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FYP 1 Report
FYP 1 Report
BAND APPLICATIONS
ABSTRACT
1
This report presents the design of band notched antenna with Ultra Wideband applications. There are
numerous methods that available in designing and producing the Ultra Wideband antenna with a band notched
antenna. Certain applicable methods are presented in this paper. The method that I am using such as modified, L
slot patch antenna. This project will examine and summarize the method used in analyzing and designing the
Ultra Wideband Antenna. Several principles are used in order to explain the theoretical of Ultra Wideband,
Rectangular Patch Antenna and numerical method for analyzing the antenna. The term Ultra shows that the
bandwidth that we are targeting to achieve is not just wide, but it must be very - very wide suits to its name Ultra
Wideband antenna. For this project, I am targeting the bandwidth of 7.5 GHz which are from 3.1 to 10.6 GHz.
The substrate used in the design is FR4 with a dielectric constant 2.2 and the feeding achieved with a microstrip
line feed. The design and simulation had been conducted by using CST Microwave Studio Software. All the
result from the simulation had been recorded and shown in this report.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In The Name of Allah, the Most Gracious and the Most Merciful
All Praises be to ALLAH SWT Almighty who helped me to complete this
project successfully and gave me the strength and patience throughout this project. This
Final Year Project has given me a lot of experience in conducting an important project. I have learn many theory
of antenna and also the method of designing Band notched antenna for ultra-wide band applications by
microstrip patch antenna.
Firstly, i would like to express my gratitude to Allah S.W.T for his blessings and guidance throughout my
project. Secondly, I would like to generate my appreciation to my beloved supervisor, PROF. DR. MD
RAFIQUL ISLAM for the opportunities to work on this project. His support, advice and guidance are essential
for the completion of this project. Without his cooperation and supervision to provide the great ideas, which
really helpful, it would be impossible for me to finish this project successfully.
I also would like to express my gratitude to Bro. Arnold Chua, by giving me the workshop towards the
usage of CST Microwave Studio software, antenna system and design theories. His briefing, gives me a basic
understanding of CST software and also I have learned how make a modeling and the simulation of microstrip
patch antenna and it
provided me more confidence in using the software for simulation. I would also like to
thank to Bro Showqat who gives me an idea and also provide me a lot of information towards the design of
microstrip patch antenna by using the Computer Simulation Technology (CST).
Finally yet important, I want to thanks to all people that support me to make this project possible
especially my lovely parent, staff at Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and numerous friends
who always offered their support, encouragement and their great idea. Without their contribution and support,
this report would not be as it is today. Thank in advance your kindness.
LIST OF TABLES:
Table 1:UWB regulations in in Europe............................................................................................. 21
Table 2: Dimensions of basic rectangle patch antenna...................................................................61
Table 3:Dimension of Basic Patch Antenna..................................................................................... 64
TABLE CONTENTS:
ABSTRACT...............................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.... ii
LIST OF TABLES................. ............................. iii
LIST OF FIGURES..................................................... vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS.....................................................
CHAPTER 1....................................................................................7
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................. 7
1.1
Background....................................................................................................................... 7
1.2
Problem statement......................................................................................................... 11
1.3
Objectives....................................................................................................................... 11
1.4
Methodology................................................................................................................... 11
1.5
Report Organization........................................................................................................ 13
CHAPTER 2..................................................................................14
LITERATURE REVIEW.................................................................................................................... 14
2.3
2.4
UWB applications............................................................................................................ 24
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
Previous Work................................................................................................................. 37
Chapter 3....................................................................................45
Design of Ultra Wide Band Antenna with band notched.................45
3.1
Introduction........................................................................................................................ 45
3.2
Antenna parameters.......................................................................................................... 46
4
3.2.1
Return loss................................................................................................................... 46
3.2.2
3.3
Parameters Considerations............................................................................................. 47
3.2.1
Substrate selection...................................................................................................... 47
3.2.2
Radiation Efficiency..................................................................................................... 49
3.2.4
CHAPTER 4..................................................................................52
4.
