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Eduard Zeller, A History of Eclecticism in Greek Philosophy (Longmans, Green & Co. 1883)
Eduard Zeller, A History of Eclecticism in Greek Philosophy (Longmans, Green & Co. 1883)
Eduard Zeller, A History of Eclecticism in Greek Philosophy (Longmans, Green & Co. 1883)
1tbrar\?
of tbe
'Ulnt"erstt\? of llllltsconstn
..
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A HISTORY
Oil'
ECLECTICIS-M
IN GREEK PHILOSbpHY
I
DR E~ELLER
PROPESSOR
IN
lDit~
THE
UNIVBRSITY
~utbor's
{ .';-: -- BY.
~:.........
--.
OP
BERT.IN
saudioll
~ >.;.>
S?F.-rALLEYNE
LONDON
LONGMAN~
GREE~
AND
C~
1883
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LONDON
pnnrrBD BY
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TRANSLATOR'S PREFAOE.
Ie.
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Errata.
Page 81, line 16 :
.. lIS,..
..
..
..
..
, ourselves.'
.. 2M,..
.. 867, linea 1 and , : lor that universal, whioh he olaims for all men BB
their inbom conviction MJd that universal conviction which he claims for all men as innate
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CONT.ENTS.
IC
CHAPTER I.
]'AGK
CHAPTER II.
ECLECTICISM IN THE SECOND AND FIRST CENTURIES
BEFOR'E CHRIST--TIIE EPICUREANB-ASCLEPIADES
24
CHAPTER III.
THE STOICS: BOEmUS, PAN&TIUS, POSIDONIUS.
34
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vi
COJ.Y1'ENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
l'AGK
THE
ACADEMIC
PHILOSOPHERS
IN
THE
FIRST
75
CHAPTER V.
THE PERIPATETIC SCHOOL IN THE FIRST CENTURY
112
BEFORE CHRIST
CHAPTER VI.
146
CICERo-VARRO
CHAPTER VII.
180
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vii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VIII.
PAGB
THE
189
CHAPTER IX.
THE STOICS CONTINUED: llU80NIUS, EPICTETUS,
246
MARCUS AURELIUS
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CONTENTS.
viii
CHAPTER X.
PAOE
288
Its adherents, 290 IIJ. Demetrius, 291. <Enomaus, 294. Demonax, 296. Peregrinus, 299. Later Cynics, 301
CHAPTER XI.
THE
PERIPATETICS
OF
THE
FIRST
CENTURIES
304
AFTER CHRIST
CHAPTER XII.
THE PLATONIC SCHOOL IN THE FIRST CENTURIES
334
CHAPTER XIII.
ECLECTICS WHO BELONG TO NO DEFINITE SCHOOL
351
.373
INDEX
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ECLECTICISM.
CHAPTER I.
ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF ECLECTICISM.
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ECLECTICISM.
2
CHAP.
I.
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ITS ORIGIN.
CHAP.
B2
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I.
4
CHAP,
_1_,_
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ITS ORIGIN.
p. 524, note 2.
VitltJ note 2.
11111... Kap"EAllolI,
I'~
')'f')'O"~s,
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CHAP.
I.
ii. E!l)tf!'f'-
nal cau.y"..
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ECLECTICISM.
VUAP.
I.
IJijflll'i.rm
(heek
philosophy
mllong the
,1
JiomallB.
~v.
79 1tJ.
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CHAP.
I.
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---"':~~
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
I.
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ICISM.
CHAP.
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11
nostri.
I C. Fanniu&, son of Marcus,
son-in-law of !.relius, was
brought by Lrelius to hear
Pallllltius (Cic. B'l"Ut. 26, 101),
and is designated by Cicero
(Brut. 31, 18) as a Stoic.
Cicero often mentions an historical work composed by him.
Similarly Pluto fib. OrMel/,. 4.
With regard to his consulate,
cf. id. C. Gracc"'. 8, 11, 12.
This is the Rutiliu9 who
was famous for his services in
CHAP.
"'Panr.etii
I'
admiration of his
teacher
Pallllltius and his acquaintance with Posidonius, cf. Cic.
Off. iii. 2, 10. He left behind
him memorials and historical
works: vide Bemhardy, we. cit.
203, 506; also Cicero, Fin. i.
3,7.
V'uie concerning this philosopher, the predecessor and
teacher of Varro, Cic. B'l"Ut. 56.
205 'f].; also Acafl. i. 2, 8; Ad
HMlm1/,. iv. 12; Bernhardy,
loco cit. 857.
Such as Itlarcus Vigellius
(Cic. Orat. iii. 21, 78) and Sp.
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I.
ECLECTICISM.
12
CHAP.
I.
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--------
13
the Epicureans Philodemus and SyrO.l Meanwhile, it was already at this time very common for
Roman youths to seek Greek science at its fountainhead, and for the sake of their studies to betake
themselves to the principal seats of that science,
and especially to Athens. 2 At the commencement
of the imperial era, at any rate, Rome swarmed
with Greek savants of every kind,3 and among these
were many who were not merely turning to account
a superficial knowledge in a mechanical manner; 4
while contemporaneously in various places of the west
the philosophy of Greece became naturalised together
with other sciences, and from these centres spread
itself still further. 1I With the knowledge of Greek
philosophy, that of Greek literature went naturally
hand in hand, and from the time of Lucretius and
Cicero a Roman literature sprang up at its side,6
CHAP.
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I.
ECLECTICIS.J.lf.
14
I.
nee talum
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Hi
CHAP.
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T.
Hl
ECLEOTICISM.
CHAP.
1.
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17
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18
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
I.
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HI
CHAP.
c2
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I.
20
ECLECTICISM.
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21
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ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
I.
ii. .Ana of
Kt'o-Platonism.
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23
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I.
21
EOLEOTIOISM.
CHAPTER II.
ECLECTICISM IN Ta,E SECOND AND FIRST CENTURIES
BEFORE CHRIST.
CHAP.
II.
I. EclectieiS11t in
the two
ent.tu'l'i~,
B.C.
A. The
Epicu.-
rcan..
RclatiO't&
of tlul
later Epicwrean8 to
Epicurll8.
THE EPICUREANS.
ASCLEPIADES.
OF the schools of philosophy which had still maintained themselves on the theatre of history up to
the middle of the second century before Christ, that
of the Epicureans was, to all appearance, least affected
by the scientific movement of the time. Though
its juxtaposition with other intellectual tendencies
had left upon it some traces, it does not seem to
have been influenced by any of these tendencies in
a deeper and more permanent manner. We must,
no doubt, suppose that even the refutation of the
objections which encountered the Epicurean doctrine
on all sides, gave occasion to some new phases in
the conception and establishment of it; that the
system perhaps was further developed or modified in
certain subordinate points by one and another of its
adherents, and that alien doctrines may have been
more thoroughly investigated by them than by
Epicurus himself. But when we have followed up
all the traces which might seem to indicate that
individual disciples of Epicurus had departed, either
formally or materially, from their master" the sum
1 A collection and examinawhich we cannot but acknowtion of these-the value of ledge, though we may not
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25
THE EPICUREANS.
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ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
II.
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THE EPICUREAXS.
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CHAP.
II.
ECLECTICISJlf.
28
OHAP.
II.
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ASCLEPIADES.
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bllt ,710"'11
af!initir&
'lVith thll
Bclwol.
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ECLECTICISM.
30
CHA
II.
wit the
icur
se dlis
in
sta
ent
that the sensible perception gives a true image of
the hing
reel
,b
hat ason
th ontrary, is not an mdependent source of knowledge,
tent f om
ception, and has
bo
s all "ts
yen d by ree
n. 2
co
etio
ith
to
this he found reason superBuous,3 as an integral part
of
so
her
go
be
d E uru
the
soul, he said, was only 'the whole compounded of
all e se s e
etiv
;4
whic
e
as
1 Sext. Math,. vii. 201.
That
the
ere
80m
ho de
clar
sens
8 t
e th
critenon of truth, Anhochus
shows in these words: ~AOS lil
'TIS
..~ 1
11 P.
l1li ...
1I.v... , ....... os li
</>IA
tTo</>..s,
1....
"I
Me,
U8 al
Jh
rchu,
efll medwis alitI'm Andrea, et
AaclejJiade, ita abstlllerunt
l &...</>IJ......0
..~ ..
1/IvX~"] tT"'Y'Yvp-
31
ASCLEPIADES.
OFAP.
pia4u
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U.
./SOLEl;TJ.Cld:&,
3"
less :"""O'v 0 c nt n s, so tl t 0:
- - - - - of dlue, e n .;h s_la]e j, eLai
CHAP.
I.
II
r:J
<>
III
n n~ se ti n
1f
h n& d
in' io or' 'tata (1) fPternurn 8e itself). That these Iryl<0t (as
rnovennaqUtlJl'lUltnuwr8r<ojtJ1Uw
pi n..,h..Js d ft e _OL3)
'Ill u' ic In
i i in' a ar
e 0"1 9 p1[-01 nd Iii' 'Q;
til jr'l1lrnenta ,olvantur rna.q- &'Yrlpop.1/.,.a., we are told by Sext.
nitlldtne atque 8C/te-".o, dtJ.!'er __ at. i . . He aL
.!Ill:S
/!'It Il,
1~
1 rB rn
'IIi ~
'0' (iii 2 0) f .,., 1 r""l< and
ad'eeta vel ",(Injltncta omnia "01/.,.4 ~u..':'p.u..,.u.. #hat Calhus
/atnant 8e,,gi tZu., In t B. M
ur. s ys f e ha e g f
nn at ni ka n'a ,t -I' 7{J
the top's receives confirmation
nitl1dinern sui aut per rnultttlt- from the words quoted by La..sdi,,,,rn au p ' Ju ...a u C'i ~ tz ,po 42 ) f II: h p U
I'/' '/tl . ,"ee'n
it at<mnca Galen, Introd c. 9, vol. xiv.
rertJ!,ideturqlwdmtlltUlJamant 698 k: I<u..,. 3~ .,.~" AITI<A., ...
qlt- it is eo or (ha 1>< ng IT 0. u. " rn v
1<0 8p IT 1
wi 0 q ali nate bodies 1<u.1 ..opa. and from Stob. Eel. i.
of definite quality); slIver is 350,a.)Cording 0 w..Jc th p wh e, w re l ta w c is d ce or of ~ ep'ld ( e ubbe(' off f om it is blllP.k' clides) declared 8pu.{,ITp.u..,.u. to be
the goat's horn IS blac, he t es al. st 0 es,th th ri s
hi . T s a o as ib d o H acl it s
a du
ri~.eval bodies Asclepiades,like in the foregoing, and in the
.tIeracleitu8, calle avu.pp.o ll-yl<a l.a a, . 3, - f. ,'1/ .d 4
,cf th p ,[Ol e qu e P il .,. u. lA4.1T
u.1 ,. ....p~ -seem,
dtJr G1' II. i 886, 3' where, how- howe\'er, orlginally to belong
ever, in Eus. 4 M. 8'11 .ri , 2 ,3, t H ac d ). hi di si iIi .
'ns 8,(- of ~"',,o IT ...,.. P. 0- of th is-v1<0. is referred to when
I'0P.4ITU. ....... is to be read, accord- Sextus (iwatk. x. 318) observes
mg to D Is, IJ o.
2,), t t el oc 'tu a
pi IT
P vi IS U de to d the ex- re resent thin!"" as arising l~
pression as applymg to oodles &'"op.o.",,, (i.e. .,.0'. "I.I'I'",p.."a )
ot jo e t et er ,i., ot .,. I< &. 9~. H ~c 'de a
iv' ib ; but I '"ll1 o t concPlie Asclepiades, on the contrary,
to Lasswitz that the pnmitlve i~ &'"op.a[",I' p." ..e., Q;
u.8to s f
s ep d a
ot..
Q;" &,,, pp. I' '"tl<", T
hi The'nter retationslnckel', ....opa., which are side by side
'loose (therefore c..pa Ie of w h h ll-y a., a
v t
nd u Je 't/;. of, s -Ie si iii an e s he o'd
ep a on,
'un rdered' seem to me, how- beside the at.oms, are also menever, in point 0 langnag ,qu s- ti ne b
I , hi ~ a
o bl
ou d, h ef e, p'.
11 v 1. )";v. 250 K,
refer to give to a""I'p.as the
1 Sext. lba-tlt. viu. 7,
Plato
Slgtllfic..tion,
n
ol...bi d a! _ri s u B ng 0 h no
it 0'T0 a: ,tk r' /50 h e,n'lh sensible ...lone, beca.use sensible
Ih~o. is separated from the thmgs are always m a state 0
o her
n
L.OV
se
r D :01 In: .,.u. oil 1<1/ p. 'IT
dl..,,,
II.
01
ze(
y'
r'--..
J~
A.SCLEP[AIJES.
these theories had been attributed to an acknowledged member of the Epicurean school, they would
no doubt contain a noteworthy departure from the
doctrine of the master, but as Asclepiades is not
described as an Epicurean, they only show in one
individual case what seems in itself natural and
probable, viz., that the influence of Epicureanism, as
of other systems, was not strictly confined within
the limits of the school
..;;s ovO'it&S, 10'"1' ../lwb
p.~ 3~o
I'"n
CHAP.
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II.
ECLECTICISM.
CHAPTER III.
THE STOICS: BOETHUS, PAN.TIUS, POSIDONIUS.
CHAP.
III.
B. T1UJ
Stuics.
Suppo.efl
t:acillatiu/l, oj the
IIICCe&lfY'"'
of ahrysippu.l
CUTtCfYrlting
tlUJ ji'Ilal
Ctm/lagra-
tion ui tM
fCtWld.
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BOETHUS.
llC1nJplwe,.
I
h,(fx.;" ...e,.l
.,.0." 'A",,,.
Ps.-Philo. .2Et8rn..
3~ ItAl
AW"yfllf/s .;,..lltfl. ..fM ~" ITIJ"e....-
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.-
ECLECTIC1S1If.
CHAP.
Ill.
or..
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37
BOETHUS.
"'p''''' . .
CHAP.
III.
.,.,,,.Il.....
Ir .....a 3,"'p
aiw"'p.er'"
...ils l".xoutrf/S "o,6'!"7rros (lIB in
the destruction of a figure).
Ir",...a ",u.,Xllerl" (chemical mix ..
ture, cf. Phil. d. Gr. III. i. 127,
1).
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ECLECTICISM.
38
CHAP.
III.
could be applicable to the world. I The third maintains that after the destruction of the world the Deity
would have no object for his activity, and must consequently sink into inaction; nay, if the Deity be
the world-soul, he must himself be destroyed.
Lastly, the fourth contends that, after the complete
annihilation of the world, this tire must itself be
extinguished for want of nourishment; 2 and then the
new formation of the world would be impossible.
But Boethus had doubtless concluded from this not
only t.hat the world was imperishable, but also that
it had no beginning; 3 he exchanged the Stoic cosmology not for the Platonic but for the Aristotelian
theory, the doctrine of the eternity of the world:
his departure from the Stoic dogma is here also a
transition to that of the Peripat.etics.
That Boethus likewise opposed the Stoic belief in
prophecy is not asserted)4 his own utterances on
this subject are confined to an enquiry concerning .
the prognostics of weather and similar things, the
1 For that only is capable of
fh. m. i.loa, 2). and this would
division which is l/C 3'ffTT$or"'JI,
or l/C ITIIJI"".,.op.IJl"'", or only
weakly united-not that which
is superior to all else in force.
An entire annihilation of the
quality of the world is not
maintained by the other view, for
this is still to subsist in the form
of fire. If finally all elements
were simultaneously abolished
through ITVyX"ITIf, there would
be a transition of the fwinto the
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89
.PAN.TIU8.
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ECLECTICISM.
40
CHAP.
III.
HiB'I'C$idence i,n.
&me.
Appoin.ted
lUiad of
the Stoic
school-
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PAN.lETIUS.
41
I. 'Poll,!"
,,1IIIJrr~f
ICIIl
But Cicero,
Two. v. 37, 107, reckons him
among those 'ltd I811I8Z 8ff1'eui.
nC&"C&ITlolI.
,tltng_
domllf1./. 'l'flrerlerwnt;
CHAP.
III.
Hi. lCOll"Iti'llg and
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EOLEOTIOISM.
CHAP.
III.
iTis elta?'rIder
as a pltiloSop/WI".
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PAN.lETIUS.
43
reckoned
CHA.P.
III.
Relati01t
tn tile
~'toic
himself
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44
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
III.
,"""",lis 7IiJ'I'op.01I.7III'''''.
Epiph.
HtM'.iii.2,9,p.l090, D: D"...l'l'.
'I'll" 1t0ll''''0" '1I..')'t"
1t,,1 clyl,,,,.,.. With tbis agrees
in substance Stob. Eel. i. 414
(D"". ",t611",..,.epu
"0,,.1(..
Ita.! ".ii1l.1I.o" clplll'ltolJII''''' "b'!';p 'I'~"
cli1,0'l'7I'I'CI 'l'oil 1(011'".011 f) 'I'~ '1'0.11
/lA.",,, tls "'ilp ""'I'ClIJ01l.~"), though
we learn from it that Panretius
after his manner had expressed
himself guardedly upon the
point; and it is also quite consistent therewith that in a dissertation on the universe probably emanating from Pa.nretius
(ap. Cic. N. D. ii. 45, 115,46,
119), it is emphatically asserted
that the whole universe is
framed with a view to the int"olumitu m"ndi, and that there
is nothing in it so admimble
lftulm fJtwd ita Itahilil e,t ntundw.s atlfll<! ita t'okiM'et ad permane-Mt/.m, tit niMl ne ellJcogitan lfttidem polBit aptitl6, for a
philosopher who assumed the
destruction of the world would
have had no occasion to lay the
chief stress on its durability.
Nor does Cic. N. D. ii. 33, 85,
offer any contradiction: if the
Stoic does not here come to a
decision whether the world will
last for ever or only for an indefinitely long period, this does
not prove that he had no opinion
about it, but only that it is not
necessary for his immediate
purpose, the proof of a worldforming intelligence to bring
t.his question into discussion.
It. is true that the burning of
t.he world is mentioned, l. e.
46, 118, with the comment: de
"''''''''''0''
.t"".
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45
eternity of the world was, in his opinion, more probable, we can lee that he decidedly preferred the
Platonic or Aristotelian theory to that of the Stoics.'
In connection with this, he not only limited the
soul's existence after death to a certain space of
time, but denied it entirely.i It is also stated that
PantBtium adtlnbita;re di
cebant, but this mode of ex
qllo
CHAP.
III.
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46
ECLECTIC'IS.V.
CHAP.
III.
"*"".,.",d,, . .ijs
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47
.tJIIIII
1J~6AE'f'a.I,
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48
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
III.
'f}.
611:
etUlem porliou
euet per.fertmtli.
