WHAT MAKES UP THE CONSULTING PROCESS?

The process of consulting is the how of consultation. Consultants can use the same basic
process, regardless of the specialized field in which he or she may be consulting or the
subject matter. The six fundamental phases of this process are:
Phase 1:

Making First Contact/Entry

This is the first contact with the client. You are identifying who the client is
and what motivation there is to bring about change. You are also exploring the
potential for working together.
Phase 2:

Establishing the Relationship

This step includes specifying the desired outcomes, deciding who is going to
do what, agreeing on style, costs, timing and accountability.
Phase 3:

Problem Finding

This is the data gathering and data analysis stage. Here you find out what is,
what should be, what the gap is, and whether or not it is worth working on.
Phase 4:

Solution Finding

At this stage, the client is given assistance in specifying what it is he wants

and when he wants it.

Planning the Work/Working the

Plan
Phase 5:

At this step the work is planned in terms of who will do what, when, where,
how and with what resources. The plan is then carried out.
Phase 6:

Evaluation/Termination

The client and the consultant look back over the project and their relationship
at this step. The consultant then withdraws and terminates the consulting
relationship.

1:
MAKING FIRST CONTACT/ENTRY
PHASE

This is where the initial contact is made between the consultant and the client. This is a
critical stage in which the client and consultant establish and verbalize expectations of
the other. At this first meeting of both parties, the following should be discussed:
-

the nature of the overall project

parameters and constraints
available resources
the clients and the consultants desired results
background information relative to the clients organization
general ground rules concerning confidentiality

RELATIONSHIP TENSION

Relationship tension is the tension that exists between people when they first meet. It can
prevent the consultant from directing the clients time and energy toward the project to be
accomplished. The consultants objective during this early stage of the consulting
process is to reduce relationship tension so that the client is comfortable focusing on the
task of problem finding and solving.
Relationship tension usually starts out high and generally diminishes as the process
evolves. Task Tension is the opposite of relationship tension. It is a positive development
and facilitates problem solving and task accomplishment.
As illustrated below, when relationship tension is high, task tension is low. The graph
also shows that relationship tension will naturally decrease over time. As you spend
more time with the client, you become more comfortable with each other and are able to
work together towards task accomplishment.
THE TENSION/TIME CONNECTION

T
E
N
S
I
O
N

Relationship
Tension

Task

Tension

TIME

In order to recognize whether or not the client is experiencing high relationship tension,
close attention should be given to your clients body language, tone, and choice of words
to determine if s/he is exhibiting defensive behaviour.
In order to reduce any relationship tension, you must build trustmake the client feel
comfortable with you and the way you work. It is important to remember at this stage
that the client may be sensitive to some of the issues being discussed about his/her
organization. There may be strong emotional elements in the thinking patterns of the
client that will result in defensive behaviour. Such behaviour must be met with respect
it is extremely important that you are sensitive to the feelings and personal needs of the
client in order to establish trust in the relationship.
BUILDING TRUST

INTERACT AROUND A TASK:

-

interact with/involve the client in the project tasks (beginning with building the
relationship)
use relating skills to build trust and leadership

BE WILLING TO SELF-DISCLOSE:
-

be open and honest about yourself---reveal yourself,

(the more you self-disclose, the more the client will self-disclose)

ANSWER THE UNASKED QUESTIONS:

-

the client may have questions about you, your approach to work, your
experience, your competence etc. that s/he does not voice
be prepared for such questions and answer them even if they are not asked

Client questions at this stage can be categorized as follows:

PROPRIETY your consulting etiquette/conduct
Do you act, talk, and look like a consultant?
Will you respect the client and his/her organization?
SOmeet the clients expectations by dressing, speaking, and behaving
appropriately.
COMMONALITY the degree to which you (the consultant) and the client
have common qualities
Are you (the consultant) at all like the client?
Do you have anything in common with the client?
Do you have the same interests, attitudes, background, etc. as the client?

SOtalk to the client about any ideas, experiences, interests and opinions you share.
COMPETENCE your qualifications/ability to do the consulting project
Do you understand the clients operation and situation/problem?
Are you open to listen to what the client has to say?
Can you really help the client?
SOtell your client a bit about yourself, your education, and any related
experience that you may have.
INTENT your motivation for entering into the relationship with the client
Are your motives compatible with the clients needs?
What is your attitude going to be?
Will you be easy to work with?
Are you working for the client or your own self-interest?
SOexplain why you are doing the project, what the clients role is in the process,
how it will benefit you and your client, how much time you wish to put into the
project, etc.

ALSOEmpathize with the client. Imagine yourself in the clients position.

What worries, concerns or questions might he or she have?

2:
ESTABLISHING THE RELATIONSHIP
PHASE

The objective of this phase of the consulting process is to create a win-win situation for
both partiesyou, the consultant, and the client. In order to establish a win-win
relationship, both parties must clarify their goals, sort out expectations and
contributions, and affirm and record (in a written contract) a mutual agreement.

