54

CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND PROCEDURES

5.1

GENERAL
The experimental setup and procedures for conducting various tests

on concrete and RCC elements are discussed here.

5.2

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR CONCRETE SPECIMENS

5.2.1

Concrete and Mortar Cubes

The size of mortar cubes used for this investigation was 70.6 x 70.6

x 70.6 mm confirming to IS 10080-1982. Compressive strength of mortar

cubes were found according to IS: 4031-1982 (Part 6). Similarly, to determine
the

compressive

strength

and

durability

effects

of

concrete,

150 mm 150 mm 150 mm size concrete cubes were cast and tested in
accordance with IS: 516-1959. All strength tests were conducted using
2000kN compression testing machine. Cube moulds of size 150x150x150 mm
were used. They were cleaned thoroughly using a waste cloth and then
properly oiled along its faces. Concrete was then filled in mould and then
compacted using a standard tamping rod of 60 cm length having a cross
sectional area of 25mm2. Concrete mixtures with different proportions of
copper slag ranging from 0% to 60% replacement for sand and 0% to 20% for
cement were prepared and tested.

55

5.2.2

Concrete Cylinders
The size of cylinder used for split tensile strength and durability

studies was 150mm diameter and 300mm height. This test was conducted in
accordance with IS: 5816-1999. The crude oil was applied along the inner
surfaces of the mould for the easy removal of specimens from the mould.
Concrete was poured throughout its length and compacted well.
For corrosion test, 12mm diameter bars of Fe 250 grade of steel
were embedded at the centre of the specimens with 70mm cover thickness.
5.2.3

Concrete Discs
Disc shaped specimens of nominal size 100mm diameter x 50mm

thickness was used to carry out RCPT test in concrete in accordance with
ASTM C-1202. Moulds are made by using PVC. The crude oil was applied
earlier along the inner surfaces of the mould for the easy removal of
specimens from the mould.
5.2.4

Concrete Beams
Concrete beams of standard size 750 x 150 x 150 mm confirming to

IS: 516-1959 was used for this study. A total number of 21 specimens were
cast for different proportions of copper slag with sand in each series. Out of
which, three specimens were treated as controlled specimens. Seven test groups
were constituted with replacement of 0% (control specimen), 10%, 20%, 30%,
40%, 50% and 60% copper slag with sand in each series. Three specimens
were prepared for every replacement percentage and these beams were tested
for flexural strength in Universal Testing Machine of capacity 100 tonnes.

56

5.3

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP FOR RCC SPECIMENS

5.3.1

RCC Beams
Two types of RCC structural elements have been considered for

study.
They are:

Flexural behaviour of RCC beams incorporating copper slag

as partial replacement of sand. (Replacement 0 to 60%)

Flexural behaviour of RCC beams incorporating copper slag

as partial replacement of cement (Replacement - 0 to 20%)

Simply supported RCC beams were subjected to pure flexural

failure by subjecting them to two point loading test. The beams used in this
study were 150mm x 150mm in cross section and 1500mm in length. Two
10 mm diameter bars were used for flexural reinforcement at bottom and two
8 mm rods were provided for top reinforcement. For each beam, 6 mm
diameter mild steel bars are used as stirrups, spaced 100 mm c/c for shear
reinforcement. Typical beam reinforcement details are illustrated in
Figure 5.1. For this investigation, a total number of 36 beam specimens were
cast and tested for sand and cement replacement (18Nos. - sand replacement,
12Nos.-cement replacement, 3Nos. - combined replacement and 3Nos.controlled specimens). All beams were cast by using M20 grade concrete with
20 mm size of CA, locally available sand and OPC 43 grade cement.

57

Figure 5.1 Beam reinforcement details

5.3.1.1

Experimental set up of RCC beam

All beams (150mm x 150mm in cross section and 1500mm in

length) were tested as simply supported beams under two point loading over
an effective span of 1400mm. The loads were applied at a distance of 470mm
on either side of the mid span of the beams of 1500mm length, as shown in
Figure 5.2. To study the performance of copper, slag replaced specimens.
These beams were tested in a loading frame of 500 kN capacity. The loads
were monitored through a high accuracy load cell with a load sensitive of 0.1
tonnes. For this case, mid span deflection was measured using dial gauges of
least count 0.01mm. The parameters such as initial cracking load, ultimate
load and the deflected shape of the specimens were noted.

