Chapter 5

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA
MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)
DEFINITION:
A conductor or group of conductors used either for radiating electromagnetic energy
into space or for collecting it from space.
Or
Is a structure which may be described as a metallic object, often a wire or a collection
of wires through specific design capable of converting high frequency current into EM
wave and transmit it into free space at light velocity with high power (kW) besides
receiving EM wave from free space and convert it into high frequency current at much
lower power (mW).
Also known as transducer because it acts as coupling devices between microwave
circuits and free space and vice versa.
Electrical energy from the transmitter is converted into electromagnetic energy by the
antenna and radiated into space. On the receiving end, electromagnetic energy is
converted into electrical energy by the antenna and fed into the receiver.
Basic operation of transmit and receive antennas.
Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space
Receiver - collects electromagnetic energy from space
In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used for transmission and
receiver.
Short wavelength produced by high frequency microwave, allows the usage of highly
directive antenna. For long distant signal transmission, the usage of antenna at
microwave frequency
is more economical. Usage of waveguide is suitable for short
distance signal transmission.
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FUNCTIONS OF ANTENNA
Transmit energy with high efficiency (kW).
Receive energy as low as mW.
Provide matching between transmitter and free space and between free space
and receiver, thus maximum power transfer is achieve besides preventing the
occurrence of reflection.
Figure 1 below, shows the energy transmitted into free space via an open ended /
4 transmission lines. The proportion of wave escaping the system is very small due
to :
/4
radiation (small portion of
EM wave energy escapes
from the system)
FIGURE 1
Mismatch exists that is surrounding space as load.
Since the two wires are closed together and in opposite direction (180), therefore it
is apparent that the radiation from one tip will cancelled that from the other.
TYPES OF MICROWAVE ANTENNA
Horn / aperture antenna
Dielectric lens antenna
Paraboloid / dish antenna
Printed (patch or microstrip) antenna
Dipole antenna
Phase Array antenna

2/47
Slotted (leaky-wave) antenna
A) HORN / APERTURE ANTENNA

Like parabolic reflectors, you can use HORN RADIATORS to obtain directive radiation
at microwave frequencies. Because they do not use resonant elements, horns have the
advantage of being useful over a wide frequency band.
The operation of a horn as an RF radiating device is similar to that of an automobile
horn radiating sound waves. However, the throat of an automobile horn usually is sized
much smaller than the sound wavelengths for which it is used. The throat of the RF
radiating horn is sized to be comparable to the wavelength being used.
Horn radiators are used with waveguides because they serve both as an impedancematching device and as a directional radiator. Horn radiators may be fed by coaxial and
other types of lines.
Horn radiators are constructed in a variety of shapes. The shape of the horn determines
the shape of the field pattern. The ratio of the horn length to the size of its mouth
determines the beam angle and directivity. In general, the larger the mouth of the horn,
the more directive is the field pattern.
Is produced from an open ended waveguide. Horn antenna is used to provide a
gradual flare at the end of the waveguide, thus producing maximum radiation into
space with minimum reflection back to the source.
Because of impedance mismatch, the horn is tapered in one dimension to a
rectangular shape as shown in Figure 4 (a) and (b) thus produces an impedance
matching between the waveguide and that of the impedance of free space. Horn
tapered / flared in the E or H planes are called sectoral horn. If flared in E and H
plane (2 dimensions) it is called a pyramidal horn. A circular waveguide can be
3/47
matched to free space with conical taper as shown in Figure 4 (d) and is called
conical horn antenna.
Higher gain and directivity for longer horn dimension.
Enhance performance when use together with parabolic reflector.
Its narrow beam angle caused increase in antenna gain.
WAVEGUIDE AS A TRANSMITTER
BASIC HORN ANTENNA
RF energy reaching the open end of
Used to overcome the problem facing
a waveguide will be partly radiated
by an open ended waveguide. (i.e. to
into space and partly reflected back
avoid mismatch).
into the waveguide because the end

is not well matched to free space so
VSWR will result.
Directivity improved and diffraction
reduced.
Produce a weak and no directional
radiation pattern due to refraction

around the open ends.
Difference type of Antenna horn can be produced based on open ended flaring of
the horn (FIGURE 4).
4/47
PLANE
HORN
SECTORAL H
ANTENNA
PLANE
HORN
SECTORAL
ANTENNA
PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA (E & H CONICAL HORN ANTENNA