During this phase

THE CONSULTANT SHOULD:

consider what s/he can contribute to the consulting relationship (i.e. knowhow, time, results) and what s/he hopes to get in return
be prepared as s/he enters the consulting relationship to clearly, fairly, and
honestly state what you will give and what you expect in return
anticipate the goals, needs, and expectations of the client
be open and direct when explaining costs and identifying the resources the
client
must contribute to the project
empathize with the client in addressing his/her concerns at this stage
identify the source(s) of any conflict that may arise and then deal with the
source rather than the symptoms
prepare a written contract to confirm the agreed upon goals of the
client and the consultant(s)
maintain frequent contact with the client after the contract is negotiated
identify the key decision criteria that are essential for analyzing possible
alternatives
THE CLIENT SHOULD:

identify what specific knowledge, expertise, qualities (accountability,

performance, feedback) s/he expects from the consultant
- consider what s/he is prepared to contribute (i.e. in terms of time, effort, money)
- begin to specify the outcomes or results that s/he expects from the project, and
to
identify the criteria that must be met in order for a recommendation to be
identified
and implemented
- be made aware of the costs involved

KEY DECISION CRITERIA

A critical part of feasibility and recommendation reports is the discussion of the
requirements you will use to reach the final decision or recommendation. Imagine that
you are trying to recommend a specific laptop computer for use by employees. There are
likely to be requirements concerning size, cost, hard-disk storage, display quality,
durability, and battery function.

"KEY"

Serving as an essential component; the most important aspect; "a

cardinal rule"; the central cause of the problem; "the operative
word"; something crucial for explaining.

"DECISION"

The act of settling or terminating by giving judgement on the

matter at issue; an account or report of a conclusion, a position,
opinion or judgement reached after careful consideration.

"CRITERIA"

A means or standard for judging; any approved or established rule,

test or guideline by which facts, principles, opinions, and conduct
are tried in forming a correct judgement respecting them.

Although we may not realize it, we consider key decision criteria in every decision we
make in our everyday lives. For example, when choosing an apartment in Wolfville
while you are attending school, you consider several factors before committing to a
specific apartment. You will consider the key decision criteria that will enable you to
make the best choice. This could include the cost of the apartment per month (you
cannot live somewhere that your budget does not allow for), location (this may differ
depending on if you own a car, where the majority of your classes are, etc.), and size (you
may specifically be looking for a one-bedroom apartment). As you can see, key decision
criteria are the essential points you consider in making any decision. They cannot be
compromised; therefore decisions must be made around them (not the other way
around!).
Requirements can be defined in several basic ways:
1. Numerical values: Many requirements are stated as maximum or minimum
numerical values. For example, there may be a cost requirement--the laptop should
cost no more than $900.
2. Yes/No values: Some requirements are simply a yes-no question. Does the
laptop come equipped with a modem?
3. Ratings values: In some cases, key considerations cannot be handled either
with numerical values or yes/no values. For example, we might want a laptop that
has an ease-of-use rating of at least "good" by some nationally accepted ratings
group. Or we may have to assign a rating ourselves.

Key decision criteria are the requirements that are absolutely essential for the successful
implementation of the final recommendation. These could be things that must

occur, that must be maintained, that must be avoided, or must be

achieved to implement an alternative or to solve a problem. Key decision
criteria must either be directly measurable ($2 million in sales per year), or a nonmeasurable event that must be implemented (maintain quality). If an alternative does not
fit with the key decision criteria you identify, then that alternative is not viable.

For example, if you discover a key decision criterion of your client is to keep his/her
debt-to- asset ratio at 2:1, it could be said that an alternative is viable if it gives a return of
3:1. Key decision criteria must then be used as a basis to evaluate the alternatives you
will lay out in a latter phase of the consulting process (Phase 4). You must analyze the
alternatives against each of the key decision criteria to come up with a viable (or the most
appropriate) recommendation.

Alternativ
Alternativ
e2
Alternativ
e3

KDC 1

KDC 2

KDC 3

KDC 4

TOTAL

From this simplified table, we can see that Alternative 2 would be the best
recommendation for the client because it satisfies the most key decision criteria. This
table is much harder to complete in reality because some alternatives will not give a yes
or no answer. However, this template should be taken into consideration later in the
consulting process when a recommendation must be made.
DISCUSSION AND COMPARISON OF KEY DECISION CRITERIA:

The key decision criteria component of your project should also discuss the importance
of the individual criteria in relation to each other. Picture the typical situation where
there is no one alternative best in all categories of comparison (or when no one
alternative is shown to be the best from the above chart). One option is cheaper; another
has more functions; one has better ease-of-use ratings; another is known to be more
durable. Devise a method by which you can pick a "winner" from a situation where there
is no clear winner. In this case, it is extremely useful to rate the key decision criteria in
order of importance. What criteria cannot be compromised? What can? Is it more
important to be less expensive or to be more durable, etc.?

In addition, it is important that you explain how you narrowed the field of criteria down
to the ones you will use when evaluating your alternatives. Often, this follows right after
the discussion and explanation of each key decision criterion you have chosen. The basic
requirements may well narrow the field down for you. However, there may be other
considerations that disqualify other options - explain these as well (money, time, ease of
implementation, expertise, etc.).