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49
wise man, but only for those who are making pro- CHAP.
III.
gress in wisdom; and for this reMon it does not
treat of the ICa-ropO(J)p.a, but only of the ICaOi}JCoJl.'
Meanwhile, howeyer, all this contains no real deviation from the Stoic ethics, and what we are otherwise
told concerning the moral doctrines of Panretius is
in harmony with them. 2 His divergences from the
traditional theology of his school were more considerable. It can only be the doctrine of PametiuB Hu
which his scholar, Mucius Screvola, puts forward (like theology.
Varro a at a later period), when he says 4 that there
are three classes of gods, those spoken of by the
poets, by the philosophers, ann by the statesmen.
The narratives of the poets concerning the gods are
full of absurd and unworthy fables: they represent
the gods as stealing, committing adultery, changing
themselves into beasts, swallowing their own children, &c. On the other haud, philosophic theology
is valueless to states (it does not adopt itself to a
I This at least results from
Cicero's exposition, OJ!. iii. 3,
IS .q.; also ap. Sen. Ep. 116,5,
Panretius would first of all give
precepts for those who are not
yet wise. In reply to the questionofayouthastowhetherthe
wise man will fall in love, he
says that they will both do
better to keep themselves from
such an agitation of the mind,
as they are not yet wise men.
For further details concerning
the treatise of Panretius see
Phil. d. Gr. III. i. p. 273, 276
1fJ.
2 Ap. Clem. Alex. Strom. ii.
416, B; 8tob. Eel. ii. 114, he
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ECLECTICISM.
50
CHAP.
III.
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lil
It'"
B2
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ECLECTICIS_1f.
CHAP.
IlL
COfItem-
panel
and dilCip1l>.0/
Panq-
tilll.
Hl"1'a-
clide.
&lige7U"I.
80
"'Et
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saHOOL OF P..4.Y.TIUS.
63
whose opinions we possess any details. Of the successor of Panretius, Mnesarchus, we can only conDiogenes and Antipater, the
successor of Panretius (Cic.
De Orat. i. 11,45; cf.I8, 83;
Ind. Here. Compo Col. 51, 4;
78,5; Epit. Diog.cf.Phil.d. (Jr.
TIl. L 33, 2), who likewise heard
Antiochus in Athens (Cic.Aead.
i. 22, 69; Numen. ap. Eus. Pr.
BD. xiv. 9,2 ; quoting from him
Augustin. c. Aead. iii. 18,40).
Cicero (l.e. cf. Fin. i. 2, 6) calls
him and Dardanus t'llmprincipe. StoicO'l"llm. From Ind.
Here. Col. 51, 53,78. d. Epit.
Diog., it follows that Dardanus was likewise an Athenian
and a disciple of Diogenes,
Antipater,andPanretius. Ashe
was at the same time called the
successor of Panretius, he would
seem to have conducted the
school in common with Mnes&fchus. Their successor was
probably (as Zumpt supposes,
AM. d. Berl.Aead. Hi.t. Phil.
n. 1842, p. 105) ApollodorUB of Athens, whom Cicero
describes as a contemporary of
Zeno the Epicurean (N. D. i.
34, 93) and the Ind. Here. Col.
53, names among the disciples
of Panretius, but who is to be
distinguished from the Seleucian before mentioned, with
whomZumpt confusPshim. His
leadership of the school must
have fallen in the beginning
ofthe first century, and perhaps
even began before the end of
the second. Apollonius of
Nysa, in Phrygia, '1'&" n""a'Tiov
"""'pi,.",,, ilp'IT'I'og(Strabo,xiv. 1,
48, p. 650), of whom nothing
further is known. Asclepiodotu9,ofNicrea(Ind.Herc.Col.
CHAP.
Digitized by
Coogle
III.
ECLECTICISM.
54
.CHAP.
III.
Digitized by
Coogle
SOHOOL OF PANTIUS.
CHAP.
Digitized by
Coogle
III.
ECLECTICISM.
56
CHAP.
Ill.
Digitized by
Coogle
57
POSIDONIUS.
2.
The traces of this journey
are preserved in Strabo's quotations from Posidonius. We
here see that Posidonius remained a long time in Spain,
especially at Gades (iii. 1, 6,
p. 138; c. 6, 7-9, p. 172,174;
xiii. 1, 66, p. 6141); from thence
he coasted along the African
shores to Italy (iii. 2, G; xvii.
3, 4, p. 144, 827); that he
visited Gaul (iv. 4, 6, p. 198),
Liguria (iii. 3, 18, p. 166),
Sicily (vi. 2, 7, p. 273), the
Lipari islands (vi. 2,11, p. 277),
t.he east coast of the Adriatic
Sea (vii. 6, 9, p. 316). That he
did not neglect this opportunity
of visiting Rome may be taken
Digitized by
Coogle
CHAP.
III.
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
Ill.
Digitized by
Coogle
59
POSIDONIUS.
m_
CHAP.
III.
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
60
CHAP.
III.
Digitized by
Coogle
DOCTRINES OF POSIDONIUS.
61
Ittb-
Digitized by
Coogle
CHAP.
III,
EOLEOTIOISM.
62
CHAP.
III.
HilZuv/Jo!
rk8toric.
Erudition.
Natural
,ciellCIJ.
itself was already likely to cause a certain indifference to dogmatic controversies. The adornment of
speech and the general intelligibility of diRcourse had also for Posidonius a value which they
had not for the older Stoics; he is not merely a
philosopher but a rhetorician, and even in his scientific exposition he does not belie this character.! If,
lastly, he excelled most philosophers in learning,
there lay therein an attempt to work, even in philosophy, rather on the surface than in the depths;
and it cannot be gainsaid that he was inclined to
ignore the difference between philosophic enquiry
and erudite knowledge.' If the interest in natural
science was stronger in him than was usual in the
Stoic school, this circumstance might also contribute
to tarnish the purity of his Stoicism, and to bring
him nearer to the peripatetics.3 His admiration
1
Digitized by
Coogle
63
DOCTRINES OF POSIDONIUS.
~o
.. US a g_ea. (ft
_.le e
D-.r>l
) a d in b'
OJ m n1 rJ 0
h
T:' lie s 2 e n r el' s PI s f at h t' ec- t
CO'""ll:"ne t.h t: oi d('~t 'newi \ t'-e Tlla' mc. ~' e
b' arrre m nt wit~ 1>YP".ar r i of c s -;u nc
his eves' 3 ann. ])eD"ocritus b;'llself's e ':0 eCl b;him among- the philosonbers' 4 t:o w1:lic'" th.e ea lie
Stoics would have demurred on account of the relatIOn of DemocrituB to ~PICUruS.6 Hence it is man i-
ra1
11
of P n
...
III
c.,
.r )(
[>
64
CHAP.
Ill.
H
cU,
po
ICISM.
following
ogo vii.
s p.-Ij-re
efinition
they do
ess conta
y ampli
ons and
tions of
"'~/1 1i.",</>G,w1",11 a</>1""''''(I'8",. </>.1..0- earlier t heoTles, tell us nothmg
(l'orp1",s, i1f.1 .,.r;; 11.01''1' .,.01Yr'l' 'IIPO- of any departure from the
Aelo/iElII 81..0" .,.011 {J1D", &'s /(",1 Stoic doctrine in connection
nO(l' liwlI.as </>11(1'1JI ill .,.o's 'IIPO- with his philosophical view of
TOE1r".tICO'
he uni ve
will, th
o The
ion ment
ore suffi
ndicate
Bnpra, p.
cerning e
uotation
Gr. II
space ou
world is
iven in
ount of
unimportant: and what we Physics of the Stoics.
otherwise know of his physical,
I Galen. De Hipp. et Plat.
astronomical, and geographical (where this subject is treated
0
POSIDONIUS.
proof; but,Tbeiractualconstitu_
tionis known to us immediately
through selfconsciousness.
Galen, I. c. v. 1, 429: Xp6tT.
' .... I'~" oi" a03.&UIS"..,
0'
Digitized by
Coogle
CHAP.
III.
EOLEOTIOISM.
CHAP.
III.
.,..iI
pi a dttObw
~rl1l"
tituli.,
Digitized by
Coogle
POSIDONIUS.
f.
omnia tpB in
.. 2
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
68
CHAP.
III.
unimportant.
Digitized by
Coogle
POSIDONIUS.
.Xo""',"'. .,.111' 8J1.ol' ,,6fT,.o1' 11'01"oii".,., .,.. II~ Xdpol" ,,111 ''I'~IIE'
TO.,.' fTUI'"""AWO".,."f ,lpEfl'flGI. 01
lie .,.0;;"'0 'Ir"prJ6".,.u o/l,1'E II' .,.06.
+VXucA TEpl (1;;;1''''
Ap. Galen, .v. 6, p. ~: .,.11 "'0" /j"A.,.lOiifT' .,.~ al.,.lal' "'';;'1'
fIJ "'''1' T"'iill' t.,.,01', .,.ou.,.lfI"T' '11'1&8;;;1'. 0,", II' .,.Olf wEpl .,.ijf
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
70
,CHAP.
III.
..4. link
betnJtJBn
tktJ Stoic
doctrintJ
and NeoPlatonilm.
Stoiol of
tktJjir6t
centttrv.
B.O.
'r,....,.t$"
8.,.,
tum cibilliabiU,.
I
Digitized by
Coogle
Digitized by
Coogle
71
CHAP.
III.
72
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
III.
eon".
Digitized by
Coogle
78
Digitized by
Coogle
74
CHAP
. III.
ECLECTICISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
75
THE A.C.4.DEMY.
CHAPTER IV.
THE ACADEMIC PHn.oSOPHERB IN THE FIRST CENTURY
BEFORE CHRIST.
m.
"'pm, p. 5, 2.
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLBCTICISM.
76
CHAP.
IV.
Digitized by
Coogle
77
PHILO.
CRAP.
IV.
TV".""
3.
13"., ,..,..
lwr,. .. .
l'O"tu.
Digitized by
Coogle
78
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP
. IV.
.,.,....,..,.11,
Digitized by
Coogle
79
PHILO.
judiciwm
Digitized by
Coogle
80
CHAP.
__
IV_._
ECLECTICISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
.DUrIO
Pb'10 hF~~~~,
31
rot a a'\a~l(': b'lt ir t'1-ne~ lU JLlloS.l.I"v ll"C 011.l.ll.lV_b:.e, 1 a:~d h. "o'unc;cLioll WIth to is, be mll.iJltll.illeU tbat tne sce~tlCHlIn. l)f tl).p Acn.d~L.y "-a-,
1'>-0n:l l;r~ ~e:Ji~D'DJ, 0,1:- -na-.it iL ~h:s Sl.n"e, l~
, at. LJt it..; Ce IS.1 IA, L.e'uy all iJ.Ou eVerv knowierig~
(}i l.blll~S; 2 tois was rtenipd 07\1:", in o::'F'ls:ti ,r t)
tltp ~+o'cf' '\r'i w'tr e:",r:lJ! t.J tLe .su')l.J .:lhtl:;1'0_,3 v, h:le !> ~1.U.ll" ~latvnlsW wR$ maintainert II~
tJle esoteric doctrine of t.lJ.p '1c~o,,1 4
\r ';}: 1
d'l.D~P
~IV'D' +b~
.0
Lc
-u e Con: a,'e
s el-:.i s~,
there':>r se t ti e f w'j '\'
the first etiition of ';b c annica was Oatulus), nega+,
.i(, a.,m..Joll &trtmno awere (Cf,
'}L _, _3),
T'm '''Ie r' e a 1 le if;.l
of '.~
e-ti is-l f tI
,c~,
demy is represen+ei' ry \U-!1]
<me (0. Acad. ii. 6, t~\ "'b~ 0
..oub. c..enveu tnis conception
~ro~.'l P _il
s explainea by
"i r
;f 8'/.,Jr, 01 .
T,i
at D n' ae t
s
often (1nlk PIi1 i' rr. I~r, '.
'l9i:l, 4); that it is ulti'lla';el.,
Jeuved !fom PhIlo is llrobabJe,
r'a j1J f n.. its in~er-connection
vi"l ar o~h
"re upp i'.lOns
f ':Ii, nc' r: rt"y' e, a e t s
not, onJu ~ou d i 1 uCls'in ,
C, Acad. iii 17,38' 11l,4.I); b t
III c. ",), 'l3, Augustme exuresslv
p ...e Is ~o Jicero lor It,
G
01 k'P'11I'
leaqe,
82
CHAP.
__
IV_._
ECLECTICISM.
Platonic school; 1 but he could not see in this restoration of the old Academy any abandonment of
the tendency of the new, since he held that the new
Academy had not departed at all from the original
Platonism.I But if we ask in what consisted this
genuine Platonism, the answer is not very satisfactory. On the one hand, Philo, in agreement with
his predecessors of the new Academy, denied the
possibility of a complete knowledge, of comprehending; not merely in regard to the Stoic theory
of knowledge, but quite universally; for like those
predecessors, he lacked a sure criterion for the discrimination of true and false. Notwithstanding,
I August. iii. 18, n (doubtless after Cicero): ..1ntiocll.u.
Phi7hni, O/UditIW, kominil g'lU.l/ll,tum O/I"bitror oirtntnup8Ctiui71ti.
gut j _ t:lIluti aperire 08denti1nu lwIti1nu purl., emperat et tUl P14tunil auctoritatem
..1etUlemi_ lege,fj'UB revooare
(lIB he saw the enemy in retreat, he had began to open
the gates of the city they
were besieging, and to reestablish the previous order
which had been interrupted by
the war).
2 So far Plutarch (Luo. {2;
B'I"Ut. 2) may call Philo the
head of the new Academy, and
Antioehus that of the old; and
similarly Cieero(..1oad. i. {, ]3;
ii. 22, 70) may describe Antiochus lIB the man who through
the renovation of the old Academy fell away from Philo
while he himself conversely sees
in his retrogression from An-
note.
Digitized by
Coogle
PHILO.
83
ptJrceptiB
G2
Digitized by
Coogle
84
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
IV.
Digitized by
Coogle
PHILO,
Digitized by
Coogle
EOLECTICISM.
86
CHAP.
IV.
Digitized by
Coogle
87
ANTIOOHUS.
1IIeOtffJl,
ptJ!IWJ
a,,"
pam BIt
Digitized by
Coogle
88
EOLEOTIOISM.
CHAP.
Digitized by
Coogle
ANTIO CH US.
89
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
90
CHAP.
__
IV_._
permanently renounce all claim to it. l The sceptics themselves, however, are so little able to carry
out their principles that they involve themselves
in the most striking contradictions. Is it not
a contradiction to maintain that nothing can be
maintained, and to be convinced of the impossibility
of a firm conviction? I Can a person, who allows no
distinction between truth and error, use definitions or
classifications, or even a logical demonstration, of
which he is absolutely ignorant whether truth belongs
to it? 3 J~astly, how can it be simultaneously maintained that there are false notions, and that between
true and false notions there is no difference, since
the first of these propositions presupposes this very
difference? 4 We must allow that some of these
arguments, especially those last quoted, are not
deficient in subtlety, but others must certainly be
called very superficial, and l'II.ther postulates than
proofs.
In any case, however, Antiochus believed himself justified' by such reasoning in repudiating the
demand that we should refrain from all acquiescence; 6 and in striving after a dogmatic knowledge
1
'9 'fl.
'flfl
17,
5'
"j
Digitized by
Coogle
ANTIOCHUS.
91
::z
Digitized by
Coogle
92
CHAP.
_I_V_.~
m, colectwum.
EOLEOTIOISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
ANTIOCH US.
98
CHAP.
IV.
Hil tkcO'I7I
of /uun,,ledgc.
ubi snim _
ItmOC'I'attrm.
18-
Digitized by
Coogle
EOLEOTIOISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
95
ANTIOCHU$.
Nt, &c.
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
96
CHAP.
IV.
Digitized by
Coogle
A.NTIOCHUS.
CHAP.
genlJ'l"a jlluro"
tit
Db-
Digitized by
Coogle
VI.
98
EOLEOTIOISM.
CUP.
IV.
r8'l'tlll/l
&C. Dei1Ul8
publicanolilm adminil-
ClBleltiU'I1t,
Digitized by
Coogle
09
SCHOOL OF ANTIOCHUS.
II
CRAP.
IV.
Sclwolof
A/Itiook",.
Digitized by
Coogle
100
CHAP.
IV.
ECLECTICISM.
,g.
Digitized by
Coogle
SCHOOL OF A.NTIOCHUS.
101
CHAP.
Digitized by
Coogle
IV.
102
CHAP.
IV.
ECLECTICISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
108
EUDORUS.
Digitized by
Coogle
EOLEOTIOISM.
104
OHAP.
IV.
"'v
'IM""
Digitized by
Coogle
lOS
EUDORUS.
drr,.,,,,
,.0"
Digitized by
Coogle
CHAP.
IV.
EOLEOTIOISM.
106
IV.
Digitized by
Coogle
107
ARIUS DIDYMUS.
~losely
8I1J1'1'O"
CHAP.
Digitized by
Coogle
IV.
EOLEOTIOISM.
lOS
OHAP.
IV.
Digitized by
Coogle
109
POTAMO.
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
110
CHAP.
IV.
onte
rary
ius,l
e Di
es La us
speaks as ough e ad live not ong before is
own time, therefore towards the end of the second
.stia
ntury
erha
owe
he m
be
e me
trans
ng t
tatem
of a
er
writer.3 That which his predecessors had actually
syste
hich
ld
mpte
he se' up
all t
hiloso cal
bine
self t
rue 0
schools of the time, Potamo also avowed as his express
design; for he desi ated his school as eclectic; 4
the
e we
ow 0
'I do
e ce
ly
shows that he had not chosen this name Wlthout
cause; for it apparently combines, regardless of
uid.
1,00e :
11111
</>1"&ITO.pos. 'Y0'Y0II':'s
'ft,HI Alry06rrrou "..l
Ub-r&II
ably
'~TOII is here to
ad).
ProfIm
: tTl
'II'pO
d"E'Y0U It..l l""."TI"", TIS ufpolTlS
ol"",x97,
DO'rd,..t.>IIos TOV' A".~3 ElliS ~,,".~ E"OU Ta. ""tlT"o".,.u
dlT'l"l/s
'pEIT.III
he
, but
,he om
of
the expressIOn .till more unsuitable to him, 'II'pO o"C'Y0u, is
found in Suidas. a.'ip.ITIS, S. II.
).
his t
adva
by
NIetzsche (Rhe1,n. Mu,. xxiv.
205 ,q.; Beitr. z. QueUenk. d.