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Figure 5.2 Experimental set up of RCC beams

5.3.2

RCC Short Columns

To find axial compressive strength, columns with square cross

section of size 100mm x 100mm cross section and 1000mm long were used.
The head was provided at each end of columns with the size of 140mm x
100mm x100mm to avoid crushing failure. All the columns were provided
with four 8mm diameter Tar steel Fe 415 as longitudinal and 6mm diameter
mild steel rods Fe 250 as transverse reinforcement with spacing of 100mm
centre-to-centre distance. A 20mm effective cover for reinforcements was
provided. L/D ratio maintained for this type of column was 10. A total
number of 21 specimens were cast for different proportions of copper slag
with sand in each series. Three specimens were treated as controlled
specimens. The reinforcement details of the columns are shown in Figure 5.3.

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Figure 5.3 Reinforcement details of short columns

5.3.2.1

Experimental set up of RCC short columns

All the columns were tested under pure axial compressive load. The

columns were tested in a column tester of 2000 kN capacity. The load was
applied gradually in a controlled manner in increments of 2kN by hand
pumping of the manually operated hydraulic jack. The loading was monitored
through a high accuracy load cell with a sensitivity of 1kN. The axial strain
values were measured from the compressometer positioned at mid height of
column for various loads taken from the proving ring. The lateral
deformations were measured by dial gauges of least count 0.01mm fixed at
adjacent faces of the columns as shown in Figure 5.4. The parameters such as
initial cracking load, ultimate load and the deflected shape of the specimens
were noted.

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Figure 5.4 Experimental set up of RCC short columns

5.3.3

RCC Long Columns

The following types of columns have been considered for

investigation of failure due to buckling.

Buckling behaviour of RCC long columns incorporating

copper slag as partial replacement of sand. (Replacement - 0
to 60%)

Buckling behaviour of RCC long columns incorporating

copper slag as partial replacement of cement (Replacement - 0
to 20%)

To find axial compressive strength, columns with square cross

section of size 150mm x 150mm cross section and 1900mm long were used.

61

The head was provided at each end of columns with the size of 240mm x
200mm x175mm to avoid crushing failure. L/D ratio maintained for this
column was 12.67. Therefore, this column is otherwise called long columns.
All the columns were provided with four 10mm diameter Tar steel Fe 415 as
longitudinal and 6mm diameter mild steel rods Fe 250 as lateral ties for
transverse reinforcement with spacing of 100mm centre-to-centre distance.
These column specimens were cast by using specially fabricated steel moulds.
The details of the geometry of the column specimens and details of
reinforcement used for the specimens are shown in Figure 5.5. For this
investigation, a total number of 36 column specimens were cast and tested for
sand and cement replacement (18Nos. - sand replacement, 12Nos.-cement
replacement, 3Nos. - combined replacement and 3Nos.-controlled specimens).

Figure 5.5 Reinforcement details of RCC long columns

62

5.3.3.1

Experimental set up of RCC short columns

All the columns were tested under pure axial compressive load. The

columns were tested in a column tester of 2000 kN capacity. The load was
applied gradually in a controlled manner in increments of 2kN by hand
pumping of the manually operated hydraulic jack. The loading was monitored
through a high accuracy load cell with a sensitivity of 1kN. The lateral
buckling deformations were measured by LVDTs of least count 0.01mm fixed
at adjacent faces of the columns at mid span as shown in Figure 5.6. The
parameters such as initial cracking load, ultimate load and the deflected shape
of the specimens were noted. Cracks formed on the surfaces were marked and
identified. The load and deflection characteristics were studied.

Figure 5.6 Experimental up of RCC long set columns

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5.4

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

5.4.1

Compressive Strength Test

Concrete cubes of size 150mm150mm150mm were cast with

and without copper slag. During casting, the cubes were mechanically
vibrated using a table vibrator. After 24 hours, the specimens were demoulded
and subjected to curing for 28 days in portable water. After curing, the
specimens were tested for compressive strength using compression testing
machine of 2000KN capacity. The maximum load at failure was taken. The
average compressive strength of concrete and mortar specimens was
calculated by using the following equation 5.1.
Ultimate compressive load (N)
2

Compressive strength (N/mm ) =

Area of cross section of specimen (mm2)

(5.1)

The tests were carried out on a set of triplicate specimens and the
average compressive strength values were taken.
5.4.2