Examples of common key decision criteria:

Quantitative

Qualitative

Profit
Cost
ROI/ROA/ROE
Market share
Capacity requirements
Productivity
Staff turnover
Time to implement
Growth
Delivery time
Risk
Cash flow considerations
Quality
Inventory turnover

Competitive advantage
Customer satisfaction
Employee morale
Ease of implementation
Synergy
Ethics
Flexibility
Safety
Visual appeal
Obsolescence
Cultural sensitivity
Motivation
Goodwill
Corporate image

3:
PROBLEM FINDING
PHASE

This is the data gathering and data analysis stage where the clients problem (or
opportunity) is diagnosed. Here you find out what is, what should be, what the gap is,
and decide whether it is worth working on.
WHAT IS A PROBLEM

The problem is the difference between what the client has and what the client wants. It is
the gap between what is (the current situation) and what should be (the desired situation).
THE CLIENT AND THE PROBLEM:

S/HE MAY
- not have a clear idea of what the problem is
- understand the problem but may not be confident that the consultant
understands the problem
- may not be confident that the consultant understands enough about him/her
and his/her organization to obtain a good understanding of the problem
DEFINING THE PROBLEM:

The following four questions must be asked:

What is the current situation?
What is the clients present situation?
How do things presently work?
What is the desired situation?
What does the client want to see happening with(in) his/her
organization?
What is the nature of the gap?
Is there a gap (and how big is it) between the current and desired
situation?
What forces are pushing in the direction of the desired state,
and what forces are blocking progress?

CLASSIFYING PROBLEMS BASED ON THE

PROBLEM DIMENSION AND THE SOLUTION DIMENSION

THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE

PROBLEM IS UNDERSTOOD

clear
specific

unclear
vague

THE DEGREE TO WHICH THE

THE SOLUTION IS KNOWN
AND UNDERSTOOD

certainty
cause & effect
predictable

uncertainty
randomness
unpredictable

PROBLEM CATEGORIES

1. Simple Problem

- both the present and desired situations are known and can be well
defined
- the actions for closing the gap are obvious and straightforward
- relatively easy to define using facts, figures, and objective data

2. Hidden Problem - problems are difficult to define

- but there are (often an overabundance of) obvious solutions
3. Hidden Solution

- problems can be defined by facts and figures

- cause and effect relationships are difficult to deduce
- it is not known if proposed solutions will produce the desired
outcome

4. Messy Problems

- networks of interconnected problems

- solving one problem in isolation may cause several more
problems
- actions taken may have unpredictable outcomes

Collecting Data for Problem Finding

The consultant needs valid data in order to discover actual organizational problems.
There are a number of ways to collect data for identifying problems. For example, you
can collect data via interviews, surveys, research of past and present organizational
practices, direct observation, etc.

DATA COLLECTION SKILLS

(1) QUESTIONING
- ask a lot of questions to find out about the present and
desired situations, and the gap separating the two
Types of Questions:
a) CLOSED Questions

Ex:
b) OPEN Questions

Ex:

- to gain specific information in order to isolate or clarify

the problem and its causes
- usually answered with yes or no, or short facts
When did this start happening?
Who was involved?
- solicit a lot of information
- enable you to expand on the subject and conversation
- invite expression of relevant beliefs and feelings
Can you explain how that happened?
What is your opinion regarding the cause of the problem?

c) FACT-FINDING Questions

Ex:

- answerable with verifiable, objective data

- uncover relevant, factual information relating to
the client and his/her situation

Who was involved?

What time did it happen?

d) FEELING-FINDING Questions

- uncover subjective information

- delve into personal emotions, feelings,
opinions,
doubts, worries, etc.

Ex:

Do you have any theories about why it happened at that

specific time?
Why has this been going on?

(2) LISTENING
-

devote 100% of your attention to the speaker

make brief written or mental notes
provide feedback to the speaker
focus on the central idea of the message and try to distinguish
what is important from what is not
- ask a lot of questions
- pay attention to body language and tone of voice

(3) DIVERGENT THINKING

- unconventional thinking
- not evaluative or logical
- reaching for radical, impossible ideas
- using all of your senses in thought
- helps to define the problem by creating many
problem statements from which to create an
accurate definition of the real problem
(4) USING SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRES FOR PROBLEM

FINDING
-

used when problem finding involves large numbers of

people as a substitute for personal contact
data that is collected through the survey can be fed back
to the people who generated it to help them define the
problem (survey feedback approach)

So
Think you have found the problem?
make sure you understand the problem
convince the client that you understand the problem
from the clients point of view
Then summarize your understanding of the problem and achieve confirmation from
the client to ensure that you will both be working toward solving the same problem.

GENERAL DATA COLLECTION APPROACHES

Remember to select methods of data collection that are appropriate to your situation and
the purpose of your consultation.

1) SECONDARY DATA (i.e. Statistics Canada Reports)

This method makes use of existing data that were collected for other purposes as the
basis for
new analysis. It is often useful to analyze such available data to provide a base and
direction
for your own further data collection.

