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Journal of Constructional Steel Research
Journal of Constructional Steel Research
A new prediction model for the load capacity of castellated steel beams
Amir Hossein Gandomi a, , Seyed Morteza Tabatabaei b , Mohammad Hossein Moradian c , Ata Radfar d ,
Amir Hossein Alavi e
a
Department of Civil Engineering, The Institute of Higher Education of Eqbal Lahoori, Mashhad, Iran
Department of Civil Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch, Tehran, Iran
School of Civil Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran
article
info
Article history:
Received 29 July 2010
Accepted 21 January 2011
Keywords:
Castellated beam
Failure load
Gene expression programming
abstract
In this study, a robust variant of genetic programming, namely gene expression programming (GEP), is
utilized to build a prediction model for the load capacity of castellated steel beams. The proposed model
relates the load capacity to the geometrical and mechanical properties of the castellated beams. The
model is developed based on a reliable database obtained from the literature. To verify the applicability
of the derived model, it is employed to estimate the load capacity of parts of the test results that were
not included in the modeling process. The external validation of the model was further verified using
several statistical criteria recommended by researchers. A multiple least squares regression analysis is
performed to benchmark the GEP-based model. A sensitivity analysis is further carried out to determine
the contributions of the parameters affecting the load capacity. The results indicate that the proposed
model is effectively capable of evaluating the failure load of the castellated beams. The GEP-based design
equation is remarkably straightforward and useful for pre-design applications.
2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
With the development of electrical welding technology in steel
construction, the castellated steel beam (CSB) became available to
structural engineers. The CSB, initially known as the Boyd beam,
was first used in 1910 [1], and then designed and manufactured
in the early 1930s as roof beams in Czech Republic. The initial
inspiration for the elastic and plastic calculation methods were
respectively introduced in 1942 and the early 1970s. Castellation
is the procedure of cutting the web of a rolled section in a zigzag
pattern [2]. One of the halves is turned round and welded to the
other half. This procedure increases the depth of the original beam
(h) by the depth of the cut (d). As shown in Fig. 1, CSBs are often
made from I sections by the castellation process. This shape fits
the dictionary definition of castellated as castle-like. According
to Zirakian and Showkati [3], the basic reasons for the fabrication
of the castellated beams are as follows.
I. Augmentation of section height, resulting in the enhancement
of moment of inertia, section modulus, stiffness, and flexural
resistance of sections;
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: a.h.gandomi@gmail.com (A.H. Gandomi),
ah_alavi@hotmail.com (A.H. Alavi).
0143-974X/$ see front matter 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcsr.2011.01.014
II.
III.
IV.
V.
2. Genetic programming
(1)
(X2 + X1 ).
(2)
(3)
rotates the first five elements of gene (1) to the end. Only the
first seven elements are used to construct the solution function
(X2 + X1 ) + (X3 3), with the corresponding expression shown in
Fig. 5 [13].
3. Modeling of a CSB
The enhanced performance characteristics of steel beams are
generally achieved by many processes such as castellation. The use
(4)
where
Fyw (MPa): Minimum web yield stress
hc (mm): Overall depth
B (mm): Width of flange
tw (mm): Web thickness
tf (mm): Flange thickness
S (mm): Minimum width of the web post
L (m): Span of castellated beam
LC : Indicator variable representing different loading conditions
1: One-point load
2: Two-point load
3: Distributed load.
The above variables were chosen as the predictor variables on the
basis of a literature review [4] and a trial study.
