE FKRQNG VJCV GZ
KUVU KP VJG OCVGTKCN CPF TGOQXCN QH VJG GNFU TGUWNVU KP
VJG RQNCTK\CVKQP KP VJG OCVGTKCN TGVWTPKPI VQ \GTQ=? 6JG
OGEJCPKUOU VJCV ECWUG paraelectric DGJCXKQWT CTG VJG
FKUVQTVKQP QH KPFKXKFWCN KQPU
FKURNCEGOGPV QH VJG GNGEVTQP
ENQWF HTQO VJG PWENGWU CPF RQNCTK\CVKQP QH OQNGEWNGU QT
EQODKPCVKQPU QH KQPU QT FGHGEVU

8 Applications
8.1 Capacitors

/CKP CTVKENG %CRCEKVQT

%QOOGTEKCNN[ OCPWHCEVWTGF ECRCEKVQTU V[RKECNN[ WUG C
UQNKF FKGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCN YKVJ JKIJ RGTOKVVKXKV[ CU VJG KP
VGTXGPKPI OGFKWO DGVYGGP VJG UVQTGF RQUKVKXG CPF PGIC
VQ KP VGEJPKECN
2CTCGNGEVTKEKV[ ECP QEEWT KP ET[UVCN RJCUGU YJGTG GNGEVTKE VKXG EJCTIGU 6JKU OCVGTKCN KU QHVGP TGHGTTGF
=?
EQPVGZVU
CU
VJG
DBQBDJUPS
EJFMFDUSJD
FKRQNGU CTG WPCNKIPGF CPF VJWU JCXG VJG RQVGPVKCN VQ CNKIP
KP CP GZVGTPCN GNGEVTKE GNF CPF YGCMGP KV
6JG OQUV QDXKQWU CFXCPVCIG VQ WUKPI UWEJ C FKGNGEVTKE

Charge
+Q

Electric
field E

-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+

-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+
-+

-Q
dielectric

9 Some practical dielectrics

Plate
area A

Plate separation d
$IBSHF TFQBSBUJPO JO B QBSBMMFMQMBUF DBQBDJUPS DBVTFT BO JOUFSOBM
FMFDUSJD FME " EJFMFDUSJD PSBOHF
SFEVDFT UIF FME BOE JODSFBTFT
UIF DBQBDJUBODF

OCVGTKCN KU VJCV KV RTGXGPVU VJG EQPFWEVKPI RNCVGU QP YJKEJ

VJG EJCTIGU CTG UVQTGF HTQO EQOKPI KPVQ FKTGEV GNGEVTKECN
EQPVCEV /QTG UKIPKECPVN[ JQYGXGT C JKIJ RGTOKVVKXKV[
CNNQYU C ITGCVGT UVQTGF EJCTIG CV C IKXGP XQNVCIG 6JKU ECP
DG UGGP D[ VTGCVKPI VJG ECUG QH C NKPGCT FKGNGEVTKE YKVJ RGT
OKVVKXKV[ CPF VJKEMPGUU d DGVYGGP VYQ EQPFWEVKPI RNCVGU
YKVJ WPKHQTO EJCTIG FGPUKV[  +P VJKU ECUG VJG EJCTIG
FGPUKV[ KU IKXGP D[

V
d

CPF VJG ECRCEKVCPEG RGT WPKV CTGC D[

c=

=
V
d

(TQO VJKU KV ECP GCUKN[ DG UGGP VJCV C NCTIGT NGCFU VQ

ITGCVGT EJCTIG UVQTGF CPF VJWU ITGCVGT ECRCEKVCPEG
&KGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCNU WUGF HQT ECRCEKVQTU CTG CNUQ EJQUGP
UWEJ VJCV VJG[ CTG TGUKUVCPV VQ KQPK\CVKQP 6JKU CNNQYU VJG
ECRCEKVQT VQ QRGTCVG CV JKIJGT XQNVCIGU DGHQTG VJG KPUW
NCVKPI FKGNGEVTKE KQPK\GU CPF DGIKPU VQ CNNQY WPFGUKTCDNG
EWTTGPV