Diogen8JI Lalwti1ls. 9), and ad
ed am
thers
els
ogr. 8
,asc
to
DIogenesgrea \\antof
ght,
but not, on the whole, more
than might be expected in
Cone
g the
nt
pts to
e bet
he
ntsof
g nes an
as,
'AAE~...,3p.vs,
.wo
,...T'
o
recon
hem,
to
discover something more about
the life and circumstances of
Potamo, cf. Fabric. Bibl Gr.
i
sq. H
Brucke
.st.
hil. ii.
q. ; J.
n,
Hutmro de l'Ecole d' Aleamndrie, i. 199 sqq. In these there
is also a review of the other
thisn
nown
t
etorici
tamo,
tilene, who, according to bUldas,
sub. 1'000 (cf. a.&3. rull. and
A.ITIJ"',,~, where the rhetorician
i
led
</>os),
t
u
Tiben
Rom
d
Po amo, the war of P 0 mns
(Porph. v. Plot. 9). whom, however, the new editions call
P
T
isals
e
P
fro
whom
e
m
matica
rvatio
e
quoted, according to Alexander,
in Simpl. IJe Crelo, 270, a, 42;
2
23K;
1. in A
b
15, a,
de pre
note
logical consistency, Platonic 1 and Peripatetic elements with an essentially Stoic foundation. In the
question of the criterion, he allied himself with the
Stoics, only that, instead of the ' intellectual notion,'
he substituted . a va er f
f expression, th
accurate not
metaphysics
quality and s
nce and effic
s the highest
t he reduced,
oics, efficient
substance is
stated. The highest good, he thought, consisted m
the perfection of the life, the most essential condition of which lay in virtue" for which, however, in
agreement with Aristotle and the older Academy, corporeal and external goods were found indispensable.!
lyanyoriginal
e to be found
modification
uperficial co
octrines; and
tic school,' exc
e one mentio
Diogenes and
ine followers,
further trace
history.
I According to Suidas,
he
wrote a treatise on the Platonic
Republic.
tTKH 3' 4in-'; (continues
Diog. 1. c.), KCL84 </ItTl" ill tT.,.o,
X~I~tT~' KPIrt,pUJ T7/s lUt.1/9d4s
ells- 6cp' oli 'Yiv
,.e"
,"lITTI
.,.b
"0:"
'Ymp KCLl
.,.lll.os
dV4e it/>' & ,,4JI.,.q. Avcuplp~"'4',
,~" K4.,.c\ ""tT4V ;"p~rlW .,..lI.d4v
;;,V .,.ov tTtf.p.q..,.os K41
3.
7rr~p.o"lK
Digitized by
CHAP.
IV.
CliAPTER V.
T
CHAP
D. Tlw
Pe a
tic &lw(ll.
ts
te
direction.
1M LT TI' US y
ith the 4-'\nd nc which was int oduced into the Academy by Antiochus, the school
of the PerIpatetics also receIved a new impulse and
s ~ill oc US
pursued a pal "ial y a u, ed co~se.
is d 0 inc b k he c Ie y
t" e )C' in of
e fo n r, 0 e er' at ti tr-n d a ew ..,o he
or s fA' stntle it is to the eltpounrlinp of these
works to which for whole centunes, down to the
tImes of .Neo-Plawlllsm, t eir en ire s ren~th is
uecte ,aud
w..i.c t ir pn ci al . _~s c si s.
__ er
0
h e s is ay d he ph no Ie on so
ru ct ris'c f his wr Ie pe od the "10
"u~ish>kable and pressing is the feeling of mental
lassitude, and the stronger the mistrust of its own
scientilic power, 0 w ic scept isLU d.B Je
...le
I'Ih I
xp es on, t
to 0 vi s e IIII s te
ec si t re m tc th 0 ~as rs an t- I n
)0
t err
N other school however has so
zealousl and carefully carried on the work of exposition, and none has prouuced such a long and
connected me of o~..ne tavJrs S .la of h P it Ie
on rn g
es
.:le
Zu pt
U,
giti'
byl
,0
21
us
THE PERIPA.TETIOS.
1I'Il1lt
atl'lltiratuB,
film
Digitized by
Coogle
EOLEOTIOISM.
}]4
CRAP.
v.
Digitized by
Coogle
ANDRONICUS.
115
of
CHAP.
Digitized by
Coogle
v.
116
ECLECTICISM.
OHAP.
V.
Digitized by
Coogle
117
ANDRONICUS.
Digitized by
Coogle
EOLEOTIOISM.
118
CHAP.
V.
'According to Simplicius
(i. a) one of those which 1Ju91J'TEpaIS wEpl Clin-O (the Aristotelian
book) l""O(ClIS lxpf,uri./I'I'o, but at
the same time (l.e. 7, "Y' j Selwl.
42, a, 8) a continuous exposition
ICu9' I~" 1I..~1/I. This com-
Digitized by
Coogle
BOETHUS.
.~pprehension
~o
119
CHAP
V.
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICIS1W.
120
CHAP.
V.
,..~
of immortality. Boethus concedes to him that, strictly speaking, the soul does not die, but
only the man (because death,
according to the PlItedo, 64 0,
consists in the separation of
soul from body, and therefore
denotes the dissolution of man
into his constituent parts. and
not the destruction of those
parts as snch); but he thinks
the continuance of the soul
does not follow from this. Eusebius (Pr. lik. xi. 28. 4; xiv.
10, 3) gives extracts from a
treatise of Porphyry, ....p11/lIlxlis.
in which he defended immortality against Boethus. From
the former of these passages it
is clear that BOOthus had also
attacked the proof derived
from the kinship of the human
spirit with God (Plueao, 18, B
$'1'1'),
This view is ascribed by
Alex. De A-n. 154. a. to Xen- 19,11,40.
arohus and Boethus. who appeal
Thus he defends (ap. Simpl.
in support of it to Arist. Etll. 43, III, IJ; &IIIIZ. 62, a, 18, 27),
Digitized by
Coogle
ARISTO.
121
CHAP.
V.
Aristo.
Digitized by
Coogle
EOLEOTICISM.
12,2
CHAP.
V.
StructU.
OratipptU.
Digitized by
Coogle
NICOLAUS OF DAMASCUS.
1~3
CHAP.
V.
JYieolau,
concerning the gods. He is of DamalJ
called in Athen. vi. 262 f. ; 0118.
266, 0; x; 415, II; xii. 543, a;
iv. 153 f., an adherent of the
l'eripatetic doctrine (U.pITII.,.,,.,.IICOS) to which he had early
allied himself (tSuid. NucclA.)
and to which he devoted a
portion of hi:; writings. Simpl.
(De Crelo, &lwl. itl Ar. 493, tI,
23) mentions his treatise Topl
'Aplno.,.EAolJs </>IAOO'O</>(IIS (out'
of which may perhaps be taken
the quotation from his e."'p(1I
.,.;;,,, 'Ap,no""AoIJS p, .,.a..,.a </>1J1T'1Ca.
Digitized by
Coogle
124
CHAP.
'V.
ECLECTICIS.ll.
Digitized by
Coogle
125
Digitized by
Coogle
26
CHAP.
ECLECTICISM
ag nst
sup ltio
at t
wor was deSignedly oist
upon Aristotle. Both in manner
o xpos
n,
say and
su anee, its
nlik
ss
Aristotle is so unmistakably evid
, tha nly
rso ntir
acqua ed w
Ar
tIe,
a fool, could have indulged the
f
yt
't e d po 'bly
r
ded
th
or
f th
philosopher. But this, the only
ar men hat
add
, tri
to ove
m
. H
IDai
are the forged writings in
w . h
at
firs
!an
c dete
he
ery
Fro
Stahr, l. C., and, in another this it does not follow that
,A,' I.
Ml Y Sai
th are t fo ries, b t that
me 0110 th form t
ar at e msy
geri
without naming him.
In the present case, however, the
f cry
not lums nou h
Os
, i
ed, deel
msel
19
ery
eide
t
rev
n
rous
rso
127
ITS ORIGIN.
name?
I Naturally Alexander
the
Great ; for that this Alexander
was another man of the name
of whom nothing further is
known, no reader of Osann's
book(p. 2'6) will easily believe.
a Osann (p. 2'6,'1.) has no
further proof to give than that
the dedication is incompatible
CRAP.
Digitized by
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V.
E('LECTICISM.
128
CHAP.
v.
Digitized by
Coogle
129
and all elementary bodies whatever.l AB to Apuleius this objection, it is true, would not hold good:
in his treatise on the Cosmos he has entirely appropriated the contents of the so-called Aristotelian
treatise. But how are we justified in regarding him
not merely as the translator or reviser, but also as the
author of the latter? If the work is not mentioned
before Apuleius,lI in the remains of ancient literature
which we possess, it does not follow from this that it
did not exist: and though Apuleius, in the introduction to his Latin recension, speaks as if it were not a
mere translation, but an independent work on the
foundations of Aristotle and Theophrastus,3 there is
no proof whatever that he was sufficiently scrupulous
about literary right of property, and sufficiently free
from boastfulness, not to found a claim of original
authorship on the minor alterations and additions by
which his work is distinguished" from Aristotle's.s
I For these reasons the hypo.
thesis of Posidonius is opposed
by Bake, PIJ6idon. ~l. 237 ''1.;
Spengel, p. 17; Adam, p. 32.
t The quotation in Justin,
Cokorl. tul th. c. 5, cannot be
placed earlier than Apuleius,
since the authenticity of this
treatise, as has lately been
shown by Adam (p. 3 .qq.) in
opposition to Semisch, has de
cisive reasons against it.
I At the end of the dedication
to Faustinus, which is distin
guished from ,that of the
pseudo Aristotle to Alexander
only by unimportant alterations
and omissions: QIIMB [no.
CHAP.
O'gitized by
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V.
180
. CHAP.
EOLECTIOISM.
Digitized by
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181
/II4luit tlicere.
J Nor would his forgery have
answered his purpose; for if he
declared the Greek version of
his book to be the wprk of
Aristotle, and the Latin to
be his own, these statements
Jt2
Digitized by
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182
CHAP,
__v_'_
ECLECTICISM.
Digitized by
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188
.,...,..,.dp..'"
CHAP.
V.
Digitized by
Coogle
1M
CRAP.
E(!LECTICI8ld.
701,11,1 'f]f].
2 The treatise 1I'epl KOII'JoIOII,
~(,II'EOII",
f)
,.&" ~IIA111"""ol'I"".
Digitized by
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185
on.
CHAP.
Digitized by
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v.
EOLEOTIOISM.
186
CHAP.
__V_._
there are points of contact even in the Peripateticdoctrine. I ~t his approach to Stoicism is most
striking in regard to theology. While repudiatingthe Stoic Pantheism as such, the diffusion of thedivine substance through the world, the author quite
approves of its propositions as soon as they are
applied, not to the divine essence, but the divine
force; S and he accordingly teaches that the active
influence emanating from the Deity only extends,.
indeed, primarily to the outermost sphere of the
universe, but spreads from this to the inner spheres,
and so is transmitted through the whole.3 God is,.
Him proceeds
therefore, the law of the whole; 4
the order of the world by means of which it is,
classified into the various species of existences,
through their individual seminification; II and be-.
cause of this, his all-governing influence, God
bears the manifold names, the enumeration and
explanation of which in the treatise 7rEp'i. KO(TJ'Ov
are stamped with the most genuine Stoicism. The
name, the predicates, and the origin of Zeus arehere explained. quite in the Stoic sense; cwarytcr],.
from
I C. 4, 394, b, 9: ArrETIlI' a~
"Ill nlpolS ""'VI'IlI
I" "'won
ICIIl (ClGo'f JCI&l ala
a'~ICOIIO'IlI
'I'tvx6f ,.. JCI&l -ydJl'l'Of obO'IIlI. Cf.
the quotations, Phil. fl. fh. III. i.
p. ]38, 1; 191,1; 331,3.
I C. 6, 397, b, 16: alb "Ill ,.i#"
~" .In'" "'''~$ .~x87JO'IlIJI
8<r, ."J/'I'IlI ,.IlIW" ltrr. 9.i#" .AIIlI
f1,..
.moo"
4'1>~" IJIIGIM61'EJIIlI
';'1"" "Ill a,' Au;;! ICIIl n",,$ 1lIl0'9I/O'EOOS, "'6 I'~" 9EI, all"~E& .pl'll'OJ/'l'4 .,.a,fJaAA6I'E"O' A4-y0" ob
I'~"
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187
THEOLOGY.
CHA.P.
__v_._
Digitized by
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188
(lHAP.
EOLEOTICISM.
road
Digitized by
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189
EVIDENOE AS TO DATE.
36,911f!l.
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ECLECTICISM.
140
CHAP.
V.
1I'.pl KdfTI'I'1I
Digitized by
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141
CHAP.
3.
3.
Digitized by
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V.
EOLEOTIOISM.
142
CHAP.
V.
Digitized by
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148
144
EOLEOTIOISM.
CHAP.
v.
comprehensible transformation
of the predicate Aol~ into the
name of an island, Oxe or
Loxe, is accounted for by the
still existing variant, Ao(~
KAAolIJ.'/~,instead of Ao(~ 'lfpbs
riJ"oIKOIIJ.'/~,,('If. K. 3,393, II, 15).
To fix the date of its composition more exactly would
hardly be possible. That the
author wrote before Strabo
would seem probable, because
his description of the sea (c.
3, 393, a, 26) is less precise
than Strabo's (ii. 5, 19 .g. p.
122,g.). Meantime this inference is the more unsafe if the
author in the geographical part
of his work has simply followed
Posidonius. The .ppd~O"lS is
apportioned to the AtYy''""uc/)" j
to the /J1lI'O.t3~S the 'lf1"E,w."s
and &'"apEiIl, to the 1'lf,/JvJ.'f/'f"K/)"
the O"OIIf>POtro~ and l-ylCptl..,..tA,
to the whole soul the B'ICII'Otro~,
IA.v/J.p'6n,s, p,ryIIAO."IIX.l1l and
likewise the opposite failings.
Of these duties and faults
somewhat superficial definitions
are given j lastly, it is shown
by what conduct they are
manifested j and many other
subkinds of virtues and faults
are brought forward.
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TREATISE ON VIRTUES.
140
CHAP.
+uxiis
Mp./Ja.II0-
Digitized by
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V.
146
EC
CT
ISM
CH
TE
'CE
AR
P.
FRO
In
1 ConcernIng CIcero' as 8
philosopher, cf., besides Ritter
v.
17
Her
"W ke,
xii. 167 .qq.; Kiihner,
. T.
Ciceronu in Philo'ophiam
feri
Ham 18
(th is
only to be regarded as 8
rious collection of materials);
once mg
p 080P cal
works, cf. H d in rsck. 'lid
CICERO'S EDUCA.TION.
147
CHAP.
, &tlJWa, p. 58, 4.
1.2
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VI.
EOLEOTIOISM.
1(8
CHAP.
VI.
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l~
Digitized by
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EOLEOTIOISM.
150
CHAP.
VL
;my
Digitized by
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161
itiloipUnar.
lB1INumquB
CRAP.
VI.
It, limit,
;:a::.ni-
do oOfdor'llmt
roliq'U01"Um me/I-
fj'II4Hn
'I7l1lnO. 'lUlU
Stoioi ttlllJ1t8rWll,t.
I
108; No D. i. 5, 12.
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ECLECTICISM.
161
CRAP.
VL
teg_
enim, 'Ut ,oil, lJCtm 1ft Socratica. in omni tlilputa.ticne 'luid _et
contra. alterifl' opinicntJm rimiZlimflm veri fJfUWC'"IJmlll.
Ntio
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158
OBJECTION TO DIALECTIO.
CHAP.
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VL
154
CHAP.
_V_I_._
ECLECTICISM.
as we shall presently discover, cannot avoid fluctuation in replying to them; yet we soon perceive
that here he is far from admitting the same justification to doubt as in the purely theoretical sphere.
What he occasionally says in his discussions concerning the Law8, that he does not intend to examine
further the doubt of the new Academy, I. he seems
to have made a general rule in his moral philosophy;
for in none of his writings on this subject does he pay
any regard to the considerations which he himself
had previously raised; but as soon as the doubt in
the enquiries of the Academy has had space to express
itself, the highest good and duties 2 are treated of
in the moral discussions in a wholly dogmatic tone~
though at the same time without any fixed plan.
In connection therewith we also find our philosopher bringing forward opinions about God and the
human soul, which are manifestly for him something more than uncertain conjectures, though even
here he despairs of absolute certainty of knowledge. He constantly says that he is merely following probability-and expressing his own personal opinion.s But that he was really a. consistent
1 Legg. i. 13, 39: Perflu'l'bfJr mt.lIIJime 'I'm Bimi18 eIt et fJuo
trioem fllUUm /umt.m omnium omntJI duee natura fJlmimur,
rerum Acatlemi4m luJ:nc ab D(JQ' e"e; and at the concluA'I'cmla. et Oameade'l'ecBntem sion of the treatise, iii. 40, 95 :
_ _ ut rileat. Ham Bi Ita aiBce8limu8, ut Ve~o Cottm
i7WtU87'it in luec nimial tliBputatio verWr, mihi Balbi all
edet '1"I1Muu. Qvonn fJuidem ego verltatiB BimiZitutliMtn tlitkrepla.cMe cupio, mbmov8'1'e flO", tur elBIJ propenBor. Tmc. iv. 4,
audeo.
7: Sed tleftmdot fJuo/l fJuUgUIJ
Proof of this will presently ,entit ; mnt enim jutlici4 lib/J'1'Q. :
be given.
fIOI fJui/l Bit in fJfUlfJUIJ f'/J
So No D. i. I, 2: Q1wtt maIrimIJ probabi18 ,emp/J'l' re-
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156
THEOLOGICAL OPINIONS.
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156
CHAP.
_V_I._
EOLEOTIOISM.
I, 1; Tmc. v. 4, 10.
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PHILOSOPHIC.A.L INCONSISTENCIES.
157
fW.
Digitized by
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158
OHAP.
VI.
ECLECTICISM.
,culpttu aut
tJ
'l'obore dolatw.
_ettllf'
mente,
~,.
___
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159
CHAP.
__V_I._
Doctrine
ofin1U&te
knO'TDledge.
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ECLECTICISM.
160
CHAP.
_V_I_._
et
OO'lljirmentwr
tlitia OO'lltraria.
2 Fin. v. 21, 59: (Natwra 1wmini) dedit talem. mentem, fJ-
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ORITERION OF TRUTH.
161
1,2.
. I Puao. i. 13, 30: PirmiBri
mtlm hoc ajferri citltJtu'I', C'IIf'
IJe08 tJlBe C'/tJ&amtla, gtlod nuZltJ
gem tam ftJ'l'a, nemo omnitlm
t_ Bit ifllmtJnis, C'/tjll' flltJnttJm
DeO'l'tlfll
.fieri ,oZtlt
tum imbtlerit
CHAP.
opinio.
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VL
162
BCLECTICISM.
VI.
De .Mzt<l, c. 14.
Digitized by
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188
ETHIOS.