PLANE)
FIGURE 4
3 TYPES OF HORN ANTENNA:i)
Horn antenna tapered / flared in one dimension only i.e in E-plane or H-plane
(known as sectoral horn).
ii) Horn antenna tapered / flared in two dimension i.e in E-plane and H-plane
(known as pyramidal horn).
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iii) Conical taper / flares uniformly in all direction i.e in circular form.
Eplane, Hplane Horn sectoral antenna and the pyramidal antenna is used to provide
matching between rectangular waveguide and free space. Whereas matching between
circular waveguide and free space can be achieved by using conical horn.
THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
THE E-, H- PLANE & PYRAMIDAL HORN
SECTORAL ANTENNA
E- PLANE HORN SECTORAL ANTENNA
H- PLANE HORN SECTORAL ANTENNA
Radiation pattern exhibits side lobe
Radiation pattern exhibits no side lobe,

thus more popular.
PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA

Radiation pattern flares in 2 direction i.e in
E-plane and H-plane. Therefore improves
directivity.
FACTORS AFFECTING THE GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY OF HORN ANTENNA
Selection of horn frequency depends on aperture area, beam angle and length.
Better impedance and small losses - the longer the horn and its open ended.
Higher gain and directivity bigger flare-out shape (though it is not as good as
parabola antenna).
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Easy to construct and robust.
DIMENSION OF HORN ANTENNA

SIDE VIEW
END / FRONT VIEW
APEX
WAVEGUIDE
APERTURE
H
l
BEAM / FLARING ANGLE

W
Whereby;
m2
A= HxW
A - area (m2 ); H height (m); W width (m)
Horn length: between 215 from the wavelength of operational the frequency. Beam
angle range for antenna directivity: between 10 - 60 and gain range between: 10 20 dB.
BEAM WIDTH;
80_
= beam width () ;
W/
W = horn width (m)

= wavelength of the operational
frequency (m)
GAIN;
G=
4 k A__
2
G = gain;
A = area (m2)
k = uniform phase distribution & E.M field
7/47
amplitude across the aperture (0.5 -0.6)

Small Beam width produce wave front , shallow horn, and flared radiation pattern. Thus,
not suitable for long distance transmission.
RADIATION PATTERN OF SECTORAL HORN
The used of horn pyramid helps to improve directivity due to dual flaring.
Pyramid and conical horn produce pencil beam radiation pattern, hence better
directivity as compared to sectoral horn.
Horn antenna is a non resonant (wide band) device which operates at a very high
frequency range (usually at 10 % of the operational frequency).
Example; At operating frequency of 10 GHz, the bandwidth is 1 GHz.
b)
PARABOLIC (REFLECTOR / DISH) ANTENNA
It is a big dish like structure made from metal or wire mesh / grid.
Mesh hole / 12.
Widely used in microwave propagation via free space.
Also known as secondary antenna since it depends on primary antenna which acts
as a feeder at the focal point (horn antenna or dipole antenna) to enhance the
performance quality of the transmitter and the receiver.
A point source, such as an omnidirectional antenna produces a spherical radiation