Frequency
Cumulative%
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Frequency
80%
15
60%
10
40%
20%
20%
0%
Frequency
40
0%
80
0%
15
60
0%
10
40
0%
5
0
306
384
10
00%
20
22
29
461
539
616
0%
230
Diistributed
load
Frequency
Cumulative%
265
300
60%
40%
20
0%
20%
%
0%
0%
67
90
112
More
60%
10
40%
20
0%
20%
0%
%
1000%
7.3
10.0
12.8 15.5
5
tf (mm)
Frequency
Cumulative%
30
25
80
0%
0%
4.6
1
10.3
More
Frequency
Cumulative%
60
0%
2
0
116
145
174
100%
60%
15
40
0%
18.2 More
80%
20
6
4
100%
15
40
0%
7.6
9.0
tw (mm)
Frequency
Cumulative%
25
Frequency
Frequency
180
80%
60
0%
10
Frequency
158
8
20
10
12
10
00%
135
B (mm)
80
0%
6.3
100%
12
15
4.9
More
80%
20
3.6
403
16
More
Frequency
Cumulative%
25
334
300
0
Fyw (MPa)
Frequency
Cumulative%
20
hc (mm)
100%
20
60%
25
Frequency
Cumulative%
25
80
0%
One-point
load
100%
Frequency
Frequency
40%
10
20
0%
20%
0%
%
0%
More
L (m)
30
100%
25
Frequency
Cumulative%
20
80%
60%
15
40%
10
20%
5
0
0%
74
278
482
2
687
891
1096 More
PExp. (kN)
Fig. 6. Histograms of the variables used for model development.
(Fig. 6). The descriptive statistics of the database used in this study
are given in Table 1. The complete list of the data is given in Table 2.
Overfitting is one of the major problems in machine learning
generalization. An efficient approach to prevent overfitting is
to test the derived models on a validation set to find a better
generalization [12]. This strategy was considered in this study
for improving the generalization of the models. For this aim, the
Table 1
Descriptive statistics of the variables used for model development.
Mean
Standard error
Standard deviation
Sample variance
Kurtosis
Skewness
Range
Minimum
Maximum
Sum
LC
Fyw (MPa)
hc (mm)
B (mm)
tw (mm)
tf (mm)
S (mm)
L (m)
PExp (kN)
2
1
3
314.894
4.959
34.000
1156.014
3.177
1.043
208
230
438
14800
419.862
15.500
106.260
11 291.089
0.185
0.339
464.7
229
693.7
19 733.5
112.481
4.048
27.750
770.065
1.197
0.567
136.3
66.9
203.2
5286.6
6.741
0.246
1.685
2.840
1.728
0.690
8.14
3.56
11.7
316.81
9.497
0.488
3.345
11.187
3.278
1.242
16.37
4.59
20.96
446.35
110.604
8.317
57.017
3250.943
1.497
0.095
174.42
28.58
203
5198.41
2.095
0.171
1.171
1.370
4.496
2.095
4.8
1
5.8
98.46
250.417
25.658
175.905
30 942.431
28.351
4.675
1226.5
73.5
1300
11 769.6
Table 2
The experimental database used for the model construction.
No.
LC
Fyw (MPa)
hc (mm)
B (mm)
tw (mm)
tf (mm)
S (mm)
L (m)
PExp (kN)
PGEP (kN)
PLSR (kN)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
One-point
One-point
One-point
One-point
One-point
One-point
Two-point
Distributed
Distributed
One-point
One-point
Distributed
Distributed
One-point
Two-point
One-point
One-point
One-point
One-point
One-point
One-point
Distributed
One-point
One-point
Distributed
One-point
Distributed
Distributed
One-point
Distributed
One-point