CHAP.
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VI.
164
CHAP.
VI
EOLEOTIOISM.
bability of that time wit-hout regard to consequences. 1 But even for himself he seems unable
in this discusswn to find any fixed stan:dpOint. So
far, indeed, as the statements of both sides agreein the universal principles of life according to
nature, and in the unconditional appreciation of
virtue, he is quite sure of himself; 2 but as soon as
the roads diverge he knows no longer which he shall
follow. The grandeur, consistency, and severity of
the Stoic ethics excite his admiration; it appears
to him nobler to regard virtue as sufficient for
happiness and not to distinguish between the good
and the useful, than to assent to the opposite view
of the Peripatetics; 3 he finds the Stoics' admission of the affections weak, and their moral principles hazardous, since that which is faulty in its
nature, like the affections, should not merely be
restricted, or, still less, regarded as a help to virtue,
but wholly eradicated.' He reproaches them with
the inconsistency of assuming goods with which the
happy man may dispense, and evils which he may
endure; and thus distinguishing from the happiness
of the virtuous as such, a supreme happiness, and
from the perfect and complete life, a life that is
more than complete.1i He prefers, therefore, to follow
the nobler mode of thought, to call the wise man
happy under all circumstances, even in the bull of
1 Tmo. v. 11, 33; B'ltp'I'Q" p.
Ritter, iv. 134 ,qq., 157 'qq.
157,1.
Pule. iv. 18 .qq.; Off. i. 25,
t Aoad. i. 6,22; Ji'in.iv.10,&C. 88; cf. AetuJ. i. 10, 35, 38.
a
Fin. v. 27 .q.; T'lIIO. v. 8 Pule. v. I, 1; 25, 71; Off.
iii. 4, 20; cf. with the following, 12,15.q.
Digitized by
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165
Phalaris ; 1 he desires to adopt, a,t any rate tentatively, the famous Stoic Paradoxes. 2 If, however,
we enquire more closely into this Stoicism, it is
clear that our philosopher is not so certain about it
as we might have supposed from these utterances.
A man of the world, like Cicero, cannot conceal
from himself that the Stoic demands are much too
exalted for men as they are, that the Stoic wise man
is not found in reality,3 that the Stoic morality does
not admit of being transferred to daily life; 4 he
cannot possibly allow that all the wise are alike
happy, and all the unwise absolutely wretched, and
that there is no difference in value between the most
hardened wickedness and the most trivial offence.1I
But he believes he can show that the severity of the
Stoics is not scientifically justifiable, and, moreover,
that it contradicted their own presuppositions; for
if the first principle is life according to nature,
among the things according to human nature are
also to be counted sensible well-being, health, freedom from pain, and an untroubled mind-even
pleasure is not to be wholly despised. To live
according to nature is not to separate oneself from
nature, but rather to encourage and sustain it.6
These arguments draw our eclectic philosopher so
strongly to the side of the Peripatetics, that he
declares himself to be of their number.7 The truth,
I
l'Iuc. v. 26.
ParatlorlJa.
LteZ.5, 18 ; cf. Off. iii. 4, 16.
Fin. iv. 9, 21.
Fm. iv. 9,21; 19,55; 28,
71 'f. Cf. Off. i. 8. 27.
I
(Jato,
CRAP.
14,
Digitized by
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VI.
166
BCLECTICISM.
CHAP.
VL
IV. 162,'1'1.
PMl. tl. fh. m. i. p. 276,'1'
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167
THEOLOGY.
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168
CHAP.
_V_I_._
EOLECTIOISM.
Digitized by
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169
Digitized by
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170
EOLEOTIOISM.
CHAP.
Cicero, in agreement with the Stoic and Platonic
VL
_ _ _ doctrine, regards the soul as an emanation of the
Deity, an essence of supernatural origin; 1 without
troubling himself to develop this notion more particularly, or to define the relation between this
supernatural origin of the soul, and the material
origin of the body. But, as he is uncertain about
the nature of God, so he expresses himself hesitatingly about that of the soul, and though his
inclination unmistakably tends to explain it as an
immaterial substance, or, at any rate, as a substance
differing from terrestrial matter,2 he will not altogether exclude the possibility th/l.t it consists of air
or fire; it is only the coarser materiality of the
body that he unconditionally denies in respect to
the soul.3 The immortality of the soul he defends
at length, partly on the ground of direct consciousness and universal agreement," and partly by the
Platonic arguments; 41 if he also tries to silence
the fear of death, even supposing that souls perish
in death,6 this is merely the prudence of the
Academician and of the practical man who would
I TtUIC. i. 27; 29, 70.
1 TflIC. i. 27 : Animortll"u~lllla.
S TulC. i. 25, 60: Non BIt
in terrU Of'igo i _ i " pote8t,
&c. Loc. oit. 25, 60; Legg. i. eerie 'lUJC cortlil nBC lQ.'II{Ittinil fIeC
8, 2.: EaJrtiti&e IJ1UII1Uloim fila- clJ'I'em nee atomof'tlm. Anima
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171
JTARRO.
:7&
::a::
1 De.Fhto.
The prinoipal
.propositions of this treatise (0.
11) are taken from Carneades.
8uIj1'ra, p. 99.
'The life of Varm falls
between 116 and 27 B.O. For
the rest, f7itlI1 conoerning him
the histories of Roman literature-Bahr, in Pauly's Real.tmlJftJ. d. Irl4a. AlttJrlh. vi.
1688 Iff., and the authori-
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'
172
CHAP.
VI.
HiltMw
of philoIOJ1ky fJIIul
tlt8 vllll'iO'UII ,eeU.
ECLECTICISM.
et 1110.
4 Oiv. D. xix. 1--3.
Cf. with what follows, the
account of Antiochus wpra,
p. 94. In regard to this it is
to be observed that Varro's
book, according to Cic. Acad.
i. 2, 4 'qq., is later than the
expositions of Cicero there
made use of, only one of which
is put into the mouth of Varro.
Loc cit. 1; 3: NefJ'lU' enim
.,.&6X.'c&' q'IUB ilte valtle prOMt ; tam e'le dicontlam, qlUll fIOn eo
l. c. 19; l. c. 25. In Varro's diltet a ceteriB, quod d,i'DerlO'
month is placed, as we know, kabeat finel btnwrum et tnalothe doctrine of Antiochus, in
the second edition of the Academica (A cad. i 4 ,qq.). V"ule
what is quoted from Antiochus,
aup. p. 94, with which Acad. i.
2, 6, agrees: NOltra tu pkyma
Digitized by
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173
Digitized by
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174
CHAP.
__
V_I._
ECLECTICISM.
is an inaccuracy which we
must ascribe to Varro himself,
and not merely to Augustine.
I V'wmtBm,
g'lUJm doctf'ina
imerit flt!l"t ari;em ml18Mitlbrim, i. e. 0/1" aglJ'ltlJ,m vital,
Z. D.
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175
HAPPINESS.
CHAP.
tlirtute
Digitized by
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VI.
176
ECLECTICISM.
VI.
L.
Lat. v. 59: Bitle, 1et Zeno OitiUl,
animalli1lm IfJmfJn ignu u gui
anima ac menI.
Vide B'Ilp. p. 95 Igg.
Augustine, av. D. vii. 2,
see following note.
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THEOLOGY.
171
different parts of the world, are they who are worshipped in the gods of polytheism, down to the
genii and heroes. l But, like PanlBtius and SclBvola,
he drew a marked distinction between natural and
philosophical, mythical and civil theology,' and if
I Augustin. Oifl. D. iv. 31:
Varro says: Quod hi BOli iii fIideIIIItur ani'llUUltJertillJ6 guill eutJt
.lJe1a, gui C'l'etlUlenmt 81MIZ eIB6
animam flWtU ac ratitm8 'nuntlum gubernantem. .Loc. cit.
vii. 6 (c. 9 repeatedly): Dillit
IIr'go idem Varro D81MIZ ,e.
arllitrari e"e animam muntli
et hunc ip.um mUM"m
ellJ6 D81MIZ.. ,ed ricut li.ominem
Bapientem, cum Bit elll1 oorpC'l'e et
anifIW, tamen ab OInimo tlici
Bapientem; ita muMum D81MIZ
tliei ab aniflW, cum Bit elll1 animo
et tJIJf'PC'I'e. Loo. cit. vii. 23:
(Varra in the book concerning
the Dii '6leeti) t7'81 NBC tttfif'mGt
alSi7ItQI gratlUl in OfItni uniflCrBagfte natftra, those discussed in
PMl. d. Or. III. i. 192: Nature,
the irrational soul, and reason.
Bane partem animtlJ muntli
(their rational part, their trE1'0 ..",111') tlicit Dewm, in nobil
autem genium t:ooari. Elle autInn in mftntlo lapitle. ac terram
. . td OSBa. tit 'IIRI1Itle. IHi.
Solem fiero, lunam, ltellaB, gum
_timUl guibtt'gtte ipse _tit,
BenIUI elle ejUl. .AiJtMra por'I'o
animum elle ejUl" elll1 cuJUI fIi
gUiII percenit in altra ip.am
!fUOgfte facere DeOl (it makes
into Gods); et per ea guotl in
tllr'ram permeat, Deam Tellurem, guotZ afltem iMe permeat in mare atgue ocean"m,
Deum elle Neptunum. Similarly in c. 6, the world is divided
CRAP.
VI.
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178
CHAP.
_.V_I_._.
ECLEOTIOISM.
The ancient Romans,' says Varro, worshipped the gods for 170 years,
without images: Quod, Ii arlAvo inq'lllit, fIUlIMiuet,
Daltiq
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THEOLOGY.
179
CHAP.
VI.
N2
Digitized by
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180
BCLBCTICISM.
CHAPTER VII.
THE SCHOOL OF THE SEXTII.
VIL
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181
CHAP.
VII.
31~pGv$". This transition from Tao. Ann. ii. 811. For the dis.
practical activity to philosophy tinction between this Sotion
seems to be referred to in Plin. and the Peripatetic of the same
Hilt. Nat. xviii. 28, 214. Pliny name, tri.d6 Phil. fl. Gr. II. ii. 3,
here relates how Democritus and i""fra ch. xi. note 2. In
had enriched himself with his support of the theory that the
traffic (this is also related of teacher of Seneca, and not the
Thales) in oil (tri.d6 PhiZ. fl. Or. Peripatetic, was the author of
I. 766) but had returned his the treatise ".pl ISmr, Diels.
gains to those who had shared Doteogr. 2511 'fl., rightly appeal8
in it; and he adds: Hoc pOItea to the similarity between a
&llJtilIB e ilomanilaapilmtioJ ail fragment from Sotion's ftpl
aectatoribuBAtkenilfeciteatlem ISmr (ap. Stob. Floril. 20,118)
ratimu/: which does not mean and Seneca, De Ira, ii. 10, II.
that he carried on the same Also the repeated quotation of
traffic, but merely that he ai utterances of Sextius, De Ir.,
lenced those who blamed him ii. 86, I, points to this source.
for devoting himself to philo Quintil. x. I, 124: &riprit
sophy, in a similar manner, and non. JHlIrUm
Co,./Ulli",
for his part renounced all Celltu, SellJtioB l8eutw, non. riM
profits.
tmltw. ac nitore. For further
1 There is no express tradi details concerning this phy.
tion of this; but as the school sician and polyhistor, tri.d6 Bernis universally described as the hardy, ROm. Litt. 848.
school of the Sextii (see the
t A grammarian, who had
follOwing note), and the elder already won for himself con.
Senius as a philosopher is dis siderable fame l1li a teacher,
tinguished from his son by the especially in Smyrna, when he
addition of Pater (Sen. Ep. tlimiua repents sckoZa tNnriil
98, 18; 64, 2), it is extremely all Qu.inti &ptitmf.i [1. &mil
probable.
philo8ophi Hotam. Sueton. De
2 Sen. Ep. 108,11 'flfl.; 49,2. nlwtr. Oramm.. 18.
The age at which he heard. This philosopher (of whom
Sotioll, Seneca designated by Seneca, lJf'8fJit. Fit. 10, 1 ; Ep.
~e word iUt:enil, in p. 108; 11, 4; 40, 12; 100, 12, speaks
m Ep. 49, by puer. It may, as of a deceased contemporary
therefore, have occurred in 18- whom he had himself known
2~ A.D. This date is also in and heard) was, according to
dicated by Ep. lOS, 22; cf. these passages, a man of exceJ..
"""Ita
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182
CUAP.
VIl.
ECLECTICISM.
Sgriaca, conjmto-
tim CllJk. Bonn. 1873). This collection, sometimes called .",0.,or _tentitlJ, sometimes encltiridion, and, since the time of
Rufinus, also _nuI1ll, wa.s
much in use among the Christians. Its author is sometimes
named Sextus, sometimes Sixtus,
or Xystus; and while most
writers describe him as a Pythagorean philosopher, others see
in him the Roman bishop Sixtus
(or Xystus, about 120 A..D). Of
more recent writers, many (fI.g.
Lasteyrie, &ntettcel de &lIJtilll,
Par. 1842; and Mul1ach, Fragm.
Philo,. ii. 81 Iq.) rega.tded the
maxims as the work of a
heathen philosopher, and more
espeoially of one of the two
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DOCTRINES.
'CHAP
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:vn.
GISMo
CHAP.
VII.
philoIOJIh:w
ItoINl-
point.
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186
PREDOMINANCE OF ETHICS.
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EOLEOTIOISM.
186
CHAP.
tra atlfectlll impetu non .ub non poue, fuam bo"v.m 'I'inwI.,
tilitate pugnandum, 1U1C minutiB which Seneca .carries further in
t'ollieribm, .ea incur"" aver the sense discnssed, Phil. a. (k.
aciem fWn probam: III. i. p. 252, 1, 2.
ctWillatione. enim conf;tlnai de
Vide Sen. De Ira, iii. 36, 1,
b~re. non fJcllicari.
with which cf. the Pythagorean
Golden Poem, v. 40 'ff.
Ibid. 13, 9.
I Ap. Sen. Ep. 511, 7.
t,etuio,m
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ARGUMENT.A
MAL FOOD.
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VII.
]88
CRAP.
VII.
ECLECTICISM.
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189
CHAPTER VIII.
THE FIRST CENTURIES AFTER CHRIST.
OF THE STOICS.
THE SCHOOL
SENECA.
CHAP.
c:::::-
:.:::az
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ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
VI1I.
EtU1om-
ment fJ!
public
clutiril of
philo
Mlph'!J.
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19l
.cRAP.
VIII.
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192
CUAP.
vm.
BCLBCTIOI8M.
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193
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104
ECLECTICISM.
VIII.
from tke
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195
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196
CHAP.
VIII.
ECLECTICISM.
9/0T1S) in
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107
SENECA., EPICTETUS.
CRAP.
VIII.
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GISM.
CHAP.
VIII.
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100
CORNUTUS.
CHAP.
VIIT.
n",s
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200
CHAP.
VIII.
BCLECTICIS.tI.
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201
COR1;UTUS.
Athenodorus, I we can see from the fragments preserved, t.hat this treatise regarded its object principally from the standpoint of the grammarian.1 It is
an important divergence from the Stoic tradition, if
he really taught that the soul dies simultaneously
with the body;8 this, however, is not certain,' though
it is possible that in his views of the subject he.
allied himself with Panretius. If, lastly, his ethical
discour!les are praised by Persius I> on account of their
good inftuence on t.hose who heard them, we can
hardly venture to ascribe to him in this sphere
any important individuality, or striking effect on
CHAP.
VIII.
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209
CHAP.
VIII.
ECLECTICISM.
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203
SENECA.
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ECLECTICISM.
CHA.P.
that is universally human, based upon immediate
VIII.
____
consciousness and important for moral life-the
universalistic development of ethics-the endeavour
after a system more generally comprehensible an4
more practicably efficient was demanded from this
side also. These traits, however, are still more
thoroughly developed in Seneca and his followers,
and little as the-y wished to give up the doctrines of
their school, boldly as they sometimes express the.
Stoical doctrines, on the whole, Stoicism with them
takes the form more and more of universal moral
and religious conviction; and in the matter of their
doctrines, side by side with the inner freedom of
the individual, the principles of universal love of
mankind, forbearance towards human weakness, 8U~
mission to the Divine appointments have a prominent place.
In Seneca, the freer position in regard to the
doctrine of his school which he claimed 1 for himself,
That Seneca is and professes school, and unreservedly to appropriate anyt,hing that he finds
Of. the use of fUll and noltri,Ep. serviceable, even beyond its
lIS, 1; 117,6 et poM.; and the limits (Ep. 16,7; De Ira, i. 6,
panegyries he bestows on Stoic- 5). He very frequently applies
ism, DB Conat. 1; am.. tul HeZ". in this manner sayings of Epi12, 1~; Ol_t, ii. 5, 3; Ep. 83, 9. curus, whom he judges in regard
He expresses himself, however, to his personal merits with a
very decidedly on the right of fairness that is most surprising
independent judgment, and on from a Stoic (mde PAil. d. ih. TIl.
the task of augmenting by onr i. 446, 5); and if in this he may,
own enquiries the inheritance perhaps, be influenced, by the
we have derived from onr prede- predilectionofhis friendLucilins
CleIsIIOrs (V. B. S, 2; DB 0tW, S, for Epicurus, it is, neverthele!!ll,
1 ; Ep. SS, 11; ~5, ~; 80, 1; unmistakable that he wishes to
6~, 7 Iqq.). He does not hesi- show his own impartiality by
tate, as we shall find, to oppose this appreciative treatment of a
tenets and customs of his much-abused opponent.
I
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SENECA.
205
::.ning
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200
CHAP.
VIII.
U,eleBlMB'
o/merely
tkeoretic
cnquiri.e,.
ECLECTICISM.
Heee
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207
SENECA.
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208
CHAP.
VIII.
ECLECTICISM.
111m
.a-
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209
CHAP.
VIII.
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ECLECTICISM.
210
VIII.
greatest gain of
is, g'UOd lwminem
lUi detinet, nec
fltiraculo colitftr
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PHYSICS. ETHICS.
211
CHAP.
VI1I.
tJoca,: omnill'llJl enim reb?u om"ibu'q1M ,ermtmib?l.t aliq1lid sal'll.tare miscendum est. Otllm illttll
per ol'L'Ulta llat?lrfB, ctlm divino.
tractam1ls, tJindl,cand'UI en a
_liB BUill ani'llt'll.lI ac I1Ibind(J
jirfll4ntl'Ul, &c.
.. erigere QIIlim1l'1n "'pro. minal
This appears from iii. PrfPf.,
et promilla /ort'll.1IfB, &c. Hoc and from the description of the
fUlbill prodtrit impicere re1'Um earthquake which in the year
natllram. because we thereby 63 A.D. destroyed Pompeii and
loose the spirit from the body Herculaneum, vi. i. 26, o. Seneca
and from all that is base and had already composed a treatise
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212
CHAP.