pattern, or spherical wavefront. As the sphere expands, the energy contained in a given
surface area decreases rapidly. At a relatively short distance from the antenna, the
energy level is so small that its reflection from a target would be useless in a radar
system.
A solution to this problem is to form the energy into a PLANE wavefront, in a plane
wavefront, all of the energy travels in the same direction, thus providing more energy to
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reflect off of a target. To concentrate the energy even further, a parabolic reflector is
used to shape the plane wavefronts energy into a beam of energy. This concentration
of energy provides a maximum amount of energy to be reflected off of a target, making
detection of the target much more probable.
The basic paraboloid reflector used to produce different beam shapes required by
special applications. The basic characteristics of the most commonly used paraboloids
are presented as below:
Basic paraboloid reflector
Truncated Paraboloid
Pillbox
TRUNCATED PARABOLOID
Since the reflector is parabolic in the horizontal plane, the energy is focused into a
narrow beam. With the reflector TRUNCATED (cut) so that it is shortened vertically, the
beam spreads out vertically instead of being focused. This fan-shaped beam is used in
radar detection applications for the accurate determination of bearing. Since the beam
is spread vertically, it will detect aircraft at different altitudes without changing the tilt of
the antenna. The truncated paraboloid also works well for surface search radar
applications to compensate for the pitch and roll of the ship.
Truncated paraboloid may be used in target height-finding systems if the reflector is
rotated 90. Since the reflector is now parabolic in the vertical plane, the energy is
focused vertically into a narrow beam. If the reflector is truncated, or cut, so that it is
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shortened horizontally, the beam will spread out horizontally instead of being focused.
Such a fan-shaped beam is used to accurately determine elevation.
ORANGE-PEEL PARABOLOID
A section of a complete circular paraboloid, often called an ORANGE-PEEL
REFLECTOR because of its orange-peel shape. Since the reflector is narrow in the
horizontal plane and wide in the vertical plane, it produces a beam that is wide in the
horizontal plane and narrow in the vertical plane. In shape, the beam resembles a huge
beaver tail. The microwave energy is sent into the parabolic reflector by a horn radiator
(not shown) which is fed by a waveguide. The horn radiation pattern covers nearly the
entire shape of the reflector, so almost all of the microwave energy strikes the reflector
and very little escapes at the sides. Antenna systems which use orange-peel
paraboloids are often used in height-finding equipment.
Orange-peel paraboloid
Cylindrical paraboloid
Corner reflector
CYLINDRICAL PARABOLOID
When a beam of radiated energy that is noticeably wider in one cross-sectional
dimension than in another is desired, a cylindrical paraboloidal section which
approximates a rectangle can be used. A PARABOLIC CYLINDER has a parabolic
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cross section in just one dimension which causes the reflector to be directive in one
plane only. The cylindrical paraboloid reflector is fed either by a linear array of dipoles, a
slit in the side of a waveguide, or by a thin waveguide radiator. It also has a series of
focal points forming a straight line rather than a single focal point. Placing the radiator,
or radiators, along this focal line produces a directed beam of energy. As the width of
the parabolic section is changed, different beam shapes are obtained. You may see this
type of antenna system used in search radar systems and in ground control approach
(GCA) radar systems.
CORNER REFLECTOR
The CORNER-REFLECTOR ANTENNA consists of two flat conducting sheets that meet
at an angle to form a corner. The corner reflector is normally driven by a HALF-WAVE
RADIATOR located on a line which bisects the angle formed by the sheet reflectors.
A microwave source is placed at focal point F. The field leaves this antenna as a
spherical wavefront. As each part of the wavefront reaches the reflecting surface, it is
phase-shifted 180 degrees. Each part is then sent outward at an angle that results in all
parts of the field traveling in parallel paths. Because of the special shape of a parabolic
surface, all paths from F to the reflector and back to line XY are the same length.
Therefore, when the parts of the field are reflected from the parabolic surface, they
travel to line XY in the same amount of time.
Parabolic reflector radiation.
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X
TO FREE SPACE
A`
B`
B
C
FOCAL POINT
D
WAVE FRONT
C`
D
E`
FROM FREE SPACE
Y
PLANE WAVE
A point-radiation source is placed at the focal point F. The field leaves this antenna with
a spherical wavefront. As each part of the wavefront moving toward the reflector
reaches the reflecting surface, it is shifted 180 degrees in phase and sent outward at
angles that cause all parts of the field to travel in parallel paths. Because of the shape of
a parabolic surface, all paths from F to the reflector and back to line XY are the same
length. Therefore, all parts of the field arrive at line XY at the same time after reflection.
A parasitic array to direct the radiated field back to the reflector, or a feed horn pointed
at the paraboloid is used to make the beam sharper and to concentrates the majority of
the power in the beam.
The radiation pattern of the paraboloid contains a major lobe, which is directed along
the axis of the paraboloid and several minor lobes. Very narrow beams are possible with
this type of reflector.
PARABOLIC RADIATION PATTERN
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AS TRANSMITTER
The wave at the focus point will be directed to the main reflector and will be reflected
parallel to the parabola axis. Thus the wave will travel at the same time and phase at
A`E` (XY) line and the plane wave produce will be transmitted to the free space.
AS RECEIVER
The plane wave received which is parallel to the parabola axis will be reflected by
the main reflector to the focus point.
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This characteristic makes the parabola antenna to possess high gain and a confined
beam width.
C) SLOTTED (LEAKY-WAVE) ANTENNA

Can be fabricated from a length of a waveguide. They are simple to fabricate, have
low-loss (high efficiency) and radiate linear polarization with low cross-polarization.
Slotted antenna arrays used with waveguides are a popular antenna in navigation,
radar and other high-frequency systems. These antennas are often used in aircraft
applications because they can be made to conform to the surface on which they are
mounted. The slots are typically thin (< 0.1 ) and 0.5 (at the center frequency of
operation).
The slots on the waveguide will assumed to have a narrow width. Increasing the
width increases the bandwidth (recall that a fatter antenna often has an increased
bandwidth); the expense of a larger width is a higher degree of cross-polarization.
The Fractional Bandwidth for thin slots can be as low as 3-5%; wide slots can have a
FBW on the order of 75%.
An example of a slotted waveguide array is shown in Figure 1 (dimensions given by