2) PRIMARY DATA
i) REPRESENTATIVE METHOD
This method is used to collect information about a population in ways that provide
precise
estimates of the characteristics of the population with known likelihood of error (i.e.
surveys). This is often referred to as the scientific or statistical method of data
collection.
Ideal Conditions for Use of the Representative Method:
-

statistically accurate estimates of population characteristics are needed

random sampling is possible
data can be collected through specific survey questions administered in
diverse settings
secondary analysis or multiple rounds of data collection are anticipated

ii) INTERMEDIATE METHOD

This method is intended to reflect larger populations and to permit comparisons of key
differences among groups, communities, organizations, etc., but cases are not
randomly
selected.
Ideal Conditions for Use of the Intermediate Method:
-

statistical representativeness is unnecessary, although a rough indication of

the larger population characteristics may be desirable
comparisons among major groups are sufficient to meet information needs
a limited budget precludes statistically representative surveys or censuses
limited organization capabilities or adverse local conditions make
intermediate methods more practical

iii) CASE STUDY METHOD

The case study method is used to collect detailed, often descriptive (qualitative) data
from a
limited number of groups. Examples include focus groups or personal interviews.
Ideal Conditions for Use of the Case Study Method:

statistically representative data are unnecessary, difficult, or impossible to collect

information is needed on a relatively small, homogeneous population or on
identifiable groups within a larger, heterogeneous population
intensive information is needed on a topic rather than extensive data on a
population
useful data are primarily qualitative or are only quantifiable in a limited way

cost and expediency consideration preclude the use of alternatives

SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS

There are a number of sources of secondary data to consider. The following pages
contain lists of various local and regional resources that are available to you.
Additional sources of secondary data include local libraries, regional
development agencies, local media, and trade association offices.

Website & Phone

Information

Name
Access Nova Scotia

Statistics Canada

http://www.gov.ns.ca/

- Business Opportunities Sourcing

Services:

bacs/acns/
1-800-225-8227
(902) 679-6170

lists Canadian manufacturers , their

products and technical services to help
people find suppliers; provides market
Information and helps to identify market
Opportunities
- Department of Foreign Affairs Information:
International business developments and
markets for small businesses
- NS public tenders notices
- Information on business related government
financial assistance programs
- Federal, provincial, municipal information,
forms/applications, toll free number directory

http://www.statcan.ca/
1-800-263-1136

- Canadian Census Statistics: industry, trade,

Economic
- Population statistics: demography,
Geography

Department of Finance

http://www.gov.ns.ca/fina/ - NS economic indicators, trends, facts

- Business statistics
statisti/INDEX.HTM
- Demographic information
424-5691

Strategis

http://strategis.ic.gc.ca/

- Industry Canada's industry overview

- Economic research and statistics
- Provincial and municipal business information

NS Economic Development

(902) 424-5014

- Statistical info. pertaining to tourist traffic in NS

& Tourism Nova Scotia

(902) 424-4264

(visitor volume - seasonality, accommodations,

1-800-313-4447
http://gov.ns.ca/ecor/
Index.htm
GD Sourcing
Research and Retrieval

visitor origin, mode of travel, length of stay)

http://www.gdsourcing.co - Canadian Government Data Sourcing

- Market and industry data from government and
m/
non-government statistics
- A reference point for other Canadian Statistics

Department of Foreign Affairs

& International Trade

www.dfait-maeci.gc.ca

Yellow Pages

www.yellowpages.ca

Human Resources
Development Canada

ACSBE Web Bookshelf

- International market information

- Foreign and domestic investment opportunities
and policies
- WIN (World Information Network for Exports)
-Telephone listings for specific business
types in specified provinces, cities, and
towns across Canada

- Labour market information/trends, financial

http://www.hrdcdrhc.gc.ca/
assistance/resources, market and industry
common/home.shtml/
information, business links, employment
Http://www.ns.hrdcdrhc.gc.ca/
programs and services, partnership
Http://www.ns.hrdcdrhc.gc.ca/
english/service/service.ht Information
m

http://acsbe.acadiau.ca/Ex - Small business guide and directories: getting

plore
%20Self%20Employment/ started, marketing, finances, provincial info.,
family businesses, small business centres
Information
%20Sources/Web%
20Bookshelf.htm

TOWN OFFICE

TELEPHONE

Annapolis Royal
Berwick
Bridgetown
Bridgewater
Canning
Greenwood
Hantsport
Kentville
Kingston
Lawrencetown
Lunenburg
Mahone Bay
Middleton
New Minas
Port Williams
Windsor
Wolfville

532-2043
538-8068
665-4637
543-4651
582-3768
765-8788
684-3211
679-2500
765-2800
584-3082
634-4416
624-8327
825-4841
681-6972
542-4411
798-2275
542-5767

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION METHODS

Before you begin to develop and administer surveys, focus groups, etc., it is important
that you acknowledge that a number of primary data sources are already available to you.
Most of this data is in your clients possession, (i.e. information from receipts, invoices,
order forms, annual reports, customer service inquiries, customer complaints, the
salespeople, and even in the clients general knowledge of his or her day-to-day business
operations).
*Only after you have determined that more research is necessary do you go ahead
with
your own primary research.
Thenchoose the survey method that accomplishes your goal:

THE MOST COMMON PRIMARY RESEARCH SURVEYING TECHNIQUES:

(A) POLLS/QUESTIONNAIRES
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)

by telephone
in person (i.e. at a shopping mall, at your clients business)
direct mail
in an newspaper or newsletter

(B) FOCUS GROUPS

(C) PRODUCT OR SERVICE SAMPLING
Criteria for Selection of Survey Method:
-

COMPLEXITY
REQUIRED AMOUNT OF DATA
DESIRED ACCURACY
SAMPLE CONTROL
TIME REQUIREMENTS
ACCEPTABLE LEVEL OF RESPONSE

When surveying, it is imoprtant to have an appropriate sample size. To help

you to calculate sample size, go to: http://www.chartwellsystems.com/sscalc.htm.