VJlI.
His metaphysil'ol
and thrologieal
doctrines.
ECLECTICISM.
According to Plin. H. N. i.
9.36; ix. 53. 167, he consulted
Seneca about his statements on
water - animals and stones.
Pliny. vi. 17. 60, and Serviusou
.lEn. ix. 31. mention a treatise,
De Bitfl Indite; Servo B,t. vi.
154. De Bitu et ,aari, B!llIPtot'U'm.. Cassiodorus, De Arl.
Lib. C. 7. speaks of another
treatise, De flYl"llU1. mtt1ldi.
4 Of. Ep. 117,2; 106.4; 106.
5; 113. 1 ''1'1.; where Seneca,
indeed, Opposes some conclusions of Stoic materialism.
but expressly teaches it himself.
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213
CHAP.
VIII.
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214
CHAP.
VIII.
ECLECTICISM.
activity of God in the world under the idea of Providence, and the order and arrangement of the world
under the teleological aspect. God is the highest
reason, the perfect Spirit, whose wisdom, omniscience, holiness, and, above all, His beneficent goodness, are continually extolled. 1 He loves us as a
father, and desires to be loved by us, and not feared; 2
and therefore the world, whose Creator and nIler 3 He
is, is so perfect and beautiful, and the course of the
world so blameless; which Seneca proves in many
ways.4 Since his general theory of the universe has
its centre in the moral life of man, so in his conception of God the physical element is less prominent than the ethical: it is the care of the Deity
for men, His goodness and wisdom, in which His
perfection is principally revealed to Seneca; and
ther~fore it is inevitable that the personal aspect of
the Deity, in which, as reason forming and governing the world and working according to moral ends,
He is distinguished from the world itself, should
preponderate, as compared with the Pantheistic
aspect, in which the Deity is not only the soul, but
the substance of the world. It is going too far, however, to sayl! that Seneca abandoned the Stoic idea,
and thus gave to ethics a new direction; that
whereas in true Stoicism God and matter are in
I Authorities are given in
a Fr. 26 j b. Lact. IMt. i. 5.
Phil. tl. Gr. III. i. 139, 1 j 26 j V. Be. 8, 4.
148, 1. Others may easily be
Cf. Phil. tl. Gr. IlL i. p.
found. Cf. Holzherr, i. 99 ,tJ.
171, 3j 178,2 j 135,5.
6 Holzherr, i. 33 j 36 j 91 1f1J i
De PrO'lJ. 15 'tJ. j 2, 6 j
Bene/. ii. 29, 4-6 j iv. 19, 1 j ii. 5ltJtJ.
De Ira, ii. 27, 1 j cf. p. 313, 1.
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215
'f-.
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216
CHAP.
VIII.
ECLECTICISM.
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NATURE.
THE WORLD.
217
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218
ECLECTICIS.V.
CHAP.
ficiality into which the Stoic teleology had already
VIII.
_ _ _ fallen at an ~rly period, he opposes the propositions
that the world was not created merely for men: it
rather carries its purpose in itself and folloW's its
own laws; 1 it is an undue limitation when we place
it under the aspect of the useful, instead of admiring its glory as such.' He does not, however,
deny that in the arrangement of the world regard
was paid to the welfare of man, and that the gods
unceasingly shoW' the greatest benevolence to men.a
What he says likewise concerning the system of the
universe and its parts--the elements, their qualities
and their transition into each other; 4 on t.he
heavenly bodies, t.heir revolution, their divine
nature,' their influence on earthly things; 6 the
e~rth, and the spirit that animates it; 7 on the
regular interconnection of the universe,s interrupted
by no empty spaces,-all this only deviates rOll). the
Stoic tradition in regard to certain details which do
not affect his theory of the universe as a whole.9
I DtI Ira, 27, 2; Nat. Qu. vii.
30, 3; Benef. vi. 20.
BBM/. iv. 23 If[.
a BtmeJ. Z. o. ; vi. 23, 3 'f}.; i.
I, 9; ii. 29, 4 If}.; iv. 5; Nat.
Q. v. 18 Bt pu,.
PhiZ. d. (ft-. III. i. 179, 3
(Nat. Qu. iii. 10, 1 ; 3); ibid. III.
i. 183, 2; 184, 1 (Nat. Qu. ii.
10); and ibid. 185. 3 (Nat. Qv.
vi 16); Nat. Qv. ii. 6; Ep.3I. 5.
6 Nat. Qv. vi. 16. 2; vii. 1, 6;
21. 4; Bene/. iv. 23, 4; vi. 2123.
In regard to this influence
Seneca alludes first to the natu.
ral influence of the stars (B.g.
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219
HUMAN NATURE.
CHAP.
VIII.
A.'IIthropolofIY.
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220
CHAP.
VIIL
ECLECTICISM.
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221
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222
CHAP.
VIII.
ECLECTICISM.
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223
IMMORTALITY.
CHAP.
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VIII.
221
CHAP.
VIII.
~__
ECLECTICISJ.lf.
where the recollection of its high descent is enjoined upon the soul, and its elevation to heaven is
represented as a return to its original home, when it
leaves the body behind, where the soul found it. 1
But as with Plato the psychologically different parts
of the soul had been combined with the anthropological opposition of soul and body, so Seneca cannot
entirely escape this inference. With Posidonius 2
he follows the Platonic discrimination of a rational
and irrational element in the soul, the irrational
element being again divided into courage and
desire; a and though he expressly includes them
all under the VYEjLOVtlC?JV, and so far adheres to the
doctrine of his school against Plato and Aristotle,
there still remains between his theory and that of
Chrysippus the important difference' that Seneca
assumes in the very centre of personality a plurality
of original faculties, while Chrysippus makes one
and the same fundamental faculty, reason, generate
affections and desires through the changes that take
place in it.4
Though we cannot help recognising the period of
1 Ad JfQlf'o. 24, Il; l!Jp. 79,
12; 102, 22; 120, 14; Phil. d.
01'. III. i. 203, 2; 3; l!Jp. 65, 16 :
The soul will 1'erlJ'l'ti ad illo,
qtlorum ftlit (92, 30 Bq.).
SUp'ra, p. 64 .qq.
'. Ep. 94, 1: Puto inter me
teqtllJ c01Iveniet, eztern.a corpori
adqttiri, OO'l'ptu ill lunuwenL
animi coli, in animo _ parle.
mini#1'a., PIN' fIlal fTWf'entu1'
alimu1'que, Jl"l'opte1' iplUm p1'in.
cipale nobil datal (the seven
V"ulePkil.d.lh.m.i.199,3.
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OCCASIONAL SCEP1'ICISM.
225
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/'
ECLECTICISM.
VIII.
Non deerit, qui languiMm tlicat, upon wishes and authority than
qui cuJurem: tuleo animo fton ou proofs is named a beUum
potelt liquere de ceteril ",ellUl, somniwm ; . but this is unimporut atlhuc ip,e Ie q'Ulll'l'at. De tant.
01ement. i. 3, Il, would prove
I rule PhiZ. d. Gr. ill. i. 252,
little, taken alone, and Ep. 121, 1 'g., and Ep. 53. 11 : Est ali12, still less. In Ep. 102 quid, quo lapie"" ant8cetlat
(beginning) a belief in immor Dewm: iZ1e bensjicio natwfB_
tality, which is based rather timet IUD 'apieftl.
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227
CHAP.
VIII.
",,'~icA lie
MfJtJrlAe-
1&, 8O/tC'fll
and iJ'Ilalijiel.
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/'
ECLECTICISM.
228
CHAP.
VIII.
Phil. d.
8fJ.fJ,
IUjJ'f'a,
concerningwhichcf. Ap.74,17;
87, 29; V'tta Beat. 22, 4).
Seneca calls them also potiora
and commotla.
4 In Bene/. v. 13, 1, he agrees
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229
CHAP.
_V_I_II_._
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ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
VIII.
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231
FREE WILL.
tfttlf'
tl'lleU,
A,,_
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282
CHAP.
VllI.
ECLECTICISM.
cere.
Seneca's character, as is
well known, has been frequently defamed in the
strongest manner, both in ancient and modem times j and,
on the other hand, it has been
often extravagantly glorified.
This is not the place for a complete examination of this vexed
question, or for the enumeration of ita literature; but I will
shortly mention the moat decisive points. It would certainly be a mistake to regard
2
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233
INCOA'SISTENCIES OF SENECA..
so, as a philosopher, he was not so alive to the tendencies of his people and of his age, that we can
the' overrich and over-powerful ' minister of Nero, ascribed
to external possessions a far
greater value, and perhaps
beyond what was unavoidable
in his position made a more
luxurious use of it, than might
have been expected from a
Stoic. Concerning his riches
and the splendour of his
country houses and gardens,
cf. Nat. Qu. iii. Prmf. 2; Ep.
77, S; but especially l'acit. xiv.
52 'gg. According to Dio,lxii.
2, the severity with which he
demanded repayment of a loan
of ten millions of sesterces was
one of the causes of the insurrection under Nero in favout of
Britannicus. Similarly, it may
be that he, as a courtier and
official of the empire, may have
been silent, or lent his aid in
regard to many a wrong. When
he had once committed himself
to this position it was hardly
possible to avoid it; to abandon his post, even if Seneca
had had the moral strength for
such a course, might have
seemed like a failure of duty
towards the commonwealth.
Meanwhile it is difficult to
form a judgment. If, for instance, Seneca and Burrhus
favoured Nero's inclination for
acting (Tao. xiii. 12 ,g. ; cf. c.
2; xiv. 2), Tacitus avers that
this was the best thing they
could do according to the position of things. When they
acquiesced in Nero's admission
into the circus, Tacitus (xiv.
14) tells us that they had not
the power to hinder it. (An
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CHAP.
VIII.
234
CHAP.
VIII.
ECLE,CTICISM.
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235
(~. An.
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ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
social conditions of the time mnst have evoked a
_VIII.
_ _ lively feeling of human weakness and need of help;
Stoic severity mnst have given place in some degree
to sympathy with t.he failures of humanity, and
Stoic self-sufficiency to the claims of philanthropic
sympathy and assistance; the cosmopolitanism of
the school must chiefly have been developed on the
side of feeling, in the form. of universal love of
mankind. Finally, the less that circumstanc~s
afforded opportunity to individuals in the way of
effectual interference with the course of the world,
the more heavily the common fate pressed upon all,
and the more relentlessly it fulfilled itself-the
more must the inclination for public life have been
lost, and the predilection for the repose of private
life have gained ground, but the more strongly also
must the necessity for submission to fate, and for
the interdependence of moral conduct with religious
conviction, which the Stoics had never denied, have
made itself felt.
All this' may be perceived in Seneca's moral
IfUkpenwritings. The independence of external things,
tltmCe 0/
tAing, 6111- which is assured to us by wisdom and virtue, is by
tllrtlaZ.
no one more energetically commended than by him.
Noone requires ns more pressingly to seek our
happiness purely and entirely in ourselves,l and to
I Numerous authorities for
this \lim be found in~. 82, 2;
30, 4 .gg.; 77, 11 1fJ..; 8 .gg.;
Coni. tul JlfIH'fJ. 19, 8 IfJ.g.; Vita
Bllat. 4, 3; ~. 66, 14; 71, 18,
21; 85, 18; 89; 87; lllfJ..; 44;
120, 8; 92, 14 IfJ.g.; 72, 7;
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ETHICS OF SENECA..
237
encounter bravely what fate may send us. But since CHAP.
it is his moral constitution alone which gives to man
VIII .
. this freedom, he insists most emphatically on the
conscientious fulfilment of the conditions to which
it is attached, and he becomes the more earnest on
the subject the more he is convinced that the
victory is only to be won over man's inclination to
evil by the most severe conflict. J All are, as he
believes, sick and in need of healing; the com- Bt'l'ictn8u
bating of our faults is the chief problem of philosophy; the recognition of this, the first condition of tlemandl.
improvement; 2 and even in his old age he says of
himself that he is visibly another man, as he now
sees what his defects are. 3 He, therefore, cannot
!:::tea"
5; 4, 2; 5, 4; 8, 2 'f,; 19, 4 ;
'tta Beat. 4, 2 'f,; B"fflJit. v.
2; all Hel'll. 5; Benef. iii. 20,
1; Ep. 1:3, 11; 59, 8: 64, 4;
74, 19; 75, 18; 85, 39.
I Cf. Baur,.Drei AbkanllZ. p.
40 'fJf].
Besides the quotations in
PAil. fl. 6". m. i. p. 253 '~.,
and I'UJI'f'a, cf. ]!}p. 50, 4: QIlIifl
fIN tleripimlll f Non ut etl!trin.eMIl malum noltrum: i'nera
nol ut, in trileerilnu ipil.etlet,
et itlt10 fliffiC'UltM' ad _itatem
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238
CHAP.
VIII.
EOLEOTIOISM.
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LOVB OF MA.NKIND.
239
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240
CHAP.
VIII.
BCLEOTICI8.Y.
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241
FORGIVENESS OF INJURIES.
considers nothing worthier of man and more according to nature, than forgiving mercy, and benevolence
that is unselfish and disseminates happiness in secret,
imitating the divine goodness towards the'evil and
the good; which, mindful of human weakness, would
rather spare than punish, does not exclude even
enemies from its goodwill, and win not return even
injury with injury.! Seneca's dissertations on these
subjects are among the most beautiful testimonies
to the purity of moral concepti!)ns arrived at by
classical antiquity. In their content, as has already
been shown, they entirely harmonise with the Stoic
principles; but they have manifestly arisen from a
somewhat different idea of life and a milder temper
also expre~ses itself in the decided repudiation of the inhuman gladiatorial shows and
in censure of the Roman lust
for war. For the same reason,
and also on account of his
passionate disposition and want
of self-control, those severe
sentences were passed upon
Alexander the Great which furnished such welcome material
for Seneca's rhetoric, Benef. i.
13, 3 j (]lement. i. 25 j De Ira,
iii. 17, I, 23, 1 j Nat. Qu. vi.
23, 2, et purim.
I Of. Ep 95, 52 j V'tt. Beat.
24,3 j De 018m. i. I, 3 j De Ira,
i. 5 j De Otio. i. 4 j De Ira, ii.
32, 1 j Benef. iii. 18-28 j De
Clem. i. 18, 2 j ii. 4 j Ep. 31,
11 j V'tt. Beat. 24, 3. In De
Clem. ii. 4, he speaks of the
possibility of uniting mildness
with justice and the distinction between this and culpable
neglect j the one does not
CHAP.
VIII.
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ECLECTICISM.
242
CHAP.
VIII.
pe'l'ament.
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243
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244
CHAP.
_V_I_II_._
ECLECTICISM.
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215
CHAP.
VIII.
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ECLECTICISM.
CHAPTER IX.
THE STOICS CONTINUED: MUSONIUS, EPICTETUS,
AURELIUS.
MARCUS
STOICISM maintained on the whole the same character during the entire course of its further history,
The StMc except that the traits by which Seneca had already
IClwol contil'Ueil.
diverged from the original direction of his school,
ultimately asserted themselves more strongly_ The
rest of the Stoic philosophy known to us may therefore, be discussed more concisely.
Mmoniul.
A younger contemporary of Seneca's, Musonius
Rufus,1 who resided in Rome in the reigns of Nero
and Vespasian,2 was a distinguished teacher of philosophy,3 and was held in the highest estimation on
CHAP.
_I_X_._
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MUSONIUS RUFUS.
247
CHAP.
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IX.
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
IX.
Practical
Ifandpoint
of his phi-
wBophy.
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249
CHAP.
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IX. '
ECLECTICI.s1~f.
CHAP.
IX.
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251
ETHIOS OF MUSONIUS.
Philosophy is the only way to virtue,! and therefore occupation with it is necessary for every one,
~ven for women; 2 but conversely virtue is the
only end and content of philosophy; to philosophise means to learn and to practise the principles
of contluct according to duty.s A" philosopher and
a righteous man are therefore synonymous; 4 virtue
and philosophy are only different designations for
the same thing. But whereas Socrates and Plato
understood this proposition in the sense that virtue
is merely the fruit of a real and fundamental knowledge, l\{usonius, on the contrary, agrees with the
Cynics that true wisdom can be attained without
much knowledge by means of moral endeavour.
Philosophy requires few doctrines, and may dispense
.with theorems in which the Sophists take such delight; what is necessary m{ty well be learned even in
the occupations of the spade and the plough.5 Virtue
is far more a thing of custom than of instruction, for
the vicious habits of men are only to be overcome by
Stob. FltYril. 48,61, where 1I"Eill II1rOtlS fj'':'110Jl'l"'" ItllA&is, /S'lrEP
we read: 511t",os 5E 1I"ciis b E't., .,./1 'I>.Aol10'l>i;" il1'l"' ; :B'IoriI. 61,20,
.,.u po+, i'lr.trrJ.poEIIOS 5.1t".ou6".,11 end: ob -yap 3+, 'I>,A0I10'l>E'" E.,-EInroidll .,.1 itrr,; but this is im po" .,., 'I>"I"E'I"'" fIJI ~ .,./1 a 'lrPE1I"E'
possible without philosophy. It"l a1I"DOtrf,ItE& Ad-y,!, ,.E" All"'.,.,.,;,,
Likewise in regard to 11Ot1'1>p0trU"., In'!' 5~ 'lrpd..,..,.E.".
and the other virtues. There FltYril. 79, 51 : .,./1 51 -Y' El11'"
fore: 'lrciis Iteel .,.111" "'pmll 36. A-yllfl/l" .,." 'I>~dl10'l>o" El"" .,."b.,.d"
)/",.,.0 '"
fjIllTIAEUI1'" ~ fj.cii"", il1.,... Similarly 48, 67: the
good prince is necessarily a
ItllAciis, .1 ,.+, 'l>iAOl1ot/>'flI1E ".
2 Floril. Jo. DOI1Il4JIc. ii. IS,
philosopher, and thephilo5012S, 126 (iv. 212 Bgg. 220 .gg. pher is necessarily fit to be a
lIein).
prince (1), (cf. B1lp. note 1).
I Loc. cit. ii. IS, 12S, end,
Loc. cit. 56, 18, p. SS8 .g.
p. 216: 'l>lAol1o'l>I" 1t1lA0ItA-y,,911lS Musonius here shows that the
il1'l"lll h,n,5EUI1.S Iteel ob5E" E.,-'po" calling of a husbandman is
(thus Jt'loril. 48, 61); I. o. ii. best fitted for a philosopher.
IS, 126, p. 221: ,.,.,..,,, /till 111t0-
.,..s
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CHAP.
IX.
252
CHAP.
IX.
BCLBCTICIS!tl.
Gell. N. A. v. 1; Epict.
'1',,,0,,,1,,...,,,
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PROBLEM OF PHILOSOPHY.