Split Tensile Strength Test

Concrete cylinders of size 150 mm diameter and 300mm length

were cast with incorporating copper slag as partial replacement of sand and
cement. During casting, the cylinders were mechanically vibrated using a
table vibrator. After 24 hours, the specimens were demoulded and subjected
to curing for 28 days in portable water. After curing, the cylindrical
specimens were tested for split tensile strength using compression testing
machine of 2000kN capacity. The ultimate load was taken and the average
split tensile strength was calculated using the equation 5.2.
2P
2

Split tensile strength (N/mm ) =

(5.2)
LD

64

where,
P=Ultimate load at failure (N),
L=Length of cylindrical specimen (mm),
D=Diameter of cylindrical specimen (mm).
The tests were carried out on a set of triplicate specimens and the
average tensile strength values were taken.
5.4.3

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

This test was conducted as per the procedure given in IS:

13311:1992. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) is a non-destructive technique

that measures involves measuring the speed of sound through materials in
order to predict material strength, to detect the presence of internal flaws such
as cracking, voids, honeycomb, decay and other damage. The instrument
consists of a transmitter and a receiver (two probes). The time of travel for the
wave to pass from the transmitter to the receiver when kept opposite to each
other is recorded in the ultrasonic instrument (Limaye 2002). The distance
between the two probes (path length) was physically measured. Hence,
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity = Path length / Transit time

(5.3)

This velocity is related to its compressive strength. The quality and

approximate compressive strength of concrete was determined by using
Table 5.1 which gives the relationship between ultrasonic pulse velocity and
quality of concrete as per IS: 13311:1992.

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Table 5.1 Relationship between ultrasonic pulse velocity and quality of

concrete as per IS: 13311:1992

Below 2.0

Approximate
compressive strength
N/mm2
---

2.0 to 3.0

4.0

3.0 to 3.5

Upto 10

Fairly good

3.5 to 4.0

Upto 25

good

4.0 to 4.5

Upto 40

Very good

Above 4.5

> 40

Excellent

Longitudinal pulse
velocity km/sec

5.4.4

Quality of
concrete
Very poor
poor

Open Circuit Potential (OCP) Test

The standard test is given in ASTM C 876 and is illustrated in

Figure 5.7. The apparatus includes a copper-copper sulphate half-cell,

connecting wires and a high impedance voltmeter. The positive terminal of
the voltmeter is attached to the reinforcement and the negative terminal is
attached to the half-cell. A high impedance voltmeter is used so that very little
current runs through the circuit. The half-cell makes electrical contact with
the concrete by means of a porous plug and a sponge moistened with a wet
solution (such as liquid detergent). Cylindrical reinforced concrete specimens
of size 100mm diameter and 300 mm height were cast in triplicate with
various replacement percentages of copper slag with sand and cement. For
this investigation, 12mm diameter of Fe 250 TMT bars are embedded into the
concrete with cover thickness of 60mm. All the triplicate specimens were
taken out and then dried. The potential of the embedded rebar was measured
against saturated calomel electrode (SCE) using a high impedance voltmeter
before keeping the specimens in 3.5% of NaCl solutions. Then, the specimens
were subjected to alternate wetting (5 days) and drying (5 days) in 3% NaCl

66

solutions in order to induce accelerate corrosion. The potential readings were

measured periodically (Nicholas 1999). The experiment is continued for a
period of 90 days. Potential measurements were carried out at an ambient
temperature of 32+1C. Table 5.2 shows the relationship between potential
values and probability of corrosion.

Figure 5.7 OCPT test apparatus

Table 5.2 Relationship between for OCP values and probability of
corrosion
OCP values
(mV vs. SCE)
< -426
< -276
-126 to -275
> -125
5.4.5

Corrosion condition as per

ASTM C876-1995
Severe corrosion
High (90% risk of corrosion)
Intermediate corrosion risk
Low(10% risk of corrosion)

Accelerated Corrosion Process: Gravimetric Weight Loss Method

This investigation was carried out as per ASTM G1-90. The weighed

TMT steel specimens were embedded in concrete cylinder of size 150mm

67

diameter and 300 mm height. The reinforced concrete samples (Figure 5.8) were
subjected to alternate wetting and drying exposure in 3.5% NaCl solution.
Regular D.C power supply of 12V is supplied continuously throughout the
corrosion period of 15 days. Positive terminal of voltmeter is connected with
soldered wires and negative terminal is connected with copper plate (cathode).
After the process of accelerated corrosion, all the specimens were disconnected
and removed from tank. After the corrosion period, the rod was taken out and
weighed. The loss in weight was calculated. From the weight loss values,
(ASTM G-1) the corrosion rates were obtained from the relationship
(K * W )
Corrosion rate =

mm/yr

(5.4)