8.2

OKETQYCXG DCPF +V EQPUKUVU QH C RWEM QH EGTCOKE VJCV

JCU C NCTIG FKGNGEVTKE EQPUVCPV CPF C NQY FKUUKRCVKQP HCE
VQT 5WEJ TGUQPCVQTU CTG QHVGP WUGF VQ RTQXKFG C HTGSWGPE[
TGHGTGPEG KP CP QUEKNNCVQT EKTEWKV #P WPUJKGNFGF FKGNGEVTKE
TGUQPCVQT ECP DG WUGF CU C &KGNGEVTKE 4GUQPCVQT #PVGPPC

&4#

Dielectric resonator

/CKP CTVKENG FKGNGEVTKE TGUQPCVQT

# EJFMFDUSJD SFTPOBUPS PTDJMMBUPS
&41 KU CP GNGEVTQPKE
EQORQPGPV VJCV GZJKDKVU TGUQPCPEG QH VJG RQNCTK\CVKQP TG
URQPUG HQT C PCTTQY TCPIG QH HTGSWGPEKGU IGPGTCNN[ KP VJG

&KGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCNU ECP DG UQNKFU NKSWKFU QT ICUGU +P

CFFKVKQP C JKIJ XCEWWO ECP CNUQ DG C WUGHWN PGCTN[ NQUU
NGUU FKGNGEVTKE GXGP VJQWIJ KVU TGNCVKXG FKGNGEVTKE EQPUVCPV
KU QPN[ WPKV[
5QNKF FKGNGEVTKEU CTG RGTJCRU VJG OQUV EQOOQPN[ WUGF FK
GNGEVTKEU KP GNGEVTKECN GPIKPGGTKPI CPF OCP[ UQNKFU CTG
XGT[ IQQF KPUWNCVQTU 5QOG GZCORNGU KPENWFG RQTEGNCKP
INCUU CPF OQUV RNCUVKEU #KT PKVTQIGP CPF UWNHWT JGZ
CWQTKFG CTG VJG VJTGG OQUV EQOOQPN[ WUGF ICUGQWU FK
GNGEVTKEU
+PFWUVTKCN EQCVKPIU UWEJ CU RCT[NGPG RTQXKFG C FKGNGE
VTKE DCTTKGT DGVYGGP VJG UWDUVTCVG CPF KVU GPXKTQP
OGPV
/KPGTCN QKN KU WUGF GZVGPUKXGN[ KPUKFG GNGEVTKECN
VTCPUHQTOGTU CU C WKF FKGNGEVTKE CPF VQ CUUKUV KP EQQN
KPI &KGNGEVTKE WKFU YKVJ JKIJGT FKGNGEVTKE EQP
UVCPVU UWEJ CU GNGEVTKECN ITCFG ECUVQT QKN CTG QH
VGP WUGF KP JKIJ XQNVCIG ECRCEKVQTU VQ JGNR RTGXGPV
EQTQPC FKUEJCTIG CPF KPETGCUG ECRCEKVCPEG
$GECWUG FKGNGEVTKEU TGUKUV VJG QY QH GNGEVTKEKV[
VJG UWTHCEG QH C FKGNGEVTKE OC[ TGVCKP TUSBOEFE GZ
EGUU GNGEVTKECN EJCTIGU 6JKU OC[ QEEWT CEEKFGPVCNN[
YJGP VJG FKGNGEVTKE KU TWDDGF
VJG VTKDQGNGEVTKE GH
HGEV 6JKU ECP DG WUGHWN CU KP C 8CP FG )TCC
IGPGTCVQT QT GNGEVTQRJQTWU QT KV ECP DG RQVGPVKCNN[
FGUVTWEVKXG CU KP VJG ECUG QH GNGEVTQUVCVKE FKUEJCTIG
5RGEKCNN[ RTQEGUUGF FKGNGEVTKEU ECNNGF GNGEVTGVU