253
CHAP.
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IX.
254
CHAP.
IX.
ECLECTICISM.
1,,,,,,
1,,.,,,
1,"&$
1,,.,,,
1,,..,,
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255
GENERAL PRECEPTS.
CHAP.
IX.
HiutkicB.
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256
CHAP.
IX.
ECLEOTICIS.V,
lart
C'l'6tu, Volrinienri.
Loo. cit. 6, 61.
I Loo. cit. 15, 15; 84, 21;
cf. ,up. p. 250, 1.
Loc. cit. 19, 16 ; 40,9; &1Il.
20, 61.
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257
DATE OF EPIOTETUS.
CHAP.
IX.
Digitized by
Coogle
258
BOLEOTIOISM.
IX.
.,.11
""f
i"liIX .,.l
,,,.,..w
A"'!lplJt'fl:olillM'flls
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HIS DOOTRINES.
.r.
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EOLEOTIOISM.
260
CHAP.
IX.
In/lfrim
"f.d'U8 of
t~a,l
i_.
18dge.
p.ol, of '1',.,11
",0' '1',"4 "00'0;;1"1'11 It," '~IIxoill"l'''' "wall'
"'001"1'11 It'" .mxo;;l"1'... &c.
+UX~II 3.~"'I'CIIO 'l'lf {)/<o,., A.,Bptfnroll
BlAol"I'of 6/<0"Y"CIIO/<0,,:q0'1I1 '1'. BE.
/<~ 6P')'1O'9fjIlIlI, "'~ 4>BOllijO'III
BEbll l~ All9pt!nroll ....,BII.
J.'O;;I"I'II "IEII10'BIII 3d~II'1'E.
w' obIt 'X..,.E. '1' oi'lll II{).,.O&S
1"''lrIl(E'I'E; &C. It'" .,il., l-ylb "'~.,
'IrIlII3E~f .lp., {)",lTEPOf' {)",E&S 3~
'Ir"p' 1/<01 '1r1J13W.0'9E. My purpose is, A'lrO'l'EAlO'III {)/<Af AhA{,.
'1'011', ~')'It.:lu'I'OllS, A'IfII/lII'Ir03O'.
2'1'CIIOiICb.,
'X"", . . . 3.iEII'I'1
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261
LOGIC.
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262
CHAP.
IX.
ECLECTICISM.
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263
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ECLECTICISM.
OHAP.
__
IX_._
.Its vii"
'X.I.
""l1'l1I
"'.'''0''
"eel
'rill!,
.,.l", ,..
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SOOTHSAYING.
265
CHAP.
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IX.
EOLEOTIOISltL
266
CRAP
IX.
"fit"',
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261
FREE WILL.
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OHAP.
IX-
EOLEOTIOISM.
268
CHAP.
IX.
Ethic.
billed on
immetWa/l
ctmlciou
nell.
to be a good.l
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269
TRUE WISDOM.
'fl.
.p.
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270
CHAP.
IX.
ECLECTICISM.
100, &C.
J rule preceding note and
Man. 19; DiI,. iii. 22, 38 ,qq. ;
ii. 1,4; i. 20,7&0.
t Dill. i. 1, 2IBqq.; c. 18, 17;
29, 24; Ii. 5, 4; Man. c. 9, and
elsewhere.
DiI,. i. 1, 23; 17, 27; ii.
23, 19; iii. 3, 10.
Man. 5, 16, 20; DiI,. i. I,
7 ,qq.; ii. I, 4; c. 16, 24: iii.
8,18; 26,34 ,q. and elsewhere.
Phil.,z. fh. ID. i. p. 224, 1.
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CHAP.
IX.
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BCLECTICISM.
272
CHAP.
IX.
Im1lina-
tion 0/
EpicttIttu
to OvnicUm.
,.1"
.Diu. i. 18 i c. 28.
That distinction, he says in
Dill. ii. 6, 2~ Ig., only holds
good so far as man is regarded
for himself irrespective of his
place in the interconnection of
nature i '1'1 ef i bepttros. el ,.."
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OYNIO TENDENOIES.
273
CHAP.
IX.
man a., his lot (as was said in not deterred from action by
c. 3 j ai. c. 6, 1) is immaterial: their fatalism, neither did they
orr; 1I'.0'6JI'T1 II' 11l'1,.. A;'s ICCIl or'x- allow it to interfere with their
""c;'s xpfjtrila&, "'0;;"'0 413" l".b" conviction of the different rela
'no" 1O"T1". In such observations tive values of things j without
Epictetus to a certain extent is which no choice among them,
anticipated by Chrysippus, from and consequently no action,
whom he quotes these words would be possible (Cie. .1in. iii.
(DUB. ii. 6, 9): ".1X,pls l" O"Ad 15, 50). If that conclusion is
".01 ~ ora l(ijs, Atl or;'" .b~I1'O"TI. more prominent in Epictetus, so
""''' 'xop.tU 1I'pbs orb "'V'YXd..EI.. that he approximates to the
or;'" mora ~VO'I'" abTbs 7cip ".- 6 complete indifference of Arlsto
/I.bs or;'.. "'OIOW.,.. lltAElC'Tlltb" and the Cynics, this only shows
hoi"O'f". fl 31 7' 13." IJ.rI ,,0- the whole oharacterof his ethi
O',w pool ltallElp.ap'Tal ";;", Ital cal theory of life, in which the
IJ.p"..,,, b l'tt abT6. Ital 7ap 6 Stoic withdrawal from the exnils, EI 4>p'"as .TX'''' IJ.p".a b ternal world becomes total inhI ",b 'In/Aoiitrilal. In a system difference to that world, and
so strictly fatalistic as that of submission to destiny becomes
the Stoics, only a relative value inactive suiferance, or tends to it.
1 Man. 15.
could be allowed to the oppo
I DiB,. iii. 12, 10.
Accustom
sition of 'contrary to nature'
and' accordiug to nature 'j from thyself to bear injuries: ET9'
the standpoint of the whole, all 0/1",., 'l'pofJ//ITf/' f"a Itl" 1I'A~(!I 0'1
that happens appears according ""s d'ln/s abTbs 1I'pbs awd" 8",,'
to nature, because necessary. 3d(0" Av3p,mas 'I"PI.'A"~I,,tIU.
But as the ancient Stoics were
Vid8 1'Il1" p. 271, S.
T
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274
ECLECTICISM.
IX.
',..po"
Digitized by
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275
oli..
a..
ab'l'o&s f)
111."... ab'l'06,;
0.
being without passions or aifections; the second is the fulfilment of duty: ob afi -yap p..
.t"", A...S;; ilf "'ISPI,t.,."ra, &C.
I Dill. i. 13, where Epictetu8
exclaims to the master who is
violent towards his slaves: "'ap.tW'oao ... obit ""tl1 .,.of) AI.1I.~ii
.,.ou lI'ab'l'oii &, IX" .,.11.. ALa .".,.".
"1..0 .., IRfP IIl111 lit .,.;,.. IIb'I';'.,
trnpp..t.,.,.", "11"fO'" Jtral "';;s abriis
I ....B... ItII'I'Cl,8oMjl; oil P.fP.~trp .,.ts .lltlll .,.1..... IlpX'If; /1.,.,
II'tJY'1f"Oi'" /1.,., AI."..... ~611'f&. "'"
l"Oii dws ""O"f<f...... ; 6p,s
1I'OU /J"mlf j /1.,., .l, .,."us .,.GIA&&W'~POIII .,.06.,.OllS ,,6p.olll .,.ob, .,.;,..
"fltpo... ;.lf n .,.ob, .,.;,.. B.ii.. 0;'
/J1I.wfIf; cf. Sen. BIJ'M.!. iii. 18- ."
28; D8 0lMMnt. i. 18. 2 j JiJp. "
81. 11 j nt. B8tJt. 24. S; Mu~
sorona ap. Stob. Floril. 40.9;
.Bp. 4:4; Dill. iii. 22. 83 j i. 9.
'1'2
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276
CHAP.
IX.
VMarcm
.hlreliul
A1ltvllinul
EOLEOTIOISM.
a father or a brother. I How this disposition is connected with the religious temperament of Epictetus
and how from this starting-point a divergence from
the older Stoicism is inevitable, even in the theoretical part of philosophy, will be discussed further
on.
The greatest admirer of Epictetus was Marcu s
Aurelius Antoninus,2 and in his apprehension of
I DiI,. iii. 22, 54: 3alpftrll'"
Ionius; cf. &Up. p. 197, note).
3 "borb., (the Cynic, the truly The philosophers whose in-
wise man). &~ /$:-011 ~"l S"'pcl1'-.110" .pIAn., " .....OV$ "'OV$ S..lpo,,"'/1$, &f 1I"""'.p"".mllll, il>fU.A.pOll;
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MARCUS AURELIUS.
277
CHAP.
Ix..
"e,embles
ftio;:t'll'
~aetical
;:::'L:/
,oP"y
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EOLEOTIOISM,
2i8
CHAP,
_IX_,_
3111TIrwrdll."...,..
.,.1 ...Id
"'OITI&ri'I"JI
~lSlTfi ,
lDTI.,./> 11rT,,.,,e;;..,,,, f) ft
'Y~E&s,
f) ITVMo-yur,.o~s ba- IIA,." __o/l3arT9ij..", '''''''''.'' 1...1AISE''', f) ....,1 d ,.f'I"'.poAO-YIICI& l'Oii. It only remains to await
in peace his natural dissolu1C1&"'.'YI"EIT6/U.
2 ii. 13; of. ii. 2, 3: I./IES.,.I& tion, but until then .,.OWOIS
S,SAl. . , ",~" n .,.ii" SI/JAI... ,.01'01S "'poRIIf%7N&lS.IT/Itu 1,,1
30('" ~{",o...
"'91, /1.,-, obl~.. ITVl'IMIlTf'I".1 I'D" &
I v, 10: .,.1& ,.0. ...pI.-y,. .,.. I ..
obxl IC .,.. ~.. .,.iiI' IIA_ .,.aSv,..
.,.ol.wll .,.,0...0.. .,.,vA i-ylCalI.~E' IITTI.. I'I"'fK!' 3e, II.,., IE'I1'I"1 ,..,
111'1"1", 'I1'I"E ""AolTo~1S oblC 6Al- ,.,,3~.. ...pd.trlTfI" ...apl& .,./>" 1,.1>"
'YO II, ob3~
.,.IIXOVITI", flo( 8e1>" I<9l 3at,..".. ob3.1s -yap 6
.........d1l"U",.. i&tc..,.dlI."..,.. .1..",. bl&')'lCrLvGO" .,.oliTo" "'Wii"...
..A~.. .Wo" 'Yf .,.oi, 2.,..11r0&s
,.w
.,.0.,
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PROBLEM OF PHILOSOPHY.
279
'88,"
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280
CHAP.
IX.
ECLECTICISM.
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2!:!1
'Y""
11.,
&c. The same distinction between indirect and direct divine causation, between God
and destiny, we find PMl. d. Gr.
III. i. 143, 2 ; 339, 1.
I xii. 30; ix. 8; iv. 40; Phil.
d. Gr. III. i. 200, 2; 140.
Ibid. III. i. 159, 2, 3; v. 32 :
'1'011'"".
I iv. 40; PMl. d. Gr. III. i.
p. 140; 169, 1,2.
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ECLECTICISM.
282
CRAP.
IX.
IS~ 1.01";;'''
,t
.,.1 Ito.ltt/"
71"
Iteal
I"y;
"4".,.,, .,.Il,.~ "'p""i,...,.,"" 0.6'1'". &
.,.OV.,.o &" "poflSo".,.o,
fila
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FUTURE EXISTENCE.
283
""I""
CHAP.
lX.
Kimhip
0/ fllQ,ll
Gof1.
'X.I"
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to
284
CHAP.
IX.
Alan',
n:ithdran:al
';.nto
him,eT/.
ECLECTICIS.V.
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285
PHILOSOPHY OF LIFE.
CHAP.
IX.
Rerigna.
tion
to the
will of
God.
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ECLECTICISM.
286
CHAP.
_IX_._
Lcwe to
all
m/lll.
,g.
n. III. i. 297, 2, 3.
vii. 22: 13'01' V6pftov orb
pu""..
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287
Digitized by
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CHAP.
IX.
ECLECTICISM.
288
CHAPTER X.
THE CYNICS OF THE IMPERIAL ERA.
CHAP.
X.
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:LATER OYNICS.
289
Digitized by
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EOLEOTIOISM.
290
CHAP.
X.
It, tullle
rentB.
pubUco, _
nee pOJlt'Zum. in
IB mtt.e lIOfJitau _ma. Epic
(Jr.
/CIIIl -r1llAlll""{,PO"I.
The
com-
Digitized by
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291
DEMETRIUS.
CHAP.
M.,,-
"'p.
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Coogle
X.
EOLEOTIOISM.
CHAP.
X.
CO'I"I"Ivmpi
nBC
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DEMETRIUS.
c.
ew-
II1UU prOlepentil.
Cf. Luciau, AM. I'IIIloDt. 19,
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ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
X.
(E1UI'1fUl,tI,I
(IIGadara.
Of the Cynics of the period immediately following,' some details have come down to us respecting
(Eno~aus of Gadara, who is said to have lived under
I Besides the Cynics mentioned 1'UJIf"fJ, p. 291, 2, the following names are connected
with this school, of which, however, our knowledge is very imperfect. UnderVespasian lived
Diogenes and Heras, of
whom, on account of their
abuse of the imperial family,
the former was scourged and
the latter beheaded (Dio Casso
lxvi. 15); and probably also
.Hostilius (Z. c. IS). who was
panished
with Demetrius.
Under Domitian or Trajan we
must place Didymus with
the surname of Planetiades (if
he was an historical person), in
whose mouth Plutarch, De Def.
Orae. c. 1, US, puts a sarcasm
against the oracle; under Hadrian, besides (E nom a us (tJide
infra), perhaps that De m e trius of whom it is related
(Lucian, 1b~. 27 "l'l') that he
came to Alexandria to devote
himself under the guidance of
a certain Rhodius (or of a
Rhodian 1) to the Cynic philosophy, that he tended his
unjustly-accused friend Antiphilus with the greatest selfdenial in prison, and finally accused himself in order to share
his fate. When their innocence was brought to light he
gave over to his friend the considerable compensation which
he received, and himself went
to India to the Brahmans. The
historical truth of this occur"
rence, however, is as little certain as the authenticitY of the
treatise which affirms it; and
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(ENOM.A. US.
295
.,.1, .,..."
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ECLECTICISM.
296
CHAP.
X.
.,.&i" ill
41
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DEMON.4.X,
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298
CHAP.
ECLECTICISM.
calrr,
Itllllt""
A"''''....
A"'' '
It""'
III&.
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299
PEREGRINUS.
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CHAP.
X.
300
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
at the Olympic games in the year 165 A.D. But
X.
__
_ the most serious of these charges are too insufficiently attested 1 by Luciau's testimony, the uncertainty of which he himself cannot entirely conceal,
to allow of our unconditionally endorsing his judgment of Peregrinus. If we separate from his
account all that is internally improbable, this Cynic
appears as a man who was sincere in his endeavours
after virtue and austerity, but was, at the same
time, always exaggerating and pushing forward his
principles to an absurd extreme,2 finally investing
even suicide-in regard to which he has so many allies
in the Stoic and Cynic school-with theatrical pomp,
in order to produce the most striking effect possible.3
There is other evidence to show that he asserted the
claims of his school with some exaggeration; 4 but
Gellius praises the earnestness and steadiness of his
character,1i and the value and usefulness of his
et COMeaM, whom he
often visited in his hut before
the city. and whose leotures he
attended.
gra.fJil
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SOl
THEdGENES.
CII'1'8
ai-
CHAP.
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X.
EOLEOTIOISM.
CHAP.
X.
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DISAPPEAJUNOE OF OYNIOISM.
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CHAP.
X.
ECLECTICISM.
CHAPTER XI.
THE PERIPATETICS OF THE FIRST CENTURIES AFTER
CHRIST.
CHAP.
XI.
C. TltB
Peripa-
tetic, of
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305
CHAP.
XI.
tkejlr,t
taught, as Galen (De Cogn. an. cl!1Ituries
MINh. 8, vol. v. 42), in his four- B.C.
teenth or fifteenth year, therefore in ]45-6, B.C. had for his
teacher a pupil of this philosopher, who apparently was still
alive; and Herminus (ap.lSimpl.
De Omlo, &.\01. 494, h, 31 ,qq.)
quotes from him. Adrastus of
Aphrodisias (David, &.\01. in
Ar. 30, a, 9; Anon. I. c. 32, b, 36 ;
Simpl. Categ. 4, 'Y,l. c. 45; Ach.
Tat. IBtIg. c. 16, ] 9, p. 136,139),
who is named together with him
(Galen, De Libr. Propr. c. 11;
vol xix. 42.q.; Porph. V. Plot.
14) was probably not far removed in point of time; this
appears partly from the above
juxtaposition, but more especially from the use made of
him by Theo Smyrnlllus (infra,
p. 309, 4); fllr Theo was a oontemporary of Hadrian (inlra,
p. 335). If, however, he is
the author of a oommentary on
the Ethics of Aristotle and
Theophrastus(Pkil.d. lh. II. ii.
855) mentioned ap. Athen. xv.
673, c (where our text has
"A3patTTolf) he may have been
still alive in the time of Antoninus Pius. Aristooles, the
rhetorioian of Pergamus, is
placed by Suidas (sub vooe)
under Trajan and Hadrian:
according to Philostratus, V.
&pk. ii. 3, he was a oontemporary of Herodes Attious, therefore somewhat earlieI', but had
only ocoupied himself with the
Peripatetio philosophy in his
youth. What Synes. Dio. p. 12
R, says of Aristooles' desertion'
of philosophy for Rhetorio must
X
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ECLECTICISM.
800
CHAP.
XL
Comllumtat0'1'8 of
T"
Digitized by
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a,
,A
rlS
Ie,
5,
,w ld
ee
re
WI
hIS sceptlCal bearmg to..EpOII ~II"IZ 'Ap"rrOTb..71I1. Be- ward soothsaying. More defies ese
rip tic wh
n
si s a w
ing ow
dates may be at least approxi- ever, that Diogenianus was
tel fix d a 00 ma
b PI
reh as
d rib
he
re med, f w m
P pa ie.
n arm 0 stu s,
can scarcely say more than that whom Aspasius blames (ap.
ey
st
Ion to
e fi
A "l:. i Me
h.
23 Bo
two centunes after Chnst. 552, n, 29, Bekk.) because
E dor
and he h
al ed
Amon these is Arc h i c
ITO
usl reg
ed y
r din in
e
etap jsic ,
bric. Bibliotll. Gr. iii. 536, Harl. was also probably Hving in the
as 'c),
m
om obre
fi
ee
ry
he ilo he
(at.
ho. 61, a, 22, 66, a, quoted by Alex. Aphr. De An.