(A*T*D)
where

K is a constant, K =87.6 in case of expressing corrosion rate in mm/yr

T is the exposure time expressed in hours,
A is the surface area in cm2, W is the mass loss in milligram and
D is the density of the corroding metal (7.85g/cm3)

Figure 5.8

Reinforced concrete samples for corrosion test

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5.4.6

Rapid Chloride Penetration Test

Concrete disc specimens of size 100mm diameter and 50mm thick

(Figure 5.9) were cast for various replacement percentages of sand and
cement with copper slag in concrete. After 24 hours, the disc specimens were
removed from the mould and subjected to curing for 90 days in chloride free
distilled water. After curing, the specimens were tested for chloride
permeability. All the specimens were dried free of moisture before testing.

Figure 5.9 Concrete disc specimen for RCPT test

The test set up is called Rapid Chloride Penetration Test (RCPT)
assembly. This is two-compartment cell assembly. Disk specimen is
assembled between the two compartments cell assembly and checked for air
and watertight. The cathode compartment is filled with 3%NaCl solution and
anode compartment is filled with 0.3 normality NaOH solutions. Then, the
concrete specimens were subjected to RCPT by impressing a 60V from a DC
power source between anode and cathode. Current recorded over a period of 6
hours at an interval of 30 minutes as per the procedure given in ASTM C1202
(Table 5.3). This test was conducted at CECRI, Karaikudi, Tamil Nadu.

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Table 5.3 Charge passed through RCPT test as per ASTM C1202

Charge passed
coulombs
>4000

Chloride ion
penetrability
High

2000-4000

Moderate

1000-2000

Low

100-1000

Very low

<100

Negligible

S.No

From the current values, the chloride permeability is calculated in

terms of coulombs at the end of 6 hours by using the following equation 5.5.

Q= 900 (I0 + 2I30 + 2I60 + 2I90 + . + 2I300 + 2I330 + 2I360)

(5.5)

where,
Q = Charge passed (Coulombs)
I0 = Current (amperes) immediately after voltage is applied
It = Current (amperes) at t minutes after voltage is applied
5.4.7

Water Absorption Test

The water absorption values for various mixtures of concrete were

determined on 150mm x 150mm x 150mm cubes as per ASTM C 642. The

specimens were taken out of curing tank at 56 days to record the water
saturated weight (Ws).The drying was carried out in an oven at a temperature
of 105c. The drying process was continued until the difference between two
successive measurements agreed close. Oven-dried specimens were weighed

70

after they cooled to room temperature (Wd). Using these weights, saturated
water absorption (SWS) was calculated. The formula used to find water
absorption value of concrete specimens is given in equation 5.6.
SWA= [ (Ws-Wd) / Wd ] 100

(5.6)

where,

5.4.8

SWA

Saturated Water Absorption in percentages

Ws

Weight of the specimen at fully saturated condition in kg,

Wd

Weight of oven dried specimens in kg.

Acid and Sulphate Resistance Test

Concrete cubes of size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm were cast and

stored in a place at a temperature of 27C for 24 hours and then the specimens
were water cured for 28 days. After 28 days of curing, the specimens were
taken out and allowed to dry for one day. Weights of the cubes were taken.
For acid attack, 5% of dilute sulphuric acid (H2So4) by volume of the water
with ph value of about two was used. After that, cubes were immersed in the
above said acid water for a period of 30 - 60 days.
For sulphate attack, 5% sodium sulphate (Na2So4) and 5%
magnesium sulphate (MgSo4) by weight of water was added. The specimens
were kept for alternate wet and dry tests and were repeated for 30 cycles. The
concentration of the solution was maintained throughout this period by
changing the solution periodically. The specimens were taken out from acid
and sulphate solution at 30& 60 days. The surface of the cubes were cleaned,
weighed and tested in the compression testing machine.