(A) POLLS AND

QUESTIONNAIRES

METHOD

MAXIMUM TIME

BEST TIME OF DAY

TELEPHONE INTERVIEW

15 MINUTES

For people at home:

- evening hours after dinner
For people at work:
- office hours (NOT Monday
morning or Friday afternoon)

PERSONAL INTERVIEW
AT RESPONDENTS HOME

UP TO ONE HOUR

- Evening hours after dinner

- Saturdays
- By appointment

5 to 15 minutes
(varies by location)

- Daytime hours
- Evenings after dinner (mall)
- Sundays (mall)
- When people are not
hurried, relaxed

INTERCEPT (PERSONAL)
INTERVIEW
AT A CENTRAL LOCATION

(i.e. at a shopping mall,

school)
PERSONAL INTERVIEW AT
CLIENTS BUSINESS

Depends on the nature of the

business

DIRECT MAIL

5 to 15 minutes

NEWSPAPERS/NEWSLETTERS

Varies

- Whenever customers or
clients are
least hurried
- Try to time it so that the mailout
does not arrive on Monday
or
Wednesday
Varies (usually weekend
editions)

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF

POLLS/QUESTIONNAIRES
Method
TELEPHONE INTERVIEW

PERSONAL INTERVIEW
AT RESPONDENTS HOME

INTERCEPT (PERSONAL)
INTERVIEW
AT A CENTRAL LOCATION

(i.e. at a shopping mall,

school)

PERSONAL INTERVIEW AT
CLIENTS BUSINESS

Advantages

Disadvantages

- fast
- few people required
- good response rate
- can control sample size and
makeup
- can ask complex questions
- little influence on subject

- consumers are weary of

telemarketing and surveying
- cannot show
product/packaging

- able to show product or

service
- can ask largest number of
questions
per respondent
- can ask complex questions
and
probe for maximum detail
- able to control sample
make-up
- relaxed atmosphere
- good response rate

- highest cost per interview

- many people required (staff)
- a lot of time required
- difficult to find people at
home
- interviewer may personally
influence the respondent

- able to show product or

service
- can visually identify some
demographic characteristics
- can ask relatively complex
questions
- good response rate

- can show product or service

- able to control makeup of
sample
- can ask relatively complex
questions
- good response rate
- relatively low cost per
interview

- high cost
- interrupting busy people
- difficult to control make-up of
the
sample
- inability to ask complex,
probing
questions
- interviewer may influence
respondent
- interrupting busy people
- interviewer may influence
subject

DIRECT MAIL

- very wide sample

distribution possible
- can show photos of product
- no interviewer influence
- same cost per interview as
phoning
- people can respond when
not hurried

NEWSPAPERS/NEWSLETTERS

- same as direct mail except

for
variation in sample
distribution based
on circulation of publication

- slow getting all responses

back
- no complex questions
possible
- mailing lists may be
outdated
- impossible to control sample
makeup
- respondents are most likely
to be
those with vested interests
no complex
questions/explanations
possible
- cannot control sample makeup
- do not know who is actually
responding
- respondents may have
vested
interests

WRITING A QUESTIONNAIRE

THE 3 ELEMENTS OF A SUCCESSFUL QUESTIONNAIRE:

1. Make it the right length.
2. Make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous.
3. Make sure the questions are not leading.
1) Make it the right length:
The length of your questionnaire depends largely on the place you administer it
and the method by which you administer it. Begin by writing out all of the
questions you would like to ask, then begin eliminating them, question by
question until you have reached a compromise--the maximum number of
questions you can ask in the maximum amount of time your chosen method will
allow. Before administering the questionnaire to your survey group, test it on a
couple of members of your target audience. Administer it to them exactly as it is
meant to be done, (by phone or in person, self-administered or with an
interviewer). This will help to gauge the time it takes and will also help you clear
up any hard to understand or misleading questions.

2) Make sure the questions are clear and unambiguous:

- keep questions short and easy to understand
- ask for only one piece of information in each question
- keep the target audience in mind (i.e. how educated they are, how familiar they
are with your clients product or service, etc.)
- always double check to make sure the meaning of the question is clear
- give enough instructions to tell the respondent exactly how to respond
3) Make sure the questions are not leading:
It is very important to ask questions in such a way that you get the respondents
true views, not the answers you want to hear. A number of factors can influence
the person completing the survey, such as the interviewers attitude or tone, or the
setting.