YJKEJ UJQWNF PQV DG EQPHWUGF YKVJ HGTTQGNGEVTKEU

OC[ TGVCKP GZEGUU KPVGTPCN EJCTIG QT HTQ\GP KP RQ
NCTK\CVKQP 'NGEVTGVU JCXG C UGOKRGTOCPGPV GNGEVTKE
GNF CPF CTG VJG GNGEVTQUVCVKE GSWKXCNGPV VQ OCI
PGVU 'NGEVTGVU JCXG PWOGTQWU RTCEVKECN CRRNKECVKQPU
KP VJG JQOG CPF KPFWUVT[
5QOG FKGNGEVTKEU ECP IGPGTCVG C RQVGPVKCN FKGTGPEG
YJGP UWDLGEVGF VQ OGEJCPKECN UVTGUU QT
GSWKXC
NGPVN[ EJCPIG RJ[UKECN UJCRG KH CP GZVGTPCN XQNVCIG KU
CRRNKGF CETQUU VJG OCVGTKCN 6JKU RTQRGTV[ KU ECNNGF
RKG\QGNGEVTKEKV[ 2KG\QGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCNU CTG CPQVJGT
ENCUU QH XGT[ WUGHWN FKGNGEVTKEU
5QOG KQPKE ET[UVCNU CPF RQN[OGT FKGNGEVTKEU GZJKDKV C
URQPVCPGQWU FKRQNG OQOGPV YJKEJ ECP DG TGXGTUGF
D[ CP GZVGTPCNN[ CRRNKGF GNGEVTKE GNF 6JKU DGJCX
KQT KU ECNNGF VJG HGTTQGNGEVTKE GGEV 6JGUG OCVGTK
CNU CTG CPCNQIQWU VQ VJG YC[ HGTTQOCIPGVKE OCVGTKCNU

 '635)&3 3&"%*/(
DGJCXG YKVJKP CP GZVGTPCNN[ CRRNKGF OCIPGVKE GNF
(GTTQGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCNU QHVGP JCXG XGT[ JKIJ FKGNGE
VTKE EQPUVCPVU OCMKPI VJGO SWKVG WUGHWN HQT ECRCEK
VQTU

10

See also

%NCUUKECVKQP QH OCVGTKCNU DCUGF QP RGTOKVVKXKV[

2CTCOCIPGVKUO
(GTTQGNGEVTKEKV[
%NCWUKWU/QUUQVVK TGNCVKQP
&KGNGEVTKE NQUUGU
&KGNGEVTKE UVTGPIVJ
&KGNGEVTKE URGEVTQUEQR[
'+# %NCUU  FKGNGEVTKE
'+# %NCUU  FKGNGEVTKE
*KIJM FKGNGEVTKE
.QYM FKGNGEVTKE
NGCMCIG
.KPGCT TGURQPUG HWPEVKQP
/GVCOCVGTKCN
4% FGNC[
4QVCVKQPCN $TQYPKCP OQVKQP

11

References

=? 3WQVG HTQO 'PE[ENQRFKC $TKVCPPKEC: %JFMFDUSJD JOTVMBU

JOH NBUFSJBM PS B WFSZ QPPS DPOEVDUPS PG FMFDUSJD DVSSFOU
8IFO EJFMFDUSJDT BSF QMBDFE JO BO FMFDUSJD FME QSBDUJDBMMZ
OP DVSSFOU PXT JO UIFN CFDBVTF VOMJLF NFUBMT UIFZ IBWF
OP MPPTFMZ CPVOE PS GSFF FMFDUSPOT UIBU NBZ ESJGU UISPVHI
UIF NBUFSJBM
&KGNGEVTKEU
RJ[UKEU #SJUBOOJDB  R 
4GVTKGXGF 
=? #TVJWT 4 XQP *KRRGN KP JKU UGOKPCN YQTM %JFMFDUSJD .B
UFSJBMT BOE "QQMJDBUJPOT UVCVGF %JFMFDUSJDT CTG PQV C
PCTTQY ENCUU QH UQECNNGF KPUWNCVQTU DWV VJG DTQCF GZRCPUG
QH OPONFUBMT EQPUKFGTGF HTQO VJG UVCPFRQKPV QH VJGKT KPVGT
CEVKQP YKVJ GNGEVTKE OCIPGVKE QT GNGEVTQOCIPGVKE GNFU
6JWU YG CTG EQPEGTPGF YKVJ ICUGU CU YGNN CU YKVJ NKSWKFU
CPF UQNKFU CPF YKVJ VJG UVQTCIG QH GNGEVTKE CPF OCIPGVKE
GPGTI[ CU YGNN CU KVU FKUUKRCVKQP
6GEJPQNQI[ 2TGUU QH
/+6 CPF ,QJP 9KNG[ 0; 
=? , &CKPVKVJ
 #JPHSBQIJDBM &ODZDMPQFEJB PG 4DJFO
UJTUT %4% 2TGUU R  +5$0 