CHAPTER 5..................................................................................65
CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................... 65
REFERENCES:-.............................................................................66
APPENDIX A.................................................................................68
LIST OF FIGURES:
Figure 1: Ultra wideband communications spread transmitting energy across a wide spectrum of
frequency........................................................................................................................................ 18
Figure 2: UWB spectral mask as defined by FCC............................................................................21
Figure 3:The European spectrum mask.......................................................................................... 22
Figure 4: Comparison of the FCC indoor UWB mask with the European one...................................23
Figure 5: Sample of U Slot technique............................................................................................. 26
Figure 6: Geometry and configuration of the proposed antenna: (a) top layer view, (b) fabricated
antenna top layer view, (c) bottom layer view, (d) fabricated antenna bottom layer view.............27
Figure 7: Geometry of the rectangular patch antenna....................................................................28
Figure 8: (a) and (b) show the geometry of Microstrip (patch)......................................................29
Figure 9: A Typical Microstrip Antenna............................................................................................ 30
Figure 10: micro strip patch antenna gain...................................................................................... 32
Figure 11:Microstrip Patch Antenna................................................................................................ 33
Figure 12:(a) Top (b) side views of a Rectangular Microstrip Antenna (c) coordinate system.........35
Figure 13: Coaxial Feed.................................................................................................................. 36
Figure 14: Microstrip Feed............................................................................................................... 37
Figure 15:Geometry of the rectangular patch antenna...................................................................38
Figure 16: Simulated return loss in dB showing that the best performance is obtained for the
feedline position L=3.325 from the substrate edge.......................................................................38
Figure 17:Simulated return loss in dB showing that the best performance is obtained for the
partial ground width G=7.4mm and G=7.6 mm.........................................................................39
Figure 18: Simulated return loss in dB for different feedline width for G=7.6mm and L=3.325mm.
....................................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 19: Simulated return loss and VSWR for the antenna with G=7.6mm, L=3.325mm and
W=1.8mm...................................................................................................................................... 40
Figure 20: Simulated return loss of the antenna with slot for varying length ll by maintaining
length lw= 11.4mm...................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 21: Simulated return loss of the antenna with slot for varying length lw by maintaining
length ll= 6.6mm.......................................................................................................................... 42
Figure 22: Simulated return loss of the antenna with slot for varying slot width by maintaining
length ll= 6.6mm and lw=11.4mm.......................................................................................... 42
Figure 23: Simulated return loss of the antenna with and without slot after optimization..............43
Figure 24: Simulated VSWR for antenna with and without slot.......................................................43
Figure 25: Output of the MATLAB code shows dimension of microstrip parameter.........................53
Figure 26:Dimension of the basic Rectangular Patch Antenna........................................................61
Figure 27: Radiation pattern of simple Rectangular Patch Antenna for Frequency 7 GHz...............62
Figure 28: 3-D Radiation pattern of the simulated result................................................................64
Figure 29: electric field (E) of the patch antenna............................................................................64
Figure 30: Magnetic Field of The rectangular microstrip patch antenna.........................................65
6
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
requirement. Among the many possible alternatives, planar monopole antennas are good
candidates owing to their simple structures, low cost and comfort of construction while
featuring wide electric resistance bandwidth, pure vertical polarization and horizontal
Omani-directional radiation pattern.
The increasing demand for wireless communication services stimulates the need for
antennas capable of
operating at a wide
frequency
Communications Commission (FCC) released the commercial use of UWB radio system
many researchers have been paying much attention to high-speed indoor datacommunication application. Antennas are the particularly challenging aspect of UWB
technology. To satisfy such a requirement, various wideband antennas have been studied.
Among the many possible alternatives, planar monopole antennas are good candidates
owing to their simple structures, low cost and ease of construction while featuring wide
impedance bandwidth, pure vertical polarization and horizontal omni- directional radiation
pattern. However, the UWB communication systems use the 3.110.6 GHz frequency
band, which includes the IEEE802.11a frequency band (5.155.825 GHz). Therefore, UWB
communication systems may generate interference with IEEE802.11a. The UWB antenna
must have the band-notched characteristic at 5.15.825 GHz in orde r to prev ent the
s ignal of the IEEE802.11a frequency band. Recently, various band notched UWB
antennas have been developed for UWB communications. Such as the circular disc
monopole antenna inserted by an arched slot, the square metal- plate
monopole
UWB systems; narrow band interference mitigation must be considered in UWB systems
design. Antennas with band notched functions are widely used to overcome the narrowband interference problem. The most popular strategy to provide this feature is etching a
slot on the patch or ground plane or attaching a parasitic strip to the patch or ground
plane .Complementary split ring resonator (CSRR) is also used to generate band-notched
function effectively Multiple notched bands can be acquired by using band notched filter
based on stepped impedance resonator (SIR) There are even configurable UWB antennas
with band notches which can be actively switched on or off by using a MEMS or a PIN
diode, or tuned by means of a varactor Furthermore, both switchable and tunable
characteristics can be achieved in the same UWB antenna by using a PIN and a varactor
together However, most of these antennas have only one notch band around WLAN band.