Distributed
One-point
One-point
One-point
Distributed
Distributed
Distributed
One-point
One-point
One-point
One-point
Distributed
One-point
Two-point
Distributed
One-point
320
335
290.3
293.2
335
294.7
355
335
320
290.8
352.9
292.8
292.8
352.9
292.8
295.5
277
277
293.2
320
290
335
320
304
292.8
395
292.8
320
290.8
230
335
292.8
335
352.9
438
292.8
335
335
304
290
295.5
335
335
294.7
352.9
292.8
297.3
380
500
451.8
606.2
440
524.8
693.7
381
229
451.4
380.5
381
381
380.5
381
526.7
605.5
605.5
603.6
381
524.3
229
381
460.4
342.9
381
266.7
229
451.6
280
381
381
381
380.5
381
381
381
381
459.6
524.3
526.1
229
381
524.1
380.5
381
450.3
150
150
123.4
145.6
150
124.4
153.5
101.6
76.2
123.9
66.9
101.6
127
66.9
114.3
124.7
145.4
143.3
143.7
101.6
124.6
76.2
101.6
103.1
117.8
101.6
101.6
76.2
124.1
100
101.6
101.6
101.6
66.9
101.6
101.6
101.6
101.6
103
124.4
124.7
76.2
101.6
124.3
66.9
203.2
123.4
7.1
7.1
7.55
7.31
7.1
7.03
11.7
5.84
5.84
7.51
3.56
5.84
9.14
3.56
7.62
7.08
7.3
7.27
7.28
5.84
7.04
5.84
5.84
7.21
10.16
5.84
6.35
5.84
7.62
10.8
5.84
5.84
5.84
3.56
5.84
5.84
5.84
5.84
7.15
7.02
7.08
5.84
5.84
7.07
3.56
10.16
7.54
10.7
10.7
10.72
11.4
10.7
10.79
11.7
6.83
9.58
10.7
4.59
6.83
14.02
4.59
12.83
10.68
11.34
11.25
11.27
6.83
10.7
9.58
6.83
10.73
20.96
6.83
9.83
9.58
10.66
5.7
6.83
6.83
6.83
4.59
6.83
6.83
6.83
6.83
10.7
10.73
10.77
9.58
6.83
10.73
4.59
19.89
10.68
40
100
150
200
70
180
114.3
89
38.1
150
66.55
127
63.5
66.55
63.5
176
203
199
196
44.45
179
38.1
34.93
143
57.15
28.58
44.5
38.1
146
40
127
101.6
127
66.55
165.1
88.9
101.6
165.1
157
176
176
38.1
165.1
177
66.55
63.5
150
5.8
5.8
2.14
1.5
5.8
2.6
2.5
1.3
1.32
1.15
1.83
1.8
1.8
1.22
1.6
2
1.6
1.5
1
3
2.6
1.32
3
1.1
1.3
3
1.5
1.15
2
3.33
1.6
2.4
2.4
2.44
3.5
2.5
1.37
1.6
2.3
1.35
1.35
1.32
1.75
1.35
1.22
1.3
1.15
176.5
73.5
285
280
145
280
1300
295
147
275
94.8
186
249.1
100.9
299
232
288
253
226
265.5
275
137.2
269
267
279.6
352
113.7
196
280
194.1
290
89
303.4
84.4
277.2
89
300
358.6
273
280
260
117.6
310.3
240
92.7
310.5
279
148.3
132.0
269.2
297.0
134.0
239.1
1226.8
226.4
141.6
282.5
158.9
189.7
312.6
156.2
200.0
261.9
269.0
268.8
301.5
218.6
234.3
157.4
237.7
274.0
234.9
365.0
131.4
137.7
280.2
314.4
237.9
174.1
227.8
158.9
298.2
170.5
229.5
249.0
254.8
257.8
271.0
148.6
247.3
269.5
163.9
282.1
295.5
74.6
221.8
221.0
337.7
177.7
212.3
1149.0
330.8
105.9
266.5
150.2
125.5
365.5
179.8
215.2
255.7
267.5
273.4
361.3
168.0
196.6
164.8
171.9
307.3
337.0
468.9
63.6
114.1
239.9
322.5
261.8
106.5
222.9
120.5
558.4
106.8
322.3
285.6
236.5
255.9
284.9
125.6
278.3
279.4
199.4
352.5
294.9
Parameter settings
General
i. The simplicity of the model, although this was not a predominant factor.
ii. Providing the best fitness value on the learning set of data.
iii. Providing the best fitness value on a validation set of data.