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5.4.9

X-ray Diffraction Test

X-ray diffraction measurement is a method for measuring

characteristics, diffraction angles and intensities from randomly oriented

powder crystallites irradiated by a mono chromate X-ray beam.
Concrete cubes of size 150mm x 150mm x 150mm were cast and
cured in curing tank. After a curing period of 28 days, cubes were tested on
compression testing machine. After testing, samples were collected and
powdered in ball mills to pass through the sieve size of 75. The powder was
collected from the replacement 0f 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% of copper slag
with cement and 20%, 40%, 60% of copper slag with sand in each series. A
powdered specimen is usually prepared and packed in a specimen holder
made of aluminum or glass. The powder was tested at CECRI in Karaikudi,
Tamil Nadu.
5.4.10

Direct Shear Test

The soil is taken in a shear box of size 60 x 60 x 25 mm. The soil is

compacted while filling the laminar box. The base plate is attached to the
lower half of the box. A porous stone is placed in the box. A plain grid is
placed on the porous stone, keeping its segregations at right angles to the
direction of shear. The upper grid, porous stone and the pressure pad are
placed on the specimen. The box is placed inside the large container and
mounted on the loading frame. The upper half of the box is brought in contact
with the proving ring. The dial gauge is fitted to the container to give the
shear displacement. The locking pins are removed. The normal load is applied
to give a normal stress of 0.1Kg/cm2.Shear load is then applied at a constant
rate of strain which is generally between 1mm to 2mm per minute. The test is
continued till the specimen fails. The failure is indicated when the proving

72

ring dial gauge begins to recede after having reached the maximum. The
following equation 5.7.
In proving ring, 575 divisions = 100Kg
Shear force at failure = (proving ring reading/575) x 100
Ultimate shear stress = shear force at failure / area of shear box
= x tan ()

(5.7)

where,
= Shear stress in kg/cm2
= Normal stress in kg/cm2 and
= Angle of internal friction
5.4.11

Triaxial Shear Test

Triaxial Shear test was used to determine the Angle of internal

friction, shear strength parameters and youngs modulus of Copper Slag. A

non-porous cap was put on the bottom pedestal and the rubber membrane
slide over it and ties it with the bottom pedestal of the base by O-ring. The
split mould was put over the base and the rubber membrane taking through it
inside and stretches over it at the top. Then soil is weighed in a dish to make a
sample of required dry density. For dense samples pour the sample in the
mould in layers and compact it by tamping without rupturing the membrane.
After the required weight of sample has been used, level the top, place the
solid cap over it and seal by O-rings. Then, operate the vacuum and carefully
remove the split mould without jarring the sample. Assemble the cell and fill
it with water to exert a confining pressure of the order of 5 N/cm2.The loading
plate-form of the compression machine was raised to bring the ram in contact

73

with the loading cap. Zero adjustment was made on dial gauge to compensate
for the load due to cell pressure and piston friction. Additional stress was
added to the triaxial cell and the displacement values of specimens were taken
directly from the digital indicator which is fixed at control panel. The
following shear strength parameters has been observed (equations 5.8) from
the above triaxial shear test.
Original area of
specimen

A0 = 13

Corrected area

Ac = A0/1-

Strain

= L/L0

Axial stress

1 =3 tan2 (450+/2) + 2C tan (450+/2)

f = 450+/2

where,
A0 = Original Area in mm2
Ac = Corrected Area in mm2
= Strain
L = Change in Length in mm
L0 = Original Length in mm
= Angle of internal friction
1 = Axial stress in kg/cm2
3 = All round pressure in kg/cm2 and
f = Angle of Shear failure plane in degrees

(5.8)

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5.5

SHAKE TABLE TEST (SPECIFICATIONS AND

PROCEDURES)

5.5.1

Shake Table with DC Motor Control

The shake table consists of a flywheel, a camshaft, a vibration table

and user designed cams. The maximum payload capacity of shake table is
30kg and the table has the dimension of 400mm x 300mm. The dimension of
circular mounting plate is 390mm. The variable speed DC motor, having
power of 1 H.P is used. The cam is connected to a variable speed DC motor
with a help of a camshaft. The frequency range of the cam is 0 to 25Hz and
the allowable frequency rang as 1.0mm.
5.5.2

Signal Conditioning Amplifier

Signal conditioning amplifier which is suitable for accelerometer

was used. It contains four channels with analog output and connected to the
Data Acquisition System. The signal conditioning amplifier operates on 230V
supply and has inbuilt excitation supply for the accelerometers and individual
signal conditioning circuits for all 4 channels.
5.5.3

Accelerometers
The high sensitivity accelerometers have the acceleration range of

+4g to -4g was used. It can measure for higher frequency upto 100 Hz.
5.5.4

Oscilloscope
A four channel digital storage oscilloscope is used to read and store

the acceleration values upto 60 MHz frequency.