4 TYPES OF QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Two-choice
Multiple-choice
Ranking
Open-ended

1) Two-Choice:
Two-choice questions give the respondent an either/or selection.
Example:
Do you drink milk?
Do prefer this item in

Yes
No
Black Grey (Please check one)

2) Multiple-Choice:
Multiple-choice questions allow the respondent to choose one or more
possibilities from a list. When using multiple-choice, its important to include
as many options as you canmaking sure not to leave out any major ones.
3) Ranking:
The most common form of ranking question is one that gives respondents a
scale on which to evaluate a single item.
Example:
How would you rate the services you received from your waiter?
(Please circle one)
Poor
1

Good
4

Excellent
6

10

Other questions ask people to rank a series of items or qualities against

other items or qualities.
Example:
What is most important to you? Please place a 1 beside the most
important, a 2 beside the second most important, and a 3 beside the third
most important.
____ Taste
____ Speed of Service
____ Price
4) Open-Ended:
Open-ended questions are used when you need more information than you can
get
from the other three question types. They are generally used to get qualitative
data,
whereas the other three types usually yield quantitative data. Open-ended
questions
are often used to elicit detail about a previous two-choice, multiple-choice, or
ranking
question.

HOW MANY TYPES OF QUESTIONS SHOULD YOU USE?

Any survey longer than five or six questions will probably use several types of questions.
Often a response to one question will automatically lead to another type of question. In
general, a balanced, informative survey will include several types of questions.

OTHER INFORMATION TO INCLUDE IN YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE:

(a) An introduction
(b) Keying
(a) AN INTRODUCTION:
Start your questionnaire with a brief written introduction stating the purpose of
your survey. You must have a written introduction on any survey sent
via direct mail, published in a newspaper or other publication, or placed on a table
or counter for customers to fill out. You should even include a written
introduction on surveys administered in person to help the interviewer remember
to give vital information.

In only a few sentences you should try to include who you are (i.e. Acadia
Business students), why you are doing the survey (i.e. what the results of the
survey will be used for), who you are surveying (i.e. your clients customers), and
a polite request for their participation, followed by a thank you.
(b) KEYING:
If your survey is being given in more than one location, administered at several
different times, or sent to more than one mailing list, you should always put key
letters or numbers on the survey indicating which location, time, or list the survey
is from. Simply print or hand write a combination of letters and/or numbers at the
top or bottom of the form, (i.e. HSC/10/99 meaning Halifax Shopping Centre,
October, 1999).

(B) FOCUS
Focus groups produce qualitative datadata that cannot be expressed in numbers.
Members of the group are carefully selected, usually to fit the description of your
clients ideal target customer. Focus groups can be used to learn a variety of
things. For example, a focus group could review your clients product(s),
advertising, and service(s). A group could also be brought together for input
regarding a change in your clients corporate image, the addition of a new product
or service, or during the expansion of the clients business.
A focus group is different than a brainstorming session in that it is designed to
discover feelings and perceptions, rather than to elicit ideas.
TIPS FOR EFFECTIVE FOCUS GROUPS:

choose a group of 6 to 10 people

set up an audio or video recorder, preferably where it will not be distracting
make everyone comfortable and welcomelet them know their ideas are
important
clearly explain what you would like them to discusshave a loose outline of
topics or questions prepared
allow for creative conversation, but make sure the talk doesnt wander off on
unrelated topics for too long
dont let the easy talkers dominatedraw everyone out
summarize periodically and ask the group to confirm that your summary is
correct
analyze the results afterward

(C) PRODUCT OR SERVICE

Sometimes you will have questions that can only be answered by having people actually
try your clients product or service. For example, Will this product be acceptable? Will
it be easy to understand? Will this service/product have unexpected glitches?
You may often need samples of your clients product or service to accompany your
surveys or focus groups.
SAMPLING TIPS:
-

if you are testing an item that lends itself to comparison, test a sample of your
clients product versus a sample of a competitors productotherwise conduct
a single-sample test using your clients product by itself to get peoples
reactions
with comparison sampling, never show the name of either product, (avoid
influencing the group)
never show the packaging or advertising of a product unless that is part of
what you are testing, (avoid influencing the group)
switch the order in which you give the samples when doing comparisons
(i.e. with food products)
ANALYZING AND INTERPRETING YOUR DATA

Now that you have collected your data, it must be analyzed to determine exactly what it
means. This involves the following four steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Examine the completed forms (i.e. surveys)

Tally the responses
Chart the responses to each question
Determine the meaning of the responses

#1) EXAMINING THE COMPLETED FORMS:

Go through the completed questionnaires to make sure the responses are useful. In some
cases you may be required to edit the responses when, for example, you know what a
respondent intended to say, but the wording or handwriting makes it unclear. In other
cases you may have to discard some responses or entire forms. If, for instance, someone
checked several boxes on a multiple-choice question where they were instructed to check
only one, you would have to discard their answer. One bad response does not invalidate
the entire questionnaire, however. You need only to discard the entire form when it is
clear that the respondent misunderstood or deliberately disregarded most of the
instructions.

#2)

TALLYING THE RESPONSES:

Next, you need to record the responses to every question on the questionnaires. This can
be done by hand or by computer. If your survey was brief and administered to a small
sample, (i.e. 10 questions given to 100 people), you can quite easily tally the responses
by hand.
Ex.

Question 1:

Have you ever shopped at Zellers?

