Manufacturing Technology- I

Welding Metallurgy

Pallav Chattopadhyay
14-Oct-2005
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Crystal Structure

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Solid Solution

Substitutional

Interstitial

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Solidification of Metal

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Ie-C Diagram

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Steel Structure as a function of %C

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Structural Changes in 0.4%C Steel during Slow

Cooling

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Typical Lamellar Pearlite

1500 X
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0.25% C cooled from 870C

Slow Cooled

Proeutectoid Ferrite +
Pearlite

Rapid Cooled

Oil Quenched
100X

Less Proeutectoid Ferrite +

More Pearlite

Martensite + Ferrite +
Bainite + Pearlite
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Welding Metallurgy
Welding
Complex Metallurgical Process involving:
Melting
Solidification
Gas-metal reaction
Slag-metal reaction
Surface phenomenon
Solid state reactions

Weld Joint consists of:

Weld metal
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
Unaffected Base Metal
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Macro section of Weld

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Weld & HAZ

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Microstructure of Low C Steel Weld Metal

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100 X

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Weld Metal
Microstructure marked different from base
material of same composition
different thermal & mechanical histories

Base material :
Hot rolling Multiple recrystallization + Heat
Treatment

Weld Metal :
No mechanical deformation As-solidified structure
No time for diffusion heterogeneous composition
Reactions with gases in the vicinity / non-metallic
liquid phases (slag or flux) / after solidification

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Weld Metal
Solidification:
Unmelted portion of grains in HAZ act as nucleation site
Metals grow more rapidly in certain crystallographic
directions
Favorably oriented grains grow for substantial distance growth of others blocked by faster growing grains columnar grains

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Weld Metal
Solidification:
Micro-segregation of alloying and residual elements
formation of Dendrites
Solidification of primary dendrites more soluble solutes
in liquid rejected freezing point lowered

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Weld Metal
Solidification:
Concentration of solute near solid-liquid interface arrest
crystal growth
Many dendrites grow simultaneously into liquid from
single grain
Same crystal orientation part of same grain
Weld structure appears coarse at low magnification
Fine dendritic structure at high magnification
Spacing between dendritic arms measure of alloy
segregation determined by rate of solidification

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Typical Columnar Structure

Ingot

Weld Metal

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Weld Metal
Gas-Metal reactions:

Depends on presence of O2, H2 or N2

O2 Comes from Shielding gas / Air
N2 Comes from Air
H2 Comes from Flux / coating / atmosphere / base metal

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Weld Metal
Gas-Metal reactions:
Ferrous Material:
Diatomic gas molecule breaks down at high temp & dissolve in steel
O2 Reacts with de-oxidizers like Mn, Si, Al - Oxides taken out in
form of slag
Porosity (CO/CO2) formation in case of insufficient de-oxidizer
N2 content much lesser compared to O2 content raises transition
temp / introduces embrittlement & strain-ageing
H2 always present in arc atmosphere
Atomic hydrogen creates porosity
Dissolved hydrogen creates cracking tendency

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Weld Metal
Gas-Metal reactions:
Non-Ferrous Material:
Solution, reaction & evolution of hydrogen or water vapor
Al & Mg alloys: H2 introduces in weld metal from work piece /
filler wire (present as hydrated oxides on the surface)
Cu & Ni Alloys: H2 reacts with O2 and form porosity add
deoxidizer in filler wire
Ti & Alloys: Embrittlement with N2, H2 & O2
: Weldment require inert gas protection till 260C
: Surface appearance indicates effectiveness of shielding
: H2 major cause of porosity

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Weld Metal
Liquid-Metal reactions:
Non-metallic liquid phases (e.g. Al-Mn-Fe silicates)
produced Slag
Hot cracking:
Inter-dendritic liquid - substantially lower freezing temp than
previously solidified base metal
Presence of S, P, Pb
Mn:S ratio of >=30 for C-Mn & LAS
Presence of Delta Ferrite in microstructure for Austenitic SS
P tends to segregate readily cause harmful banding

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Weld Metal
Solid State reactions:
Strengthening mechanisms
Solidification grain structure
Rapid freezing creating segregation / dendrites in each grain
Impeded plastic flow during Tensile test Higher YS / UTS ratio

Solid Solution Strengthening

Alloy additions
Substitutional / Interstitial

Precipitation hardening
Strengthening by ageing process after welding
Presence of over-aged weld metal
Not same level of strength as base metal

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Weld Metal
Solid State reactions:
Strengthening mechanisms
Transformation hardening
Formation of harder structure / Martensite
Formation of fine Ferrite Carbide aggregate

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Weld Metal
Solid State reactions:
Delayed / Cold Cracking

Solubility / Diffusivity decreases drastically during solidification

Atomic H try to escape settles in lattice imperfections
Molecular H2 formed -Tremendous internal pressure created
Hardened structure
Dissolved hydrogen in weld metal
Preheat to slower the cooling rate
Use of low hydrogen consumables

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Solubility of Hydrogen in Iron

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Diffusivity of Hydrogen in Iron

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Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Adjacent to the base material
Portion of base material
Not melted
Microstructure altered
Mechanical properties changed

C-Mn steel : Above ~700C

Heat treated steel: Above 315C
Heat treated Al alloy: Above 120C

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Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Strength & Toughness depends on Type of base metal,
welding process & welding parameters (Heat input)
Effect of welding parameters depends on types of
alloys:
1. Solid Solution Strengthened Alloys:
Hot rolled Low C steel, Al alloys, Cu alloys, Austenitic & Ferritic SS
Least HAZ problem largely unaffected by welding
Grain growth only few grains wide no major effect on mech prop.