Moreover, some antennas occupy the entire 5-6 GHz frequency band which is much wider
than needed (200MHz for the lower WLAN band, 100MHz for the upper WLAN band).
Therefore, the useful spectrums are wasted and a large waveform distortion may be
induced. Other antennas reject only one of the lower and upper WLAN bands. [3]
UWB technology with an extremely wide frequency range has been proposed for
imaging radar, communications, and localized applications. Since the release by the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) of a bandwidth of 7.5GHz (from 3.1GHz to
10.6GHz) for ultra wideband (UWB) wireless communications [4], UWB is rapidly
advancing as a high data rate wireless communication technology. A suitable UWB
antenna should be capable of operating over an ultra wide bandwidth as allocated by the
FCC. At the same time, satisfactory radiation properties over the entire frequency range
are also necessary. Since then, the design of broadband antennas has become an
attractive and challenging area in the research of the system design [4]. Antenna
9
designers and engineers have solved the UWB antenna problem in many ways, yielding
compact antennas well suited for a variety of applications. They were plenty type of
antenna that can be used in achieving the UWB, however in this project we are more
focusing in broad banding the antenna using microstrip patch antenna. The design of an
efficient wide band small size antenna, for recent wireless applications, is a major
challenge.
Microstrip patch antennas have found extensive application in wireless
communication system owing to their advantages such as low-profile, conformability, lowcost fabrication and ease of integration with feed networks [5]. However, conventional
microstrip patch antenna suffers from very narrow bandwidth, typically about 5%
bandwidth with respect to the center frequency. This poses a design challenge for the
microstrip antenna designer to meet the broadband techniques [6].
Printed microstrip slot antennas are widely used in a variety of communication
systems because they can provide many advantages, such as low profile, light weight,
easy integration with monolithic microwave integrated circuits, low cost, easy fabrication,
and stable radiation patterns [7].
Small bandwidth is the most serious disadvantage of printed microstrip antennas.
In order to enhance the bandwidth of a patch antenna, several approaches have been
proposed, such as using an impedance matching network , thick substrates with low
dielectrics constant and multiple resonators, parasitic patches stacked on the top of the
main patch or close to the main patch in the same plane, reactive loading using a Ushaped slot, lossy materials, a capacitive probe-fed structure, L-probe feeding , a
combined use of both U-slot loaded patch and L-probe feeding , and a three-dimensional
transition microstrip feed line. In most cases, a thick foam substrate is required. A few
10
results for a rectangular patch antenna with an H-shaped slot in the ground plane are
given in. Antennas with various shapes of microstrip feed line and rectangular wide slot
have been introduced for large impedance bandwidths in their impedance bandwidths
have been broadened rapidly from 58% to over than 100% [7].
In addition, applications of the printed microstrip antennas in present day
communication systems usually require smaller antenna size in order to meet the
miniaturization requirements of radio-frequency (RF) units. Many efforts have also been
made for this purpose, for example, adopting short-circuit pin, high dielectric constant
substrate, cover layers, and slots loaded on the patch [7].
With the development of communication and integration circuit technologies, size
reduction and bandwidth enhancement are becoming important design considerations for
practical applications of microstrip antennas. For example, handset internal antennas and
RF front-end antennas integration and package at microwave and millimeter-wave bands .
Little research has been done to enhance the operation bandwidth and reduce the
antenna size with a thin substrate less than 1% of the working wavelength [7].
The objective of this project is to develop a microstrip patch antennas for UWB with
band rejection capability. In order to design band-notched antenna with UWB, there are
several parameter need to be taken for consideration. The parameters are such as
dielectric constant r, length, L and width, W of the patch antenna, the ground size,
feeding technique and so on. Therefore, a proper technique is required for designing a
band-notched antenna that can produce ultra wideband. In this project, modifying the
shape and dimensions of conventional microstrip antennas will be studied, and I will
design a rectangular microstrip antenna for ultra wideband communication system by
tuning the shape and dimensions.