length a and width b)
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Figure 1: Basic Geometry of a Slotted Waveguide Antenna
As in the cavity-backed slot antenna, each slot could be independently fed with a
voltage source across the slot. This would be very difficult to construct especially for
large arrays. The waveguide is used as the transmission line to feed the elements.
The position, shape and orientation of the slots will determine how (or if) they radiate. In
addition, the shape of the waveguide and frequency of operation will play a major role.
EXAMPLE;
The dominant TE10 mode will be assumed to exist within the waveguide. Radiation
occurs when the currents must "go around" the slots in order to continue on their
desired direction. As an example, consider a narrow slot in the center of the waveguide,
as shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2: Waveguide with a Thin Slot Centered about its Width.
In this case, the z-component of the current will not be disturbed, because the slot is
thin and the z-current would not need to travel around the slot.
Hence, the x-component of the current will be responsible for the radiation. However, at
this location (x=a/2), the x-component of the current density is zero - i.e. no current and
therefore no radiation. As a result, slots can not be placed in the center of the
waveguide as shown in Figure 2.
If the slots are displaced from the centerline as shown in Figure 1, the x-directed current
will not be zero and will need to travel around the slot. Hence, radiation will occur.
Note: the distance from the edge will determine the magnitude of the current. As a
result, the power that the slot radiates can be altered by moving the slots closer or
farther from the edge. In this manner, a phased array can be designed with varying
excitation to each element.
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If the slot is oriented as shown in Figure 3, the slot will disturb the z-component of the
current density. This slot will then radiate. If this slot is displaced away from the center
line, the amount of power that it radiates can be adjusted.
Figure 3: Horizontal Slot in a Waveguide
If the slot is rotated at an angle about the centerline as shown in Figure 4, it will radiate.
The power it radiates will be a function of the angle (phi) that it is rotated - specifically
given by sin2. Note that the z-component of the current is still responsible for radiation
in this case. The x-component is disturbed; however the currents will have opposite
magnitudes on either side of the centerline and will thus tend to cancel out the radiation.
Figure 4: Rotated Slot Antenna in a Waveguide
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The most common slotted waveguide resembles that shown in Figure 5:
Figure 5: Geometry of the Most Common Slotted Waveguide Antenna
The front end (the open face at the y=0 in the x-z plane) is where the antenna is fed.
The far end is usually shorted (enclosed in metal). The waveguide may be excited by a
short dipole (as seen on the cavity-backed slot antenna) page, or by another
waveguide.
The waveguide itself acts as a transmission line, and the slots in the waveguide can be
viewed as parallel (shunt) admittances.
Figure 6: Slotted Waveguide Antenna Fed by a Coaxial Feed.
18/47
Shunt load
Longitudinal slot in broad face
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Series load
Center inclined slot in broad face
Series load
Transverse slot in broad face
Shunt load
Inclined slot in narrow face
The end of the waveguide is terminated in a pyramid terminator to avoid line reflections.
The radiating field pattern depends on the spacing of the slots (phase relationship) and
their orientation with reference to the waveguide.
A slot cut in the wall of the waveguide, transverse to the direction of the interior
boundary currents (due to the interior EM wave) will couple the EM energy from inside
the wave guide to a radiant free-space wave.
The length of slot is cut to be a resonant one-half (/2) wavelength.
D) DIPOLE ANTENNAS
TWO TYPES OF DIPOLE ANTENNAS:
Half-wave (/2) dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
Quarter-wave ( /4) vertical antenna (or Marconi antenna)

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It is the simplest practical antenna. It is very short wavelength of wire over which the
current distribution can be assumed to be uniform.
This result for a free space short-dipole and the radiation pattern (polar diagram) in the
vertical plane is a figure of 8 and a circular in a horizontal plane. The electric field,
is directional in the vertical plane but is omnidirectional on the horizontal plane.
3
Vertical plane
Horizontal plane
dl
max
The dipole antenna is the simplest antenna, despite of not being used practically in
applications, it is used to test antenna labs (so it is considered the reference antenna), a
dipole antenna consists of 2 wires (/4 for its length) , the two wires are separated by a
gap and their terminals are connected to the transmitter or the receiver.
This type of dipoles is called half wave length
dipole as the total length is / 2
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Dipole geometry
Dipole configuration
RADIATION PATTERN
The dipole is an electric field antenna, means that the magnetic field is zero at the near
field. The radiation pattern is like a donut cake with the maximum perpendicular to the
dipole, and a null along it. The polarization is along the dipole.
22/47
The 3D plot of the radiation pattern of a dipole antenna.
The
radiation
pattern for the Electric field for a folded dipole antenna
23/47
The radiation pattern of the dipole,

all the field is electric as shown
The radiation pattern of the

dipole, the magnetic field
equals zero
No radiation pattern for
the magnetic field.
field This
means that a dipole is an
When the length of the dipole exceeds lambda the radiation pattern takes a new shape
due to the appearance of the grating lobes where the major lobes divides into multiple
lobes .
E) DIELECTRIC (LENS) ANTENNAS

Lenses play a similar role to that of reflectors in reflector antennas: they collimate
divergent energy. Used at the higher microwave frequencies (often preferred to
reflectors at frequencies > 100 GHz) and are useful in mm microwave region.
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LENS ANTENNA converts spherically radiated microwave energy into a plane wave (in
a given direction) by using a point source (open end of the waveguide) with a
COLLIMATING LENS.
A collimating lens forces all radial segments of the spherical wavefront into parallel
paths.
The point source can be regarded as a gun which shoots the microwave energy toward
the lens. The point source is often a horn radiator or a simple dipole antenna.
(Lens refraction, parabolic reflector reflection)
BASIC PRINCIPLE
PLANE WAVE
LENS
LENS
COLLIMATED
RAY
POINT O
SOURCE
A`
B`
C`
Spherical wavefront changed to plane