=? ,COGU (TCPM #,. GFKVQT 6JG %QTTGURQPFGPEG QH

/KEJCGN (CTCFC[ 8QNWOG   .GVVGT 
9KNNKCO 9JGYGNN VQ (CTCFC[ R  6JG +PUVKVWVKQP
QH 'NGEVTKECN 'PIKPGGTU .QPFQP 7PKVGF -KPIFQO 
+5$0 
=? .JDSPXBWF &OHJOFFSJOH  3 4 3BP 1SPG
 4GVTKGXGF

=? 2 &GD[G
 8GT &GWV 2J[U )GUGNN  
TGRTKPVGF  KP EQNNGEVGF RCRGTU QH 2GVGT ,9 &GD[G
+PVGTUEKGPEG 0GY ;QTM
=? %JKCPI ; GV CN 2J[UKECN %GTCOKEU +PIO 8JMFZ  4POT
 0GY ;QTM
=? -WJP 7 .V[ (
 2CTCGNGEVTKE JGCVKPI
CPF EQQNKPI YKVJ 1*FKRQNGU KP CNMCNK JCNKFGU 4PMJE
4UBUF $PNNVOJDBUJPOT 3
  FQK


=? 5GNHEQTTGEVKPI ET[UVCN OC[ NGCF VQ VJG PGZV IGP
GTCVKQP QH CFXCPEGF EQOOWPKECVKQPU -WT\YGKN#+
FQKPCVWTG 4GVTKGXGF 
=? .GG % * 1TNQ 0 & $KTQN 6 <JW ; )QKCP
8 4QECU ' *CKUNOCKGT 4 8NCJQU ' /WPF[ , #
-QWTMQWVKU . ( 0KG ; $KGICNUMK / & <JCPI ,
$GTPJCIGP / $GPGFGM 0 # -KO ; $TQEM , &
7GEMGT 4 :K : : )QRCNCP 8 0W\JP[[ & -CODC
5 /WNNGT & # 6CMGWEJK + $QQVJ , % (GPPKG %
, 5EJNQO & )
 'ZRNQKVKPI FKOGPUKQPCNKV[ CPF
FGHGEV OKVKICVKQP VQ ETGCVG VWPCDNG OKETQYCXG FKGNGEVTKEU
/BUVSF 502
  FQKPCVWTG
2/+& 
=? 'NGEVTKECNN[ VWPCDNG FKGNGEVTKE OCVGTKCNU CPF UVTCVGIKGU VQ
KORTQXG VJGKT RGTHQTOCPEGU 5EKGPEGFKTGEVEQO 
 4GVTKGXGF 
=? )KGTG # <JGPI ; /CWPG * 5C\GICT / 2CWN (
<JQW : $KPFGT , 4 /WNNGT 5 ,CMQD[ 4