Yes

No

Total Yes:
Total No:
Total:
Otherwise, you can record the data on a computer. Spreadsheet programs (such as Lotus
or Excel) are useful because they can tally the responses for you. SPSS is also an
excellent program because it is designed not only for recording and tallying results, but
also for analysing, correlating, and cross-checking the results.
#3)

CHARTING THE RESPONSES TO EACH QUESTION:

Once you have tallied all of the responses, you should chart or graph the results.
Charting makes it easier to read and interpret your data. It makes it easy for you and your
client.
A simple bar graph is the most readable and versatile method of charting, but other useful
charting styles include a curve for charting responses to ranking questions, and pie charts
for presenting multiple choice data.
#4)

DETERMINING THE MEANING OF THE RESPONSES:

To determine the meaning of your charted responses, keep the following four things in
mind:
(A) TRENDS a significantly high or low response to a given option that will become
obvious when you chart your data and break it down by demographic groups
(B) SIMILARITIES trends shared by widely varying demographic groups
(C) CONTRADICTIONS can point to flaws in your survey, product flaws, or
differences due to the widely varying make-up of your survey sample

(D) ODD GROUPINGS getting results you did not anticipate or cannot explain
A thorough diagnosis of your clients situation should yield a problem definition with
the following elements::
1. a clear picture of the desired state
2. a clear understanding of what is happening now
3. an assessment of the gap (problem) and a decision of whether or not it is
worth
working on
4. an awareness of the factors that are pushing towards the desired state and
those that
are blocking progress

4:
SOLUTION FINDING
PHASE

During this phase of the consulting process, you will provide the client with assistance in
specifying what exactly s/he wants and when s/he wants it. Alternative approaches to
reaching the clients desired state are first generated and assessed, and a recommendation
is made thereafter.
Usually several courses of action are possible, each of which may contribute to the
resolution of the problem. In most cases, the issue of selecting the best or optimum
solution emerges. When this is likely to be the case, the first contribution that you can
make is to help your client in goal setting
Turn a Description of the Desired State into a Goal
In order to provide a more solid foundation for assessing alternatives, the desired state
should be described more specifically as a goal or objective. A good goal statement
should meet the following criteria:
- be results oriented
- be specific as to accountability
- be specific in time
- be measurable in terms of quality and quantity
factors
- be realistic and achievable
- be challenging and stretching
- include constraints or conditions imposed by
money, manpower, resources, etc.
- be within the control of the person who is
accountable for its achievement
Check your data at this stage to ensure that you have what you need in order to
begin considering solutions..
What do you know or think you know so far?
What dont you know yet, but would like to know?
Why is this a problem for you?
What has your client already thought of or tried?

GENERATING ALTERNATIVES
Use DIVERGENT THINKING to generate innovative and creative solutions using the
Spectrum Method:
This method states that every contribution has merit to it, however small. The value of an
idea can be looked at as a spectrum with some positive aspects and some negative. Our
competitive nature tends to steer us, however, to the negative aspects first. This method
asks us to focus on what is good and positive about it and then build on that positive
aspect and later work to reduce or eliminate any negatives.
Ex. What I like about your suggestion is then you can go on to say
I am concerned about this aspect of your suggestion,How might I build
upon your idea and still get around this concern?

Steps in Applying the Spectrum Principle:

1. listen carefully to the contribution of others
2. identify the positive aspects of that contribution and state them clearly as you see
them
3. wait for confirmation, elaboration or clarification from the other person
4. if you still have concerns about some aspects of the idea, express them in a way
that they can be worked on as in how might we?

TRANSFORM
THE Principle for More Innovative/Creative Solutions:
T transform:

transform a basic solution into something different by making

modifications to any part of it

R reverse:

take a standard solution and turn it upside down or backwards to

see what emerges

A adapt:

take a solution that worked in another environment and adapt it to

see if it can be made to fit

N novelize:

make the strange familiar by taking an idea from a totally different

field and toying with it until it has relevance to the problem that
you are dealing with

S substitute:

if the problem lies with a particular step in the process (any subunit of the larger whole), try to find a substitute for that part that
can still allow the whole to achieve its objective

F fuse:

take two or more good ideas and force them togethersee what
emerges

O omit:

leave out a traditional step, omit a part of the obvious solution, stop
doing something that has already been done

R rearrange:

start at the end rather than the beginning

M magnify:

make something bigger or make it smaller (i.e. conduct a pilot

project in a small area before you try it on a national level)

Techniques for Creative Thinking Within Your Group:

- building on others ideas

- crediting others

- offering

- speculating
- praising and reinforcing
- confronting conflict

- approximating
- setting goals
- deferring judgement - avoiding arguments
- listening
- not interrupting

EVALUATING ALTERNATIVES
After you have generated a list of possible actions, you must begin the task of evaluating
those options using the KEY DECISION CRITERIA identified earlier, to serve as a
basis for decision-making. Most evaluation approaches involve a comparison of COSTS,
IMPACT and FEASIBILITY. If each alternative will produce the same impact, then the

one that costs the least and/or is the most feasible is often the likely choice---but not
always!
*(see page 24)
HELPFUL APPROACHES USING KEY DECISION CRITERIA

Decision Trees -

These consist of arrow diagrams that trace alternative courses of

action to their logical conclusions and consider a variety of what
ifs along the way. The costs and benefits associated with each are
recorded on the diagram and the decision maker(s) can thereby
reduce the alternatives to a manageable decision.