wavefront through dielectric lens.
25/47
DIELECTRIC LENS ANTENNA
LENS ANTENNA AS WAVE COLLIMATOR
The velocity of EM wave through a dielectric material is less than that in free space.
The section of spherical EM wave that travels through the center (the greatest
thickness) of the dielectric material will travel most slowly compared to both end.
The velocities of the spherical wave entering the lens will be controlled and the curved
wavefront will become a plane wavefront with constant phase in front of the dielectric
antenna (refraction based on Snells law).
Are constructed from polystyrene, teflon or any denser dielectric material to produce
large diffraction although its size and weight is small. The material use will cause the
wave to attenuate greatly (losses and absorption of signal - greatest attenuation at
center thickest lens).
To avoid this situation, zoned and stepped dielectric antennas are used so that the
optical path can be divided into paths differing by integral multiples of a wavelength from
one zone to another.
BASIC DIELECTRIC LENS
STEPPED DIELECTRIC LENS
ZONED DIELECTRIC LENS
26/47
Basic dielectric lens requires a specific wavelength due to its thickness. Hence its usage
is not practical as compared to the stepped or zoned dielectric lens antenna which has
different path for different wavelength.
The stepped or zoned dielectric lens antenna is used to reduce the lens thickness and
to decrease the curvature of the spherical wave.
F)
PRINTED (MICROSTRIP OR PATCH) ANTENNA
A patch antenna is a narrowband, wide-beam antenna.

Fabricated by etching the antenna element pattern in metal trace bonded to an
insulating dielectric substrate, such as a printed circuit board, with a continuous metal
layer bonded to the opposite side of the substrate which forms a ground plane.
Common microstrip antenna shapes are square, rectangular, circular and elliptical, but
any continuous shape is possible.
Some patch antennas do not use a dielectric substrate and instead made of a metal
patch mounted above a ground plane using dielectric spacers; the resulting structure is
less rugged but has a wider bandwidth.
Because such antennas have a very low profile, are mechanically rugged and can be
shaped to conform to the curving skin of a vehicle, they are often mounted on the
exterior of aircraft and spacecraft, or are incorporated into mobile radio communications
devices.
A microstrip antenna consists of:
27/47
The patch (radiating element) may be circular, rectangular or any other shape.
TYPES OF MICROSTRIP ANTENNAS:
Open Circuit Microstrip
Short Circuit Microstrip
The patch is totally isolated from the

ground plane.
The patch is connected to the ground
Higher efficiency than short circuit

microstrip antennas.
Side length is g / 4
Side length of the patch is g / 2.
Have only one radiating edge.
ADVANTAGES
High accuracy in manufacturing, the design is executed by Photo etching.
Easy to integrate with other devices.
An array of microstrip antennas can be used to form a pattern that is difficult to

synthesize using a single element.
We can obtain high directivity using microstrip arrays.
Have a main radiating edge, this makes it useful for mobile Phones to avoid
radiation inside the device.
28/47
Small sized applicable for handheld portable communication.
Smart antennas when combined with phase shifters.
DISADVANTAGES
Narrow band width (1%) , while mobiles need ( 8% ).
Low efficiency, especially for short circuited microstrip antenna.
Some feeding techniques like aperture and proximity coupling are difficult to
fabricate.
An array suffers presence of feed network decreasing efficiency; also microstrip

antennas are relatively expensive.
MICROSTRIP VS REFLECTORS
Microstrip Antennas
Preferred
for
low
Reflector Antennas
directivity Performed
for
high
directivity
applications.
applications as the effect of blockage is
Lower efficiency.
less.
Suffers low efficiency caused by feed
Higher efficiency.
network for arrays.
Smart
antennas,
uses
Struts.
electronic
scanning when combined with phase
Uses mechanical scanning.
shifters.
Less accuracy, sometimes parabolic
More accurate manufacturing by photo

etching.
Suffers blockage caused by fixation
Feeding is by coupling or coax feed
surfaces are rough.
Uses other antenna (dipole, monopole,

apertures, etc) as a feed.
lines.
G)
PHASED ARRAY ANTENNA
29/47
Is an array of antennas in which the relative phases of the respective signals feeding
the antennas are varied in such a way that the effective radiation pattern of the array is
reinforced in a desired direction and suppressed in undesired directions.
Phased array transmission is use to enhance transmission of radio waves in one
direction.
A phased array antenna is composed of lots of radiating elements each with a phase
shifter. Beams are formed by shifting the phase of the signal emitted from each
radiating element, to provide constructive/destructive interference so as to steer the
beams in the desired direction.
Areas of the antenna matrix can act as separate antennas. This allows many antenna
beam patterns to be individually controlled at the same time. A large, phase-steered
antenna system could be used to control the positions of many aircraft as at larger
airport.
In the figure 1 (left) both radiating elements are fed with the same phase. The signal is
amplified by constructive interference in the main direction. The beam sharpness is
improved by the destructive interference
Figure 1:
Left : two antenna elements, fed with the same phase,