6WPCDNG FKGNGEVTKEU HQT OKETQYCXG CRRNKECVKQPU 
UI *&&& *OUFSOBUJPOBM 4ZNQPTJVN PO UIF "QQMJDBUJPOT PG
'FSSPFMFDUSJDT R  FQK+5#(
+5$0 
=? /WUUKI  *CPU,QCEJKO 4FNJDPOEVDUPS DBQBDJUPS XJUI
QSBTFPEZNJVN PYJEF BT EJFMFDUSJD 75 2CVGPV 
RWDNKUJGF  KUUWGF  CUUKIPGF VQ
+*2 )OD* +PPQXCVKQPU HQT *KIJ 2GTHQTOCPEG /KETQ
GNGEVTQPKEU+PUVKVWVG (WT +PPQXCVKXG /KMTQGNGMVTQPKM

12 Further reading
,CEMUQP ,QJP &CXKF
#WIWUV   $MBTTJDBM
&MFDUSPEZOBNJDT
 TF GF ,QJP 9KNG[  5QPU
+5$0   QT  RCIGU
5ECKHG $TGPFCP
5GRVGODGT   1SJODJQMFT PG
%JFMFDUSJDT .POPHSBQIT PO UIF 1IZTJDT  $IFNJTUSZ
PG .BUFSJBMT

 PF GF 1ZHQTF 7PKXGTUKV[ 2TGUU
+5$0 

13

External links

'NGEVTQOCIPGVKUO # EJCRVGT HTQO CP QPNKPG VGZV

DQQM
&KGNGEVTKE 5RJGTG KP CP 'NGEVTKE (KGNF
&Q+62Q/5 6GCEJKPI CPF .GCTPKPI 2CEMCIG &K
GNGEVTKE /CVGTKCNU
6GZVU QP 9KMKUQWTEG
&KGNGEVTKE &ODZDMPQFEJB "NFSJDBOB 