The first objective was controlled by the user through the
parameter settings (e.g., number of genes or head size). For
the other objectives, the following objective function (OBJ) was
constructed as a measure of how well the model predicted output
agrees with the experimental results. The best GEP model was then
deduced by the minimization of the following function:
No.Learning No.Validation
2No.Validation MAEValidation
No.Training
R2Validation
R2Learning
(5)
R=
(hi hi )(ti ti )
i=1
n
i =1
MAE =
Complexity increase
Generations without change
Number of tries
Maximum complexity
2000
3
5
Mutation rate
Inversion rate
IS transposition rate
RIS transposition rate
One-point recombination rate
Two-point recombination rate
Gene recombination rate
Gene transposition rate
0.044
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
0.3
0.1
0.1
Numerical constants
Constants per gene
Data type
Lower bound
Upper bound
2
Integer
10
10
(6)
(hi hi )2 (ti ti )2
Chromosomes
Genes
Head size
Tail size
Dc size
Gene size
Linking function
Genetic operators
MAELearning
No.Training
Table 3
Parameter settings for the GEP algorithm.
OBJ =
i=1
|hi ti |
i =1
(7)
were considered for the head size and the number of genes. For
the number of genes greater than 1, the addition linking function
was used to link the mathematical terms encoded in each gene.
One level was considered for the other parameters based on some
previously suggested values [13,1921] and also after making
several preliminary runs and observing the performance behavior.
There are 3 3 3 = 27 different combinations of the parameters.
All of these combinations were tested, and 10 replications for
each combination were carried out. Therefore, the overall number
of runs was equal to 27 10 = 270. The period of time
acceptable for evolution to occur without improvement in best
fitness is set via the generations without change parameter. After
2000 generations considered herein, a mass extinction or a neutral
gene was automatically added to the model. In this study, basic
arithmetic operators and mathematical functions were utilized to
get the optimum GEP model. The mean absolute error function
was used to calculate the overall fitness of the evolved programs.
The program was run until there was no longer any significant
improvement in the performance of the models. The GEP algorithm
was implemented using GeneXproTools [33].
3.3.1. GEP-based formulation for the load capacity of a CSB
The GEP-based formulation of the failure load (P) in terms of
Fyw , hc , B, tw , tf , S , L, and LC is as given below:
PGEP (kN ) = tw L
Fyw B
S
L + (tw 4)(tw LC )
3
+ (hc + Fyw )(Fyw tw 216)
(tf LC ) + ( tf + hc 10) tw
2
S
6
(8)
Fig. 9. Experimental versus predicted failure load values using the LSR model.
Fig. 8. Experimental versus predicted failure load values using the GEP model.
Fig. 11. The ratio between the experimental and predicted failure load values with respect to the design parameters (average = 0.988).
Table 4
Statistical parameters of the GEP model for external validation.
Item
Formula
Condition
R > 0.8
0.904
k=
1.003
k =
0.974
i=1 (hi ti )
2
n hi
i=1 (hi ti )
ti2
R2 Ro2
m < 0.1
m=
n=
where
i
Ro2 = 1 in=1 (t ti )2 , hoi = k ti
R2
R2 Ro2
R2
n < 0.1
,
n
(t ho )2
i= 1
Ro2 = 1
o 2
i=1 (hi ti )
n
i )2
(
h
h
i
i= 1
, tio = k hi
GEP
0.225
0.203
1.000
0.983
the predicted and experimental values (Ro2 ) or the coefficient between the experimental and predicted values (Ro2 ) should be close
to 1 [23]. The considered validation criteria and the relevant results obtained by the models are presented in Table 4. The results of
the model validity indicate that the derived GEP model is strongly
valid.
In addition, Fig. 11 shows the ratio of the experimental to
the GEP predicted failure against different parameters. As the
scattering increases in these figures, the accuracy of the model
decreases. It can be observed that, with the exception of LC , the
scattering slightly decreases with increasing different parameters.
In the case of LC , the results do not exhibit any noticeable
10
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