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Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Effect of welding parameters depends on types of
alloys:
2. Strain Hardened Base Metal:
Recrystalize while heating above Recrystallization temp

Steel, Ti & other alloys show allotropic transformation

Two recrystallized zones Recrystallization of Cold worked Alpha
phase & Allotropic transformation to High temp phase
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Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)

Effect of welding parameters depends on types of
alloys:
3. Precipitation Hardened Alloys:
HAZ undergoes an Annealing cycle lowers strength
Relatively soft single phase solid solution with coarse grains near
fusion line can be hardened by post weld ageing treatment
Next to this region below Solution treatment temp overageing
post weld ageing do not have any effect

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Transformation Hardening Alloys

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Weld Metal vs. Base Metal

BASE METAL

WLED METAL
1. Columnar Grain
2. Segregation
3. Oxides - Sulphide
Inclusions
4. Solidified Structure

Polygonal Equiaxed

5. Limitations On Heat
Treatment
6. Entrapped Gases
7. Different
Hardenability
8. Different Thermal
Cycles
9. Weld Defects Higher
Chances

Proper Heat Treatment

Homogeneous
Steel Making Process Benefits
Rolled / Forged
Structure

No Entrapments
_________
Uniform Heat Treatment Cycles
__________

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RT-1000 : Retention Above 1000C

Consequences

Increase In Hardenability
Higher Dissolution Of Alloying Elements
Fusion Line Max Effect
Base Metal Chemistry
Very High Temperature
No Benefits Of Weld Chemistry Control
Fastest Cooling Rates
Grain Coarsening

WELD
B. M.

FUSION LINE

Effects

Hardness, Ductility & Toughness

Loss Of B.M. Heat Treatment In HAZ (QT, NR, Solution Anneal)
Lower Delta Ferrite Retention In Austenitic Stainless Steel
Coarse Grains - Lower Room Temperature Strength

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t8-5 & t100

t8-5

Time To Cool From 800 500c

Lower Value

Faster Cooling Rate

Harder Structures

Affecting Parameters

Base Metal Thickness / Joint Confg.

Heat Input
Preheat / Inter Pass

t100

Time To Cool To 100c

Longer Times

Increased Hydrogen Diffusion

Reduced Probability Of Cold Cracking

Affecting Parameters

B.M. Thickness / Joint

Heat Input
Preheat / Interpass
Post Heat

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Effect of Heat Input, Geometry & Preheat

on Cooling Rate

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Effect of Weld Size on Cooling Rate

Higher Travel Speed greater portion

of energy input utilized in forming
weld bead & less in heating adjacet
area higher cross sectional area of
weld metal / penetrtaion

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Preheat
Heating of weldment to a minimum predefined temp
before start of welding and maintaining the same
during welding
To reduce cooling rate of weldment softer structure
To avoid cracking
To reduce distortion
To remove Oil, Moisture etc

Increases with increasing thickness

Must be maintained at least 2 on either side of joint
Very critical for high strength / alloyed materials
Required for mainly Ferritic materials
Not required for Austenitic steel
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Typical Preheat Temperature

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Interpass Temperature
Maximum allowed temperature in the weldment in
between two subsequent passes
Reduces grain coarsening in Ferritic steel better impact
toughness
Reduces chance of IGC in Austenitic SS

Typical Interpass temp:

C-Mn Steel
Low Alloy steel
Austenitic SS

: 275C
: 250C
: 175-200C

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Effect of Preheat / Interpass Temp

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De Hydrogenation Treatment (DHT)

Holding at 300-400C for 2-6hrs after welding and
before cooling down to room temperature
Allows Hydrogen to diffuse out (higher diffusivity at
high temp) from weldment and reduce chance of
Hydrogen cracking
Required mainly for Low Alloy Steel (e.g. Cr-Mo, CrMo-V steel) and QT steel
For highly restrained joint, DHT is replaced by an
Intermediate Stress Relieving (ISR) at 620-660C/24hrs
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PWHT / Stress Relieving

Normally below Tempering temp
Both mechanical & metallurgical effect in Steel
To relieve locked-up stresses
Tempered structure in some of the Steels
Both beneficial & detrimental effects on properties

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PWHT / Stress Relieving

Larson Miller Parameter (LMP) =
T (20 + Log10 t), where T = Tempering Temp in K &
t = Tempering time in hrs

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References

Welding Handbook AWS Volume-1 (Pg: 90-92, 103-111)

Weldability of Steels R D Stout WRC (Pg. 48-52, 84-103,
105-108)

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Thank You

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