42; b 35; 73,b,20; 74 b,31) 154, b OJ Soer tes
rob
a yt
Bit nia
eri tet
ote
ob vat s
Categories, doubtless from a named in Diog. ii. 47); Virmm ta
n
t
rk;'
g' iu Ru
s,
d
ha
e fi t 0
he
pa ges
a so Po yze us (l. c. 162, b,
distinguishes Arehaieus and note); ptolemy concernin
tio as
cip
of
e
m
PI
d.
'. I
.5
Clent eommentators-Androni- Artemon, the collector of Ariss, B eth
&e Perh ps
t lia Le rs
bid. I. r
), w is p ba y older than
aic
is he
me per
Andronicus;
Nican
der who
mentioned as the author of a
ork
et cs i Dio vi.
ord
to uid (Ai
["'"
Also the followmg: De me- wrote about the disciples of
th
Ie
tri us of B zantium (Diog v A . stot! ;!:l at
not
e 0 er
dria Pe ate
(D g. .
), i he
metrius named S'lpra,p.124, 1; 61; in Tertullian, De An. 15,
. s
th St
,
t
io
ni
us,
ro
wh
use lUS ( . Ev. iv. ,vi. ) pupil of Erasistratus, also
quotes long fragments directed named by Diogenes wh 's i
gain Ch ipp do 'ne
de
C eer g t
tw
Prophecy and Destiny, perhaps last-named p4ilosophflrs, it is
om tre . e
I _I ,.,.," ;
ce in
eth th liv
~ ore or a er
e ChrIstian
m y be
e.
e p so
Diogenianus of Pergamos, who era; Julianus, of Tralles
ose eo
f t
m
me
pe
as e
the eak s
of the heavens by the Platonic
In Plutarch, De PUth. Oracul!,s.
rId ul i ise ed
Ale
. C v. 'i. 7 8; "i. 1 2;
hr, . S pI.
C ,16, ,
a
rat wh
is
t i 0
his mouth has nothing to eon- b, 42; Si.!lwl. 491, b,43. Whether
adi thO the
P
w a P pa ic 0
PI
x2
as
lwl.
ed
and
0 Oil
a_v-
307
CHAP.
I.
BCLBCTICISM.
CRAP.
XI.
,
Adr/lltw.
'T"'"
.1
Digitized by
Coogle
309
. A.DRASTUS.
,.I""""
CHAP.
Digitized by
Coogle
XI.
310
CHAP.
XI.
ECLECTICISM.
"/E"/O,,'/'S.
c.I-4.
L. C.c. 22.
4 L. c. Beneath the moon
Digitized by
Coogle
HERMINUS.
811
3. ,p.
. ; , , II.
CP"AP.
Digitized by
Coogle
XI.
ECLECTICISM.
812
CHA.P.
XI.
HBrminm.
Digitized by
Coogle
808IGENE8.
818
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
314
CHAP.
XI.
.A1-igforlI'I
ojMcuelle.
Digitized by
Coogle
.ARISTOCLES OF MESSENE.
.'315
CHAP.
Digitized by
Coogle
XI.
816
CHAP.
Xl.
ECLECTICISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
817
ARISTOCLES.
... 01S
II.....
"'POfl'OClCOVI'
('EIOVI')
lAo..,f
tl....
CHAP.
t....
41"1"1...
9.iol'
111''''""
f/"I"OaS
(30!fl'. &0.
Digitized by
Coogle
XI.
318
CHAP.
XI.
Ale:rander
oj ApltrodiBia.,
called tl/,8
COIR.mell-
tatll'l" and
ECLECTICISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
ALEXANDER OF APHRODISIAS.
8]9
Fi,."
CRAP.
XI.
tke SecO'lld A,-i,-
totle.
Digitized by
Coogle
BCLBCTICISM.
320
CHAP.
XI,
Digitized by
Coogle
ALEXANDER OF APHRODISIAS.
321
CHAP.
XI.
and apologies for Aristotle's doctrines. In this
manner, in his still existing commentaries, he has
treated of logic; mf:lteorology, and metaphysics; in Writing,
besides the commentaries ..opl
I/IlIX;}S, 2, B. (ap. Themist. Opp.
Veneto 1534, p. 123 'qq.) j ...
.1""P,.1"",,s(ibid.163'qq. et pu,. j
latest. ed. Orelli, Zur. 1824);
/j)lIlTuciilll lCuI -I,elleiilll &7fopliilll ICIII
A6ITO"III, 4, B. (quee,tiMie, natw-
Digitized by
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ECLECTICISM.
322
CHAP.
XI.
comillt
whollvof
apologiec
for Aris-
totle', alia
CO'fltmfm-
tarie, on
them.
Digitized by
Coogle
THEORI
ANDER.
emphatically insists on the principle that the universal opinion of mankind, and the innate ideas
which express themselves especially in language, are
a sufficient and irre~istible proof of truth. l The
ate tic here fa
n immediate
we have so 0
ness in the sa
d in the popul
since the tim
More origi
e brought for
exander in the
some other m
physical, psychological, and theological questions.
The doctrine of Aristotle, of mind, divine and
human, as we have seen, has much obscurity, and
his sayings about the relation of the deity to the
world, as well as those on the relation of human
to the divine
the inferior p
soul, labour 1
c vagueness.
undamental de
self is connec
g form and ma
ions of the sys
n hardly be r
out a recastin
these. Therefore, while Alexander is intent up~m
a conception of the Peripatetic doctrine, which shall
set aside the mystic element as much as possible
and establish an altogether natural interconnection
of phenomena, he cannot avoid considerable deviarom the doctr
ter, however Ii
y confess it t
i~tot1e had ind
ed individual
e the truly S
Pato, c. 2; c. 7;
12, end; 14, begin
De An. 161, a. Speech, how.
ever, is not itself inborn; only
the faculty of speech is so ( Qu.
Nat. iii. 11; Boot. De Jltterp'!'.
y
Digitized by
CHAP.
XI.
ECLECTICISM.
824CHAP.
XI.
A"istDtle'&
tloctf'i1/8
of the pM-
tiovla"
and vII-i"er,al;
!Of'1II, and
matttrr.
How
t"eated by
Alelr-
andtrr.
oS
AAO~..,,5pos ~"",..;;6"IC..I
""/lTD'
",ji ",VII'U
III'''''".. ",c\ 1C..6&ADII "'..." 1C..601C11II''''''
e1".., ",&1I.o."UIC.i,
cl,..&5u~III ,..~"
.r".."
,..~
DUII';;'''
""'11'1, .,.;;"
~OI".
In agreement
Digitized by
Coogle
325
tions of the indiyidual are brought under consideration which are equally present in several individuals
or may be present. l The universal conceptions are
therefore, as he observes, universal only in the intelligence which abstracts them from individuals; as
soon as this ceases to think them, they cease to
exist: it is only 0111' thought which releases the forms
bound up with matter from matter, and gives to
them reality in their absolute existence (fursichsein ).2 This indivisibility of form from matter
'AAf~QJl3pos KcU ...b "o"...b" KcU
" ..pur,.b" daos /...0,.0" obuE.."
AryouOal </>"u,. Ebd. 23, -y: ':'s
aAAI~. 1~'l"Y0""'" rill' /...0,.0"
obuE..", </>&Ao... ,,.ov,..,,os ...b TptlYr ..S
KWO;;" I" ..u...fi ...,Ol".." X/IAOTWal ATop/..,.
I Alexander shows this, .Qtt
.J.Yat. i. 3. The generic conceptions, he here says, relate
neither to individuals, nor to
an absolute
self-subsistent
universal, l&AA' .lul" 01 "p,u,.ol
"'.fHU
".GlII
II' 'Ton
ICdflttuM'a.
~ ... .;i"
ICnaviin't
a. "..
.1"..,
CHAP.
"ofi"'''',
,..0'
Digitized by
Coogle
XI.
326
CHAP.
XI.
EOLEOTIOISM.
"III"
II.
Digitized by
Coogle
327
THE SOUL.
the Arabian and Scholastic philosophers derived their wellknown doctrine of the intelleotu., tWl[uuitlll.
Digitized by
Coogle
328
CHAP.
XI.
ECLECTICISM.
T""
Digitized by
Coogle
329
Digitized by
Coogle
330
ECLECTICIS.l'r!.
CHAP.
Xl.
Digitized by
Coogle
331
Digitized by
Coogle
. 332
ECLECTICISM.
XI.
Digitized by
Coogle
333
CHAP.
Digitized by
Coogle
XI.
ECLECTICISM.
CHAPTER XII.
THE PLATONIC SCHOOL IN THE FIRST
CE...~TURIES
XU.
D.
PlatoniKt,
(If the ji-rlt
eenttl,v:'
A.D.
Digitized by
Coogle
385
CHAP.
XII.
Gellef'al
Digitized by
ECLECTICIS1~[
CHAP.
I.
CO.JlMENTA TORS.
887
eIlAI'.
xn.
Coml1l8nt.
ariel 01'
tl,e writ
il'fllof
Plato anti
ltudV
of tllfJllt.
"'.po,UrdioJ,'AAJr.I'OJ,DpIll'Ir_bJ
(contemporaries of Simplicius),
commentary on the Republic TaupoJ, np0IrAoJ, &C. Gaius also
ap. A. Mai, Cla61. Ant. I. xiv. names Porpbyry V. Pluto 14
Proclus namesas expounders of among those whose commenthe mythus in RlJp. x. 614 "J. taries Plotinus had read; an
.,.;;,., nAa.,.",.,IIrGO., 01 IrO~" exposition of the Tinueus is no
NOII",-4.,IOJ, 'AAJr..,OJ (as, accord- doubt referred to in Proal. in
ing to Freudenthal, Hellenilt. Tim. 104. A; from Taurus,
Stud. 3 H. p. 300. the MBB. give; Gellius (N. A. vii. 14, 5) quotes
Mai substitutes '!tAIri'vOJ). rdioJ, the first book of a commentary
Mcify.&OJ IS N'lrwJ, 'Aptrolr(lll'l'u".,. on the Gorgias and also (xvii.
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP
XII
hi
ral
y po
m;
'on f th
nd
m t
firs
hook of an exposition of the
reu ex cts e g n i
the Bekker &lwlia on Plato, p.
Iq. db Phil
De -'li'fern
nd~, '.2
F
th am
source comes, no doubt what is
ted
y
mb ap
to
Eel. l, 906.
I This treatise, included by
rm
in e
th, d b
Diibner in the third volume of
ed' 'on
PI ,h no
th ug
een su jec
t
investigation, and newly edited
th
oasi f
re
rfe
manuscripts by Freudenthal
e P oni Alb' sad th
e A nou, "el . St
3
pp.241--327). Its title runs thus
i th bes MS
'Y"'1
-q>O'
ev ,in sp en orm
as Freudenthal has shown, p.
Iq is
ly
bad ex
cuted and mutilated extract.
The same WTiter proves p. 257
th c. 1 of
pr gu
and Diog.Laert. iii. 48-62 have
ana
m
e
urc
w 'ch was ear ier an Luasy
Ius (concerning whom vide 1'1{:P.
02,
As its nte
rid
Alberti, Rhein. MUA. N. F. xiii.
qq.
me rth deta' wi'l
ou Ph. d G . I. i
7,
This work is called in the
S.,
08
tho ex tio
'A~ICII'&OV 1I111IUTICaAIICOS (or ~&-yos
1I111UT1C.
;;,,,
n~ti"",
II
ti"",,,
., 0
rl"
,,;;,
~ti
,O(
If>
ALBINUS-SEVERUS.
put forth under the name of Aleinous. He also composed commentaries, but we know nothing of them. I
The commentary of Severns on the Timams we know
through Proclus. 2 The writings of Theo and Harpocration in explanation of Plato have been already
mentioned; 3 commentaries on the Timams and
Phredrus are also quoted from Atticus; 4 from
I Among the more celebrated
commentators of the Platonic
writings, Albinus is reckoned
in the passages quoted Imp. p.
337, 3. What writings he ex
pounded, and how his commen
taries were made, tradition does
not tell us; perhaps he merely
explained a number of Platonic
passages in one dogmatic work,
probably that mentioned in the
index of the Paris Codex
named in the previous note
(Freudenthal, p. 244), nine or
ten books of a summary of the
Platonic doctrines according to
the discourses of Gaius ('AJ...
Ilt"ov add. itt] .,.fil" r,,1ov rrxoA.fil"
wOTvr,{,rrE.." 1I'A.".,..."tttfil" lIo-yp.tI..
.,...,,-this same work is alluded
to by Priscian, Solut. p. 553. b,
82, as Larini (Jill Gaii leholiB
eiEemplon-ibUB PlatonicO'l"llm dog.
'IIIatum, for the translator read
instead of AABINOT. 'AAB.'
Freud. 246. According to its
contents, that which Procl. i'n
Tim. 104, A; 67, C; 311 A,
quotes may have been part of
a commentary on the Tim.reus;
the passage we find ap. Tertull.
De An. 28 ,g. may have been
taken from an exposition on
the PlulJdo; and that in Iambl.
ap. Stob. Eel. i. 896, may have
come from an exposition of the
Republic. Meantime most of
CHAP.
XII.
z2
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISllf.
XII.
Digitized by
Coogle
TAURUS-:ATTIOUS.
341
CHAP.
XII.
iR!/B of
Tam'IlB.
and
Attief".
lnr'ITXIIOIJ-
Digitized by
Coogle
, ECLECTICIS-lf.
CHAP.
XII.
Digitized by
Coogle
ATTIOUS.
CHAP.
on the Categories.
I Simp!. Categ. 7. II. 8, II, and
Porph. fl,oy. 9, a, &lwl. 42, b. 9
Eus. xv. 4, 1; 7 ,qq.
(Prantl, Oe,ch. d. Log. i. 618,2
Loc. cit. xv. 4, 1; cf. 5. 1.
'q. These seem to have been
e l.oc. cit. 6, 5 'gg. j cf. Procl.
taken from a separate treatise i-n 1'i1It. 304 B.
Digitized by
Coogle
XII.
8t4
CHAP.
XII.
E~le('ti
MMlteore1ll-
jlli/ied in
Tltefl,
ECLECTICISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
345
NIGRINUS-SEVERUS.
'1'
a/'I'["''',
'trpbs 'l'obs l&PXa[ovs.
I PrOJp ./i}v. xiii. 17.
Tim. 41 'tJ'1'; 69, C "'1'; cf.
Pltil. d. Or. n. i. 690.'1.
oblS."
'1';;''' I/>VITIIt;;'''
'1'0;;"'0
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
XII.
Digitized by
Coogle
347
ALBINUE.
(c. 3). Albinus then, like Aristotle, divides theoretic philosophy into Theology, Physics, and Mathematicfl, without, however, himself keeping to this
arrangement (c. 3, 7) ; 1 and practical philosophy also,
like the Peripatetics, into Ethics, <Economics, and
Politics (c. 3).2 Under Dialectic he first gives a theori
of knowledge which combines Stoic and Aristotelian
definitions with Platonic, and unites the cf>VtT,/c~
gvvo,a of the Stoics with the reminiscence of ideas.
In regard to the faculty of knowledge, he distinguishes in man (corresponding with the Aristotelian
doctrine of the active and the passive voii,) a double
reason, that which is directed to the sensible, and
that which is directed to the super-sentlible.3 Subsequently the whole Aristotelian logic with the
syllogisms and the ten categories with various later
additions of the Peripatetics and Stoics, is foisted
upon Plato; 4 and the Aristotelian and Stoic terminology is unscrupulously employed.6 In the
section on theoretical philosophy three primary causes
are enumerated: Matter, the- primary forms, and the'
1 Instead of an exposition of
the mathematics we find at c.
7 only an extract from the
utterances of Plato's RepltbUo
on mathematics and their die
vision of mathematics.
Similarly the ' Introduc
tion,' c. 6, spoken of BUp. p. 338,
1; concer;ning the Peripatetic
classification vide Pllil. d. 6'1'. II.
ii. 17611qq. Albin,.us makes use
of no Platonic divisions.
I C. 4.
I pass over some
further observations which are
CRAP.
XTT.
Digitized by
Coogle
348
CHAP.
XII.
EC'LECTI CISM.
creative principle, or the Deity; the Deity is described in the manner of Aristotle as active Reason
(c. 10), which, unmoved, thinks only itself. A threefold way is assumed to the knowledge of God: the
!lay of emancipation, analogy, and elevation; I ideas
are explained as eternal thoughts of God, but, at
the same time, as substances; their sphere, with
the exception of artificial things, or things contrary
to nature, is restricted to natural classes, and side
by side with the ideas, as their copies, the Aristotelian forms inherent in matter find a place.2 In
regard to matter, Albinus says, making use of an
Aristotelian definition familiar to him, it is that
which is neither corporeal, nor incorporeal, but is in
the body potentially (c. 8, And). The eternity of
the world, he also thinks, he can maintain as a
Platonic doctrine, since, like some other philosophers, he describes the world as having had a beginning only because it is involved in constant Becoming,
and thereby proves itself the work of a higher
cause; 3 and he rightly concludes from this that the
world-soul alRo has not been created by God, but is
similarly eternal. It does not, however, agree very
well with this, that the world-soul should be adorned
by God and awakened as it were from a deep sleep, ill
I In the second the author
has in view the passage from
Plato's Repftblic, vi. 508 B; in
the third, another from the
8!1mpoBi~tm, 208, 3 ,qq.
C. 9, c. 10, Albinus, like
some others (videPltU. d. Gr.ll.
i. 552, 2), calls theideasl3Ecu; the
Digitized by
Coogle
ALBINUS.
849,
Digitized by
Coogle
CHAP.
XII.
ECLECTICISM.
850
CHAP.
XII.
Sui'. p. 339, 1.
Digitized by
Coogle
351
CHAPTER XIII.
ECLECTICS WHO BELONG TO NO DEFINITE SCHOOLDIO, LUCIAN, GALEN.
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
XIII.
Digitized by
Coogle
DIO OBRYSOSTOM.
CHAP,
XTIJ.
Dio
,'ltrg80,to;II.
Digitized by
Coogle
354
CHAP.
XIII.
Hi, notion
IIf pltilolo-
phy, the
6ndeafJour
to be a
'l'igktefYUI
man.
EOLEOTIOISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
DIO CllRYSOSTOAr.
355
CHAp
XIH.
AA2
Digitized by
Coogle
8;;6
CHAP.
XIII.
ECLEOTIOISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
LUCIAN.
8.57
CHAP.
XIII.
ltV" ..".
Digitized by
Coogle
358
ECLECTICISM.
XIII.
Digitized by
Coogle
859
LUOIAN.
.,.ii., 1Jp."""trArr.."
p.1.,,,.
,.v.,.ti
Digitized by
'Yf..O-
Coogle
CHAP.