Right: two antenna elements, fed with different phase shift
30/47
In the figure 1 (right), the signal is emitted by the lower radiating element with a phase
shift of 22 degrees earlier than of the upper radiating element. Because of this the main
direction of the emitted sum-signal is moved upwards.
(Note: Radiating elements have been used without reflector in the figure. Therefore the
back lobe of the shown antenna diagrams is just as large as the main lobe.)
The main beam always points in the direction of the increasing phase shift.
If the signal to be radiated is delivered through an electronic phase shifter giving a
continuous phase shift, the beam direction will be electronically adjustable. However,
this cannot be extended unlimitedly.
The highest value, which can be achieved for the Field of View (FOV) of a phased array
antenna, is 120 (60 left and 60 right). With the sine theorem the necessary phase
moving can be calculated.
Advantages
Disadvantages
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high gain width los side lobes
Ability to permit the beam to jump from one
the coverage is limited to

a 120 degree sector in
azimuth and elevation
target to the next in a few microseconds
Ability to provide an agile beam under
deformation of the beam

while the deflection
computer control
low frequency agility
very complex structure
arbitrarily modes of surveillance and

tracking
(processor, phase shifters)
free eligible Dwell Time
still high costs
multifunction operation by emitting several

beams simultaneously
Fault of single components reduces the

capability and beam sharpness, but the
system remains operational
CONCLUSION:
Beamforming antenna systems improve wireless network performance
increase system capacity
improve signal quality
suppress interference and noise
save power
Beamforming antennas improve infrastructure networks performance. They may

improve ad hoc networks performance. New MAC protocol standards are needed.
Vector antennas may replace spatial arrays to further improve beamforming
performance
32/47
.
The relative amplitudes of and constructive and destructive interference effects
among the signals radiated by the individual antennas determine the effective
radiation pattern of the array. A phased array may be used to point a fixed radiation
pattern, or to scan rapidly in azimuth or elevation.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF PHASED ARRAYS
There are two main types of beamformers:
time domain beamformers
frequency domain beamformers
A graduated attenuation window is sometimes applied across the face of the array to
improve side-lobe suppression performance, in addition to the phase shift.
TIME DOMAIN BEAMFORMER
Works by introducing time delays.
The basic operation is called "delay and sum". It delays the incoming signal from
each array element by a certain amount of time, and then adds them together.
The most common kind of time domain beam former is serpentine waveguide.
Active phase array uses individual delay lines that are switched on and off. Yttrium
iron garnet phase shifters vary the phase delay using the strength of a magnetic
field.
33/47
FREQUENCY DOMAIN BEAMFORMERS

TWO DIFFERENT TYPES OF FREQUENCY DOMAIN BEAMFORMERS:
1) Separates the different frequency components that are present in the received signal
into multiple frequency bins (using either an DFT or a filterbank). When different
delay and sum beamformers are applied to each frequency bin, the result is that the
main lobe simultaneously points in multiple different directions at each of the
different frequencies. This can be an advantage for communication links, and is used
with the SPS-48 radar.
2) Makes use of Spatial Frequency. Discrete samples are taken from each of the
individual array elements. The samples are processes using a Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT). The DFT introduces multiple different discrete phase shifts during
processing. The outputs of the DFT are individual channels that correspond with
evenly spaced beams formed simultaneously. A 1 dimensional DFT produces a fan
of different beams. A 2 dimensional DFT produces beams with a pineapple
configuration.
These techniques are used to create two kinds of phase array.
Dynamic - an array of variable phase shifters are used to move the beam
Fixed - the beam position is stationary with respect to the array face and
the whole antenna is moved
There are two further sub-categories that modify the kind of dynamic array or fixed
array.
Active - amplifiers or processors in each phase shifter element
Passive - large central amplifier with attenuating phase shifters
Dynamic Phased Array