&KGNGEVTKE &ODZDMPQEJB #SJUBOOJDB

VJ
GF 



14
14.1

5&95 "/% *."(& 4063$&4 $0/53*#65034 "/% -*$&/4&4

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Dielectric 4PVSDF JVVRGPYKMKRGFKCQTIYKMK&KGNGEVTKE!QNFKF $POUSJCVUPST $T[CP &GTMUGP 5KOQP2 *GTQP #NQ 'NN[YC
5OCEM /CZKOWU 4GZ 2JQGDG 2KIUQPVJGYKPI 4QOCPO 5XGTFTWR ,QPFGN :CP\\KDCT /CVVCUEJGP #NCP .KGHVKPI )KHVNKVG %JTKUVQRJGT
2CTJCO $GP(TCPV\&CNG ,CCP ,QJPWZ +ECKTPU /E%CTV 4KEJ (CTODTQWIJ &DCEJOCPP $GPFGT 2LTKEJ -GFOQPF (GOVQ
$GTV *KEMOCP 'TKE -XCCNGP 9VUJ[OCPUMK &CXKF *CUNCO )TGIQT$ 5&% *CTF 4CUR[ 5EK 2CNKEC 7VWCFQ -GXOKVEJ 6JGFCVCUVTGCO
/CTIQUDQV`GPYKMK #NHTGF %GPVCWTK 5TNGGT $IYJKVG ;WTKM$QV 9CXGNGPIVJ ,KOR ,CDDGT9QM 5JCFFCEM #NGZ $CMJCTGX 0CYNKP9KMK
/CNEQNOC (CPVWUVC 2TKOG%WR'GXGG .KIJV EWTTGPV %9GPIGT *CNE[QPJC\CTF #TCF -CVKGJ ,GTT[8# %+TGNCPF %JGO)CTFGPGT
/NKDD[ %CHG 0GTXQUC 5OCEM$QV 4Q[CNIWCTF /GNEJQKT 1F /KUJGJW $NWG -QELQ$QV`GPYKMK 2QNCTQP -OCTKPCU $NWGDQV
(W\\HQTO 1NK (KNVJ %QORNGZKEC &*0DQV`GPYKMK .CPIDGKP 4KUG $TGCFW (QZLYKNN #LCZMTQQP 0KUJMKF (TQ\GP/CP +TKFGUEGPV
$GPRNQYOCP 6TGDPQL 4UVGKH %JGVXQTPQ *CTQNF H /KIJV[9CTTKQT %OFT1DQV ,CGIGT %JTWORU &T <CM %0/+0 6JKLUDQV $CT
VKEWU *GCFDQOD ,QJP 9CNMGT
HQWTOKNCDEJ /JCKVJCOUJCOOCC .HUVGXGPU 5VQTMM ,#P&DQV 2+TKUJ 'CING(CP +PXGTV4GEV /CTV
KP$QV #FKGN NQ`GPYKMK .QQJEUPWH /ENCWID 56$QV& 9KPVGT5RY 6KOYKNUQP +FKQOCDQV 8QNMQX$QV ,G ) 9QNHPKZ 2JKNKR 6TWG
OCP 5YGGVPGUU %Q,C$Q 4CMQ .COTQ #NNGDQTIQ$QV 5KG$QV *CLQ $GVU[$QDD[ ,QJPHQVJGTIKNN .CDWTMG ,GIG[QO )WKGTOQ
$QTII .ZOQVC :.KPM$QV 9KMKWUGT 0IGDDGVV 0KEQIWCTQ /FCYDGT #FFDQV 2[HCP 1WV QH 2JCUG 7UGT (IPKGXKPUMK 6JCGLCU
&QYPNQCF &GWVGTKWO <QTTQDQV 3WCPVWOQDUGTXGT )V\ 'FYKPJWDDGN )KVTIWTW /CVGTKCNUEKGPVKUV .QWTKG2KGVGTUG $QD $WTMJCTFV
*CNLQNCF  9KMKURGNNGT 1OPKRCGFKUVC /POPID %JQPIMKCP  (TGUEQ$QV 6GEJCWVJQT 6TCPNGVWJCP 5VGXG 3WKPP %WTVKUCDDQVV
4CXKUJMWOCT ,QPGUG[ /CTKCUVCCT ,QCPPCEQQRGT (QZ$QV (COC %NCOQUC  6K: /CTKG 2QKUG 'PKUVWPEGT 4KREJKR
$QV %JKDD[PG ,QJP QH 4GCFKPI 9KMKVCPXKT$QV (TQFNKOV *JJKRRQ <TQ$QV 2$5#9$ &GN[NG 3WQPFWO ,QUJNGRCMPRUC (K\KEKUV
'JUCPJQUUGKPK #PF[OEN %JWKURCUVQP$QV 4QEM/CIPGVKUV /CRRGVQR .QXGVKPMNG %NWG$QV 0) 7NWPF /CPWDQV 9KFT 'WV[ 'RKU
EQRJCIWU *GNRHWN 2KZKG $QV /CPKCE # DNCEM JQRG ,;$QV 5CCMGV UJCTOC &QPP #PF[JQYNGVV %JQKUEKR[ ,CEQPC(TGTG 8JCNKU
*(*8 #PVQP[*CTV (GFQT /GPFG  CPF #PQP[OQWU 

14.2

Images

File:Capacitor_schematic_with_dielectric.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUEEF%CRCEKVQTAUEJGOCVKEA

YKVJAFKGNGEVTKEUXI -JDFOTF %% $;5#  $POUSJCVUPST UGNHOCFG 58) XGTUKQP QH +OCIG&KGNGEVTKERPI KPEQTRQTCVKPI +OCIG%CRCEKVQT
UEJGOCVKEUXI CU KVU DCUG 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU 2CRC 0QXGODGT
File:Dielectric_model.svg 4PVSDF JVVRWRNQCFYKMKOGFKCQTIYKMKRGFKCEQOOQPUHHD&KGNGEVTKEAOQFGNUXI -JDFOTF 2WDNKE FQOCKP
$POUSJCVUPST JVVRGPYKMKRGFKCQTIYKMK(KNG&KGNGEVTKEAOQFGNUXI 0SJHJOBM BSUJTU JVVRGPYKMKRGFKCQTIYKMK7UGT5WRGTO

14.3

Content license

%TGCVKXG %QOOQPU #VVTKDWVKQP5JCTG #NKMG