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5.5.5

Data Acquisition System

In this data acquisition system, accelerometer with digital vibration

meter of size 15mm is used. One can measure velocity, acceleration, RMS
value, peak value, data hold, maximum and minimum value. The velocity
range is 20 and 200mm/s, the acceleration range is 200 and 2000m/s and the
frequency range is 40Hz-1 KHz.
5.5.6

Construction of Laminar Box and Retaining Wall Model

The models of retaining walls were built in a flexible laminar box

to considerably reduce the boundary effects. A laminar box is a large-sized

shear box consisting of several frictionless horizontal layers. The laminar box
used for this investigation is rectangular in cross section with inside
dimensions of 125mm x 250mm and 200mm deep with 15 rectangular hollow
aluminium layers, machined such that the friction between the layers is
minimum. The layers are separated by linear roller bearings arranged to
permit relative movement between layers in the long direction with minimum
friction. The gap between the successive layers is 1mm and the bottom most
layer is rigidly connected to the solid aluminium base plate of size 150mm x
300mm in plan and 15mm thickness.
An aluminium retaining wall was constructed inside the laminar
box and fixed approximately one third distance from left end of laminar box.
The height of the retaining wall is 120 mm. Figure 5.10 shows the
experimental setup for shake table test. A1, A2, A3 are accelerometers fixed
at backfill near retaining wall. Oscilloscope is used to record the acceleration
in terms of sine and cosine waves. This model was constructed based on
Madhavi Latha et al 2007 IISC, Bangalore Laminar box model (Figure 5.11).
Here copper slag has been used as backfill material in retaining wall and
replaced with various percentages of sand. The accelerations and

76

displacement characteristics of retaining wall were found by conducting shake

table test.

Figure 5.10 Experimental setup for shake table test

Figure 5.11 Shake table with laminar box and retaining wall model

77

5.5.7

Lateral Earth Pressure

There are three types of lateral earth pressure (Figure 5.12) acting

on retaining walls such as,

i)

At Rest Earth Pressure

The at rest earth pressure develops when the wall experiences no

lateral movement. When the wall is at rest and the material is in its natural
state then the pressure applied by material is known as Earth Pressure at Rest.
When the retaining wall is at rest then the ratio between the lateral earth
pressure and the vertical pressure is called the co-efficient of the earth
pressure at rest,
Ko= (1-sin)
ii)

Active Earth Pressure

The active earth pressure develops when the wall is free to move

outward. When the wall moves away from the backfill, there is a decrease in
the pressure on the wall and this decrease continues until a minimum value is
reach after which there is no reduction in the pressure and the value will
become constant. This kind of pressure is known as active earth pressure.
When the retaining wall is moving away from the backfill the ratio between
lateral earth pressure and vertical earth pressure is called coefficient of active
earth pressure,
Ka = (1-sin)/( 1+sin).
iii)

Passive Earth Pressure

If the wall moves into the soil, passive pressure develops. When the

wall moves towards the backfill, there is an increase in the pressure on the

78

wall and this increase continues until a maximum value is reach after which
there is no increase in the pressure and the value will become constant. This
kind of pressure is known as passive earth pressure. This means that when the
wall is about to slip due to lateral thrust from the backfill, a resistive force is
applied by the soil in front of the wall. When the retaining wall is moving
towards the backfill, then the ratio between the lateral earth pressure and the
vertical earth pressure is called the Coefficient of passive earth pressure,
Kp=(1+sin)/( 1-sin).

Figure 5.12 Types of lateral earth pressure

Therefore lateral earth pressure is the pressure that soil exerts in the
horizontal plane. A lateral earth pressure behind the wall which depends on
angle of internal friction (), cohesive strength (c) of the retained material
and the direction and magnitude of movement. Lateral earth pressures are
typically smallest at the top of the wall and increase toward the bottom. The
equations 5.9 and 5.10 was used to find lateral earth pressure on backfill soil.
In this research, lateral earth pressure acting on retaining wall due to copper
slag addition as backfill, was found.

79

Ka = (1 - sin) / (1 + sin)
P a = 1/2 * Ka * * H2
where,
= Unit Weight of Material in kN/m3
H

= Height of the Wall in m

Ka = Earth pressure coefficient

= Angle of internal friction

Pa

= Total active earth pressure of the wall in kN/m

(5.9)
(5.10)