Each array element incorporates an adjustable phase shifter that is collectively used to
move the beam with respect to the array face.
34/47
Dynamic phase array require no physical movement to aim the beam. The beam is
moved electronically. This can produce antenna motion fast enough to use a small
pencil-beam to simultaneously track multiple targets while searching for new targets
using just one radar set (track while search).
As an example, an antenna with a 2 degree beam with a pulse rate of 1 kHz will require
approximately 16 seconds to cover an entire a hemisphere consisting of 16,000 pointing
positions. This configuration provides 6 opportunities to detect a Mach 3 vehicle over a
range of 100 km (62 mi), which is suitable for military applications.
The position of mechanically steered antennas can be predicted, which can be used to
create electronic countermeasures that interfere with radar operation. The flexibility
resulting from phase array operation allows beams to be aimed at random locations,
which eliminates this vulnerability. This is also desirable for military applications.
Fixed Phase Array
Fixed phase array antennas are typically used to create an antenna with a more
desirable form factor than the conventional parabolic reflector or cassegrain reflector.
Fixed phased array radar incorporate fixed phase shifters. This kind of phase array is
physically moved during the track and scan process. There are two configurations.
Multiple frequencies with a delay-line
Multiple adjacent beams
The SPS-48 radar uses multiple transmit frequencies with a serpentine delay line along
the left side of the array to produce vertical fan of stacked beams. Each frequency
experiences a different phase shift as it propagates down the serpentine delay line,
which forms different beams. A filter bank is used to split apart the individual receive
beams. The antenna is mechanically rotated.
Semi-active radar homing uses monopulse radar that relies on a fixed phase array to
produce multiple adjacent beams that measure angle errors. This form factor is suitable
for gimbals mounting in missile seekers.
Active Phase Array
35/47
Active phase arrays elements incorporate transmit amplification with phase shift in each
antenna element (or group of elements). Each element also includes receive preamplification. The phase shifter setting is the same for transmit and receive.
Active phase array do not require phase reset after the end of the transmit pulse, which
is compatible with Doppler radar and Pulse-Doppler radar.
Passive Phase Array
Passive phase arrays typically use large amplifiers that produce all of the microwave
transmit signal for the antenna. Phase shifters typically consist of waveguide elements
that contain phase shifters controlled by magnetic field, voltage gradient, or equivalent
technology.
The phase shift process used with passive phase array typically puts the receive beam
and transmit beam into caddy-corner quadrants. The sign of the phase shift must be
inverted after the transmit pulse is finished and before the receive period begins to
place the receive beam into the same location as the transmit beam. That requires a
phase impulse that degrades sub-clutter visibility performance on Doppler radar and
Pulse-Doppler radar. As an example, Yttrium iron garnet phase shifters must be
changed after transmit pulse quench and before receiver processing starts to align
transmit and receive beams. That impulse introduces FM noise that degrades clutter
performance.
36/47
MICROWAVE FEEDER SYSTEM (DRIVER ELEMENT)

TPYES OF FEEDER
Omnidirectional
Cassegrain
Gregorian
Horn feed
Parabolic antennas are also classified by the type of feed, that is, how the radio waves
are supplied to the antenna.
The primary antenna is placed at the parabolic focus point.
The reason is to produce better transmission and reception. (enhance directivity and
gain)
The primary antenna has to be used together with the reflector to avoid the flaring of
the radiation pattern which contributes to the reduction of the directivity. The
microwave feeder is used to overcome this problem.
DIPOLE FEEDER
PRIMARY FEED DIPOLE AT FOCUS
MAIN REFLECTOR
SP
37/47
AXIAL OR FRONT FEED

This is the most common type of feed, with the feed antenna located in front of the dish
at the focus, on the beam axis. A disadvantage of this type is that the feed and its
supports block some of the beam, which limits the aperture efficiency to only 55 - 60%.
OFF-AXIS OR OFFSET FEED

The reflector is an asymmetrical segment of a paraboloid, so the focus, and the feed
antenna, is located to one side of the dish. The purpose of this design is to move the
feed structure out of the beam path, so it doesn't block the beam. It is widely used in
home satellite television dishes, which are small enough that the feed structure would
otherwise block a significant percentage of the signal. Offset feed is also used in
multiple reflector designs such as the Cassegrain and Gregorian.
38/47
CASSEGRAIN FEED
The feed is located on or behind the dish, and radiates forward, illuminating a convex
hyperboloidal secondary reflector at the focus of the dish.
The radio waves from the feed reflect back off the secondary reflector to the dish, which
forms the outgoing beam.
The advantage of this configuration is that the feed, with its waveguides and "front end"
electronics does not have to be suspended in front of the dish, so it is used for antennas
39/47
with complicated or bulky feeds, such as large satellite communication antennas and
radio telescopes. Aperture efficiency is on the order of 65 - 70%.
Focus points for the secondary and primary reflectors will meet at the same point.
Radiation from the horn antenna will be reflected by the secondary reflector and
transmitted to the primary reflector to collimate the radiation.
GREGORIAN FEED
Similar to the Cassegrain design except that the secondary reflector is concave,
(ellipsoidal) in shape.
Aperture efficiency over 70% can be achieved.
40/47
HORN FEED
It is widely used as a primary feeder, because of the flaring directivity pattern, thus
preventing refraction.
MAIN REFLECTOR
PRIMARY FEED HORN
WAVEGUIDE/TRANSMISSION LINE
FACTORS AFFECTING THE ANTENNA