XIII.
800
CRAP.
XlI[.
GaleR.
ECLECTICISM.
Digitized by
Coogle
GALEN.
861
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTIOISM.
CHAP.
_X_'_TT_._.
()Iw,racte1"
of Itis phi-
iOlDphy.
Erll'rii
l"LtRt O1t a
P"ripatetio basis.
His theory
ofklltl1l1-
led!Ie.
Digitized by
Coogle
368
GALEN.
Digitized by
Coogle
ECLECTICISM.
CHAP.
XIII.
Digitized by
Coogle
365
GALEN.
hims
n the
of
oUe
Theo
tUB 1
and agamst Chryslppus, ut that e himse out
of the five syllogistic forms which Theophrastus had
the
totelI
first
re, 2
ed a
dded
own,
ery d
ful.
t has
ourt
ure 0
otherwise been imparted to us from the logic of
Galen
is t
foun' his . 'ngs,' . part
o un
rtant
d in
'So f
entar
at it
may suffice to refer the reader for further details to
Prantl' areful di est.
iCB a
meta
cs G
even
A
his
as a physician and naturalIst chiefly follows ArIstotle
without however being entirely fettered by him.
He r
ts th
.stot
doc
of
four
causes, but increases theIr nuro er 0 five y the
addition of the middle cause (the ~,' OV).4 Like
Plato
Arist
he r
s th
I cau
s the
s, he
most
rtan
he k
dge
hem
says, the groundwork of true theology, that science
which
Burp
the
of he . .6 I
llowng t
races
the c
ve w
ro, w
has
formed all things, he prefers to dwell on the con~
iderat'
of living creatures; 7 but he is at the
ame
e co
ed t
if he
the
nest
lila.A'IM""(~ p. "I 'q., mae the
I Hippocr. et. Plat. ii. 2; B.
exhaustive investigation of
.213.
. ii.
antI,
,qq.
iZ. d.
V4 De
fourt
Part.
Hum.
ng
Co
figure of Galen's, whIch was Vl. 13; vol. ill. 465.
formerly only known on the
Loc. cit.
authority of Averroes, but is
Loc. cit. xvii. I; vol. iv.
laine
O.
edan
ow co
p. 3
yaG
fragme
Min
q. et
Loc.
ill his echtlOn of the E'ITCI"'QI~ pa&aim.
HAp.
111.
ncl!
antlmetaphysics
don
of
totle,
but not entirely
rimilar,
an
CHAP.
XIII.
ECLECTICIS.lf.
portion of the universe, and in these base and unclean substances, so wonderful a reason is at wc.rk,
this must also be in overflowing measure in the
heaven and its stars, which are so much more
glorious and admirable.! In what manner it is
inherent in the world he does not enquire more
closely; but his expressions indicate a tendency to
the Stoic conception, 'aCcording to which the substance of the world is permeated by the divine
mind.' He is opposed, howe~rer, to the Stoic materialism; for he shows that the qualities of things
are not bodies; a he likewiRe contradicts the Stoic
views on the original constitution of matter when
he defends the doctrine of Plato and Aristotle, of
the four elements, against the Atomists and the
ancient physiologists, and among these. especially,
against the Stoic-Heracleitean theory of one primitive matter.4 What we are told of his objections
against the Aristotelian discussions concerning space,
time, and motion, is unimportant.6 Galen's deviaLoc. cit.
P. 358: .,It 3' ollie b EMbs
l"E911p.1,91/ "ou" .,.,,,a 3{,,,CII''''
'X0".,.a 9all/UlIT'T~" l'ft,/ld".,.a .,.ils
'Yiis IIC'TE.,.dIT9a. Ira.,.a 'ftd".,.a .,.a
p.,sp.a; this "ous comes to the
earth from the heavenly bodies:
I" oTs Ellrlls, 8IT. TfP lIT.,.. IrcU II
.,.ou IT,J,p.CI'TOS oblTla lra9ap_ipa,
.,.01T0{,.,.9' IrcU .,.11" "OU" l"O.IrE'"
'ftoAb .,.ou Ira.,.a .,.a ""","a 1T,J,p.a..,.a
/lEA.,.!", .,.E IrcU Alrp./lfIT'TEPO". And
even here, before all things,
in the human body, I" /lop/l,sP.
.,.OlTo';"'9', there is a II0US 'ftfP'''''''/'S;
how much more, then, in the
stars 1 through the air oblr oAl"YGS
I
Digitized by
Coogle
GALEN.
867
P.EITOV
Digitized by
Coogle
CHAP.
XIII.
EOLEOTIOISM.
368
CHAP.
XIII.
'IM""
Digitized by
Coogle
G.dLE:N.
869
theoretical
We shall be all the less surprised at the vacillation and fragmentariness of these definitions when
we hear what value Galen attributes to theoretical
enquiries in general. The question concerning the
unity of the world, whether or not it had a beginning, and the like, he thinks are worthless for the
practical philosophers; of the existence of the Gods
and the guidance of a Providence we must indeed
try to convince ourselves, but the nature of the
Gods we do not require to know: whether they have
a body or not can have no influence on our conduct;
in a moral and political point of view it is also indifferent whether the world was formed by a deity
Qr by a blindly working cause, if only it be acknowledged that it is disposed according to purpose and
1 Of. besides the treatise De
Hippocratil et Platonil Placitil,
which discusses this subject in
no fewer than nine books with
wearisome diffusiveness, Qu.
A'1Iimi More" &c., c. 3. That
the three divisions of the soul
are not merely three faculties
of one substance, .but three
distinct substances, is asserted
enquirie8
Ul8le1,
{U
oIIUl tnJt of
OfIII'ljJlurre.
BB
Digitized by
Coogle
BCLEOTICISM.
_ xm.
::::-e::ttm
::r:A:.B
, In Hippoor. de Hwmor. i.
I Ih HippOOf'. tit Plat. ix. 6 ;
11, end; xvi. 104: t.trrr.p ~
B. v. 779 'fl.
I DB Sublt. .li'actIlt. Nat. B.
.,." ".Ivo" 1(1"f'1" tzlpE'ra" I" ...&CTW,
iv. 76~.
Ofl.rllil ltal.,.lI ~.,np/3dA~o,," 1M ....."
Ap.,.,d 3~ ...&v,,, I"
Ih PrOP'" Libf'. 13; 17.
Ih oog1lOBoendilowronad~UtI ".Iv'l' CTIJ"[(1"f'IW'T1I1 tzl 3~ ItClKtlll
animi morbil. Ih animi ptlOoa- '~1IiI .,.oil ".Ivoll. These words
ttwvm dignatiO'TUJ atf/?!B medela. refer indeed directly to cor
poreal conditions, but they have
Protrept. 11; i. 26 8f/.
DB Hippoor. cI. Plat. vii. 1 a universal application.
''1.; v.594.
"'.IIK'f'd".
Digitized by
Coogle
'HU?V
thi.u,~ ~l>lf',
11 P 'J,
f)
lit 'F
I ~
Digitized by
Coogle
INDEX.
ACA
ANT
er of Aphrodisias,
c, 306, ?t., 318; ca
entator and Seco
stotle, 319; commentaries of,
321 ; various theories and doctrines of, 323; Aristotle's doctrine of the Universal and
Particular, how treated by, 324;
his doctrine of the soul and
body, 326; the soul and I'oiis,
relation of God
, 329; Providence
ast important Pe
er of Damascus,
c, 306, 'II.
er of Seleucia, a P
Peloplaton, 835,
Ammonius, of the New Academy,
teacher of Plutarch, 102, 2;
334, 3; 336, n .
Anatolius of Alexandria, Bishop
of Laodicea about 270, A.D., distinguished himself in the Peripatetic philosophy, 332, 2
Andronious of Rhodes, head of
ripatetic school i
Aristotle's work e
diverged from
but was on the
ne Peripatetic, 11
food, to be avo
g to Musonius,
gu nt of Sextius agai ,
Annlllus Serenus, a Stoic, 196, n.
Anthropology, Cicero's, 169; Seneca's, 219
Digitized by
874
INDBX,
ATII
Digitized by
Coogle
I:NDBlI...
ATB
CB!
876
prednection
for ethics, 5; his influence at
Bome, 9
Cameades, the Cynic, 291, 2 tmtZ
Cato, Seneca's opinion of, 230
Cato the Elder, 15, 1
Cato the Younger, 74, n.
Celsus, a Platonist in the time of
Marcus Aurelius, 336, fa.
Censorinus, 336, n.
Clueremon, teacher of Nero, 195, 1
Chairs, institution of public, by
Hadrian, 189
Cbrysippus, on the treatise 'ft~pl
1t6t1p.ov, 127
Chytron, a Cynic, 301, 8
Digitized by
Coogle
INDEX.
878
ORA
EeL
61; in the treatise ....pt "d#rpIJlJ,
182; all things are full of gods
and (Epictetus), 265; Albinus
on, 349
Dereyllides, the grammarian member of the New Academy, 102,2
Destiny, submission to, man's duty,
271 (Epictetus); 284 (Marcus
Aurelius)
Dio, 100, n.; 121, 2
Dio Chrysostom, 358; his notion
of philosophy the endeavour to
be a righteous man, 354; approximation of Stoicism, 355;
Plato next to Demosthenes his
pattern of style, 856; his general
standpoint, 357
Diodorus. a Peripatetic commentator,113
Diodotus, instructor and friend of
Cicero, n.
Diogenes, a Cynic, in the reign of
Vespasian, 294, n.
Diogenes of Seleucia, his opinion
as to the conflagration of the
world, 85
Diogenes of Tarsus, an Epicurean,
28,2
Diogenianus, a Peripatetic, 307, n.
Diognetus, 198, n.
Dionysius of Cyrene, a geometrician,53, n.
Dionysius, Stoic of the first century A.D., 196, n.
Dionysius, StoIc philosopher of the
first century B.C., 71, n.
Diotimus, of the school of Panretius, 54, n.
Diphilus, a Stoic, 53, n.
Divine assistance to man, how
understood by Seneca, 248
ECLECTICISM,Originandgrowth
of, in Greek philosophy; character of, 17; presupposes an
iudividual criterion of truth,.
18; eclecticism and the philosophy of revelation, 20; seep-
Digitized by
Coogle
877
INDEX.
EeL
GAL
ticism, 21; contained germs of
108 ; of Cicero, 168; of Varro~
NeoPlatonism, 2S; eclecticism
173; of the Sextii, 185; of
among the Epicureans, 24 1fJ..;
Seneca, 226; of Musonius, 251 ;
of Epictetus, 268 'f.; of Marcus
the Stoics, Sl 'f., 246 'f.,
Aurelius, 286; of Galen, S70
189; the Academics, 75 'f., SS5
'f.; the Peripatetics, 112 'f, Eubulus, a Platonist, 3S6, n.
SO,,; in Cicero, 146; in Seneca, Euclides, a Platonist, 3S6, n.
224, 225; of Galen, 362; Eclec Eudemus, a Peripatetic, 306, n.
tics belonging to no particular Eudorus of Alexandria, his PIa-,
school,351
tonism, 103; his digest of the
Eclectic School, the, III
OategO'l'ie., 104; his Encyclo.
Egnatius, Celer P., a Stoic, 197
pedia,104
Ennius, his acquaintance with Euphrates, teacher of the younger'
Greek philosophy, 7
Pliny, 197, n.
Pictetus, 197, n.; date and per. Evil external, Seneca's view of,
sonal history of, 257; his con
229; Epictetus on, 270; Demoception of philosophy, 258; doc
nax on, 297; Marcus Aurelius
on, 284
trines, 259 'f}.; men are to be
made philosophers in behaviour
rather than opinions, 260; his
ABIAN us PAPlRIUS, 181
opinion of logic and dialectic, ,
Faith, attitude of Pa.nretius to
261; natural philosophy, 262;
the popular, 50; of Cicero, 169; of
religious view of the world, 263 ;
Seneca, 244; of Epictetus, 264,
265; of Marcus Aurelius, 282 '
belief in the perfection of the
world, 263; opinion of the popu Fannius, C., a Roman disciple of'
lar religion, 264; soothsaying,
Pa.nretius, 55, n.
265; dremons, 266; immortality Fatalism of the Stoics opposed by
Diogenianus, 307; by Alexander
of the soul, 266; freewill, 267;
innate moral conceptions and
of Aphrodisias. 322
principles, 268; man's indepen. Forgiveness of injuries, Seneca,
241; Epictetus, 274 ; Marcus
dence of things external, 269 ;
Aurelius, 286
duty of absolute submission to
destiny, 271; inclination of Freewill, Cicero's treatise on, 171;,
Seneca on, 2S1; Epictetus on~
Epictetus to cynicism, 272; his
cynicism modified by his mild
267
dispOsition, 274 ; his love of Friendship, Seneca on, 240 ; opinion
of some Epicureans on, quoted
inankind,275
by Cicero, 25
'Epicureanism, the later, at Rome,
12
AlUS, a Platonist, 335, n.; hiR,
Epicureans, in the first two cencommentaries on Plato, 337
turies B.C., relation of the later
to Epicurus, 26; Cicero on the, Galen of Smyrna; his personal
history, 360, 2; his fame as a
25, 162
physician, 368; his philosophy
- the, averse to science, 194
is eclecticism on a Peripatetic
Equality of men (Seneca), 242
basis, 362; theory of knowledge,
.Ethics of Pa.nretius, 47; of Posi363; high opinion of logic, 363
donius, 67; of Antiochus, 95 ; of
Eudorus, 104; of Arius Didymus,
'f.; his physics and metaphysics"
Digitized by
Coogle
INDEX.
-878
GAL
LAK
a Stoic, 71, n.
to be sought in J ASON,
HAPPINESS,
Julianus, of Tralles. 307, n.
ourselves (Seneca), 286 ;
(Epictetus) 270; (Marcus Aurelius) 282, 284
Harpocration of Argos, a Platonist,
836, n.; his commentaries on
Plato, 339
Hecato, of Rhodes, member of the
IIChool of Panretius, 53, n., 55
Hegesia.nax, a Cynic, 295, n.
Heliodorus, a Peripatetic, 822, 1
Heliodorus of Prosa, 115, 5
Helvi,slius Prisous, a Stoic, put to
death by Vespasian, 197, n.
Heraclides, the Stoic, 52; contemporary of Panretiu8, 62
Heraclitus, a Stoic, 195, 1
Heraclitus, of Tyre, member of the
New Academy, 99, n.
Heraclius, a Cynic, 301, 3
Hems, a Cynic in the reign of
Vespasian, 294, n
..n.
a Peripatetic, broLAMPRIAS,
ther of Plutarch, 305, n.
Digitized by
Coogle
INDEX.
LEO
Leonides, a Stoic of Rhodes, 71, n.
Logic, how treated by Seneca, 208 j
by Epictetus, 261 j by Alexander
of Aphrodisias, 821 j by Galen,
828
Longinus, 886, n.
Love of mankind (Seneca), 289,
240 j (Epictetus) 275 j Marcus
Aurelius), 286
Lueanus M. AnnreuB, nephew of
Seneca, a Stoic, 197, fl.
Lucian, his pE'rsonal history, 857 j
considers philosophy as tied to
no system, but satirisee each in
turn, 858, 859 j conception of
true philosophy B8 the true art
of life, 860
Lucilius, 12, 8 j 196, n.
Lucretius, Epicureanism of, 26
Lyco, a Bithynian, 58, n.
AURELIUS, settled
MARCUS
public teachers of the four
chief schools of philosophy in
Athens, 193 j references to him
and his instructors, 199,
j
his personal history, 276 j resemblances to Epictetus, 278 j
conception of hnman life and of
the problem of philosophy, 279 j
his doctrines, 279 Ii}. j belief in
the Divine order of the universe,
281; in dreams and auguries,
282; future existence, 288 j his
ethics, 284 j resignation to the
will of God, 285 j love to man,
286 j nobility and purity of his
life,287
Marriage, Seneca's view of, 240 j
Musonius on, 256 j Epictetus on,
278
Maximus of NiClB8., a Platonist,
386, n
Maximusof Tyre, a Platonist, 885,
ft., 887
Menecrates of Methyma, of the
school of AntiochuB, 100, n.
,t.
379
NEB
Menephylns, a Peripatetic, 304, 2'
MeneearohuB, disciple and successor of Panretius, 58
Menippus, a Cynic of the third
century B.C., 291, 1
-, the Lycian, mentioned by
PhilostratuB, 291, ft.
Meteorology, Seneca's, 211
Metrodorus,
philosopher and
pkinter,8,] j aooompaniedlEmilins Paulus on his warlike expeditions, 8
Metronax, a Stoic, 196
Mnasagoras, disciple of PanlBtius,
58, n.
Mnaseas of Tyre, of the school of
Antiochus, 100, ft.
Mnesarohus, the Stoic, 86
Monachism adopted by the Christian Church from Cynicism, 808
Mucius SCleVOla, disciple of Panretins, 49
Mummius, Sp., Roman, disciple of
Panretius, 55, n.
Museum, the Alexandrian, 191
Musonius, a Cynic, 766, 2 end
Musonius, a Stoic of the thirdcentury A.D., 200, n.
Musonius Rufus, instructor of
Epictetus, 197, ft. j personal history, 246, 8 j devoted to practical ethics, 248 j B8Berted
philosophy to be the only way
to virtue, 251 j his personal influence, 268 j Stoicism exaggerated by Musonius, 268 ; inner
freedom of man his leading
thought, 264 j reBSons for avoiding animal food, 255 j views on
marriage and the exposure of
children, 266 j disapproval of
puhlic prosecutions, 266
Musonius the Tyrian, 199, n.
forerunners
NEO-PLATONISM,
of, among the Platonists, 844
Nero, influence of the time of, on
philosophy, 286
Digitized by
Coogle
S80
INDEX.
NBS
Nestor of Tarsus, the Academic,
54, fl.; distinct from Nestor the
Stoic, 102, 2
Nicander the Bithynian, 53, n.
- a Peripatetic, 307, n.
Nicolaus of Damascus, 122
Nigrinus, a Platonist, 335, n; his
eclecticism, 344
Numa, the books of, 7
Numenius, 336, n.
fUNOMAUS of Gadara, a Cynic
PHI
7
- sects of, enumerated by Varra,
173
Philosophy, schools of, tend to
amalgamation, 1; Roman estimates of, 15
- of revelation, allied with eclecticism, 20; schools of, are all in
~eement, according to Autiochus, 91 ; general character of.
in Imperial times, 189
- regarded with political mistrust in the first century B.C
Digitized by
Coogle
881
INDEX.
PHI
BEL
1oo,n.
Digitized by
Coogle
INDEX.
882
BBN
BTO
n.,
Digitized by
Coogle
INDEX.
8TO
ZEN
Printer" N<fIJ..t....'
8gtI/J~, Londort.
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