Evaluation Matrix - It may be helpful to create a matrix with your alternatives listed on
one axis and the various costs and benefits on the other. Allot each
factor a number of points (out of ten, for example) based on their
relative importance. Then you can rate each alternative, calculate
the total points awarded to each alternative, and select the best
solution as that which has the most points.
And finally

MAKE A CHOICE BETWEEN THE ALTERNATIVES!

5:
PLANNING THE WORK(Action Plan) then
WORKING THE PLAN (implementation)
PHASE

This is the point at which you plan the work that will allow you to achieve your (and your
clients) predetermined objective(s), and then work the plan to ensure that what you plan
actually occurs.
You will develop a work plan which will lay out who will do what, when, where, how
and with what resources. The plan will then be carried out and the progress monitored.
PLANNING THE WORK

list the tasks involved in carrying out the decision (choice of alternatives)
arrange them in sequence
with more complex tasks, add the estimated time it will take to complete the
task, add who will be responsible for completing the task, add information
about where the task will be carried out, and with what tools, costs, etc.
thenassess whether or not the plan is feasible and determine how best to
schedule each task for optimum efficiency

WORKING THE PLAN

Once you have a work plan, you and your client can begin to carry it out. This
phase of the consulting process is likely to be the most exciting and rewarding for
the client. The
consultant has a particular responsibility at this time to ensure that information
flowing back to the client from the project is timely and specific.

MANAGING THE CLIENTS RESISTANCE TO CHANGE:

Some of you may find that your recommendation to the client involves substantial or
complex change for the client and his/her organization. When this is the case, you may
experience some resistance on the part of the client. By anticipating client resistance and
getting a feel for the clients orientation to change, (i.e. is s/he an innovator, a late
adopter, a resistor), there are a number of measures that can be taken to both avoid it, and
to deal with it when it arises:
-

provide your client with opportunities for involvement throughout the project
to gain their commitment to the changes
divide the change into a number of smaller steps so that the client (and the
people within his/her organization) can focus on one step at a time

give the client advance notice of the possibility of a large or complex change
so that s/he has time to adjust his/her thinking
the client should try to minimize or reduce the number of differences
introduced by the change and leave as many routines/habits in place as
possible
be sensitive to the clients concerns about the ripples that such change would
cause in his/her organizationintroduce the change with some flexibility
avoid pretence and false promisesbe honest with your client

Some other approaches to keep in mind when trying to

GAIN ACCEPTANCE OF CHANGE

Change is more acceptable when

What to do.

1. It is understood than when it is not.

1. Explain reasons, objective(s), and

mechanics of the change.

2. It does not seem to threaten security

than when it does.

2. Explain what effects the change

will have on jobs, the future, and
the organizational structure.

3. Those affected have helped create it than

when it has been externally imposed.

3. Whenever feasible, develop new

methods, procedures, etc. in
consultation with those who will
be affected.

4. It is implemented after prior change has

for been assimilated than when it is
implemented during the adjustment to
other major change.

4. After each major change, allow

an adjustment period.

5. It follows a series of successful change than

of when it follows a series of failures.

5. If several changes over a period

time have failed to solve a
problem, it may be better
avoid any further change
while.

to
for a
6. Those affected can see the gain factor in
it than when they cannot.

6. Explain the benefits of the change

such as better distribution of
workload, work simplification,
more responsibility, better use of

talent, more opportunity, training

for better jobs, etc.
7. It results from an application of accepted
policies or principles than when it is
dictated by personal order.

7. Avoid major change that results

from personal likes and dislikes.

8. People are new to a job than to people

by old on the job.

8. The more old-timers are affected

the change, the more important it
is to apply other principles
in this chart.

listed

9. The outcome is reasonably certain than

try when it is not.
for a
number of
10. The organization has been trained to
plan for improvement than if the
organization is accustomed to the status
quo.
understanding that

9. Where the outcome is uncertain,

the change on an experimental
basis, for a limited period,
test area, on a selected
products.
10. As the consultant, encourage
suggestions, develop a
questioning attitude,
establish
failure of some ideas is
considered as part of the cost of
progress.

6:
EVALUATION AND TERMINATION
PHASE

This is the phase of the consulting process during which the client and the consultant
look back over the project and their relationship to try to establish if objectives have
been met, what worked well and what did not, and if there are any next steps following
termination of the relationship.
PROJECT EVALUATION
Both you and the client must ask:
Where are we now?
How does this compare to where we wanted to be when we started out?
EVALUATING OF THE CONSULTING RELATIONSHIP
Arrange a final meeting with your client to review the final report (which you will have
presented to him/her at the previous meeting), and to review what has gone on between
you during the consultation, and also to look ahead at where the relationship may have
potential to go in the future. Be open and honest about how you perceive your consulting
behaviour during the relationship. Encourage your client to give you feedback. Ask him
or her to recall actions on your part that were helpful. Get them to be specific in their
answers. Also ask your client to recall (in detail) any times when you may not have been
so helpful. Open yourself to feedback about your consulting skills.
TERMINATING THE CONSULTING RELATIONSHIP
The final meeting with your client will also involve terminating the client-consultant
relationship. You and your client should reach an agreement to terminate the relationship
on a positive basis after you have discussed the project and the relationship in detail. You
may also want to leave the door open for further interaction with your client.