RADIATION PATTERN
Radiation pattern refers to the performance of the antenna for example when it is
mounted far away from objects such as buildings or mountain (earth) by which
reflecting signal might affect the shape of the pattern.
41/47
Figures below show the 3-dimensional models (polar graph/diagram) of field

strength or power density measurements made at a fixed distance from an antenna
in a given plane.
The maximum radiation is in the direction RELATIVE RADIATION PATTERN

of
90 from the reference point of the or P is plotted with respect to the
absolute
radiation
pattern
(radiation reference point.
pattern is plotted in the form of or P)
RELATIVE RADIATION PATTERN in dB RELATIVE RADIATION PATTERN FOR

is in the direction of 45 from the OMNIDIRECTIONAL
ANTENNA.
reference point. The power density is -3 (Transmits power equally in all direction
dB relative to the power density in the thus producing a circular or spherical
direction of the maximum radiation.
BEAMWIDTH (BEAM / FLARED ANGLE)
radiation pattern)
42/47
It is the angle subtended by the points at which the radiation power falls to the half of its
maximum power. In other words, the field strength has fallen to 1/2 (70.7 %) of its
maximum voltage or the angle measured between the -3dB (half power) points on the
major lobe of an antennas radiation pattern.
ANTENNA GAIN
It is defined as the ratio of power per unit area received from the antenna at a point
in space to the power received from an isotropic antenna at the same point in space.
The capability of a directive antenna to concentrate power in a given direction is the
capability to direct radio frequency energy into a given region and not in all direction.
For transmitting antenna, it refers to how far is the concentration of transmission
power in a given direction.
For receiving antenna, it refers to how far it receives the best signal in a given
direction rather than in all direction.
CHARACTERISTIC OF PARABOLOID ANTENNA
43/47
To convert the spherical waveform produced at a focus point to the plane wave.
All the energy received from the free space which is the same as the parabolic axis (Rx)
will be reflected to the focus point.
ADVANTAGES
The
gain
DISADVANTAGES
can
be
increased
Difficult to install with high accuracy.
whenever needed.
Operational frequency limited to the
Can be operated at any frequency
types of dish used.
in the microwave zone.

Simple Installation.
GAIN
GAIN;
G=
4 A
2
Where;
G = gain;
A = area of parabolic dish (m2);
= wavelength of operational frequency (m)
If the area of the dish, A
44/47
d 2
4
Where;
A = area of parabolic dish (m2);
d = diameter of dish opening (m)
Beamwidth =
115
d
= antenna beamwidth or angle between half power points ()

= wavelength (m)
d = diameter of dish opening (m)
EXAMPLE
1.
Calculate the gain and the half-wave (/2) antenna angle of a parabolic antenna
operating at a frequency of 1 GHz. The dish diameter is 2.5 m.
= Vc / f
GdB = 10 log G
= 3 x 108 / 1 x 109
= 10 log 685
= 0.3 m.
= 28.4 dB.
GAIN;
G =
4 A
2
= 4 ( d2 )
2
4
Antenna beam widh, =
d
2
= 4 x 3.14 ( 3.14 x 2.5 )

0.32
4
= 685 .
115
= 115 x 0.3
2.5
= 13.8 .
45/47

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TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Basic operation of transmit and receive antennas.

Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into space

Receiver - collects electromagnetic energy from space

is more economical. Usage of waveguide is suitable for short

distance signal transmission.

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Receive energy as low as mW.

Mismatch exists that is surrounding space as load.

TYPES OF MICROWAVE ANTENNA

Horn / aperture antenna

Dielectric lens antenna

Paraboloid / dish antenna

Printed (patch or microstrip) antenna

Phase Array antenna

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Slotted (leaky-wave) antenna

A) HORN / APERTURE ANTENNA

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Enhance performance when use together with parabolic reflector.

Its narrow beam angle caused increase in antenna gain.

BASIC HORN ANTENNA

RF energy reaching the open end of

Used to overcome the problem facing

a waveguide will be partly radiated

by an open ended waveguide. (i.e. to

into space and partly reflected back

into the waveguide because the end

Directivity improved and diffraction

Produce a weak and no directional

radiation pattern due to refraction

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA (E & H CONICAL HORN ANTENNA

3 TYPES OF HORN ANTENNA:i)

(known as pyramidal horn).

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

THE E-, H- PLANE & PYRAMIDAL HORN

H- PLANE HORN SECTORAL ANTENNA

Radiation pattern exhibits side lobe

Radiation pattern exhibits no side lobe,

PYRAMIDAL HORN ANTENNA

FACTORS AFFECTING THE GAIN AND DIRECTIVITY OF HORN ANTENNA

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

Easy to construct and robust.

DIMENSION OF HORN ANTENNA

END / FRONT VIEW

BEAM / FLARING ANGLE

A - area (m2 ); H height (m); W width (m)

W = horn width (m)

TOPIC 5: MICROWAVE ANTENNA

MICROWAVE DEVICES (EP603)

amplitude across the aperture (0.5 -0.6)

PARABOLIC (REFLECTOR / DISH) ANTENNA

Mesh hole / 12.

Widely used in microwave propagation via free space.

A point source, such as an omnidirectional antenna produces a spherical radiation