11
1.2
Problem statement
In todays world, we are facing many problems or challenges related to wireless technology. These problems
included lack of Ultra Wideband (UWB) antenna. Basically, this problem affects all wireless communication
technologies. Furthermore, I will focus to design a band-notched antenna with Ultra Wideband Application.
The rapid development of wireless communication urges the need of ultra wide band (UWB) antennas.
Wireless personal area network (WPAN) is one of the most popular applications of modern wireless technology.
UWB technology is developed to provide the requirements of the WPAN network using 3.110.6 GHz frequency
band. On the other hand, in practical applications, UWB antennas must use notch (filter) to reject any
interference with existing wireless networking technologies such as the sub-band 5.15.8 GHz. The objective of
this project is to develop planar antennas for UWB with band rejection capability.
1.3
Objectives
Software (CST).
3. To analyze performance of the designed antennas and fabricate the structure of the
antenna.
1.4
Methodology
The study of microstrip patch antenna provides some calculations of parameters consideration of antenna design.
This report illustrates us the design of band-notched antenna for ultra wide band applications by performing the
following steps:A. The first part of the project is to study the theoretical pattern effect of microstrip patch antenna by:
12
C. The next part which is the simulation part was performed by using computer simulation technology
Microwave Studio (CSTMWS) software. CST Microwave Studio (CSTMWS) allows users to
implement 1D, 2&D and 3&D pattern analysis, and evaluate the antenna performance through various
data collection such as the return loss (S 11), 3D pattern (Gain) and etc. The antenna design can be
optimized by using optimization tools included in CST Microwave Studio (CSTMWS).The simulations
were done using the following sequence:
The lower frequency band and the upper frequency band is between 3.1GHz to 10.6 GHz.
The work starts with designing a rectangular patch antenna which resonates at 6.85 GHz. The
simulated resonant frequency may vary from the theoretical calculation approximation.
The microstrip patch design has to be optimized to the desired resonant frequency by utilizing
optimization features available in the CSTMWS software such as substrate, strip, loft, and start
simulation.
The next phase is to observe the effect of the truncation of the ground to bandwidth by changing the
dimension of the ground.
Various data collected from the simulation results such as return loss, gain and patterns are analyzed
to find out the optimize design by comparing the theoretic
results.
D. Finally, the simulation result will be compared with the fabricated result. The fabrication result and the
simulation result will be analyzed.
13
1.5
Report Organization
In this project is organized in to five chapters. The chapters are arranged as follows:Chapter 1:
Basically is an introduction on this final year project, ultra wideband antenna, band
notched antenna, design methodology and the project objectives.
Chapter 2:
will covers the literature survey done on different kinds of ultra-wideband antennas,
Band notched antennas available, different type of Band-notched antenna and
highlights its benefits, applications, standards, regulations, along with the literature
about the micro strip patch antenna.
Chapter 3:
I will discuss the design consideration of microstrip patch antennas, patch antenna,
single patch. Factors affecting microstrip design such as microstrip, dielectric,
conductor and radiation losses were
14
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
To start with, microstrip patch antennas were first proposed in the early 1970s and
in the meantime a plethora of activity in this area of antenna engineering has occurred,
possibly more than in any other field of antenna research and development. Micro strip
antennas are planar resonant cavities that leak from their edges and radiate. We can
apply printed circuit techniques to etch the antennas on soft substrates to produce low
cost and to etch the transmitting aerials on soft substrates to produce low cost we can
utilize published circuit techniques. The antennas fabricated on compliant substrates defy
tremendous daze and the transmitting antennas fabricated on compliant substrates
withstand tremendous environment. Manufacturers for mobile communication base
stations often fabricate these antennas directly in sheet metal and mount them on
dielectric posts or foam in a variety of ways to eliminate the cost of substrates and
etching. This also eliminates the problem of radiation from surface waves excited in a
thick dielectric substrate used to increase bandwidth. [8].
In high performance aircraft, spacecraft, and missile applications, where size, weight and cost, performance,
ease of installation and aerodynamic profile are constraints, low profile antennas may be required. In addition,
presently there are many other government and commercial applications, such as mobile radio and wireless
communications that have similar specifications. To meet with such requirements, microstrip antenna can be
used. Despite of their convenient in many aspects, they also have major operational disadvantages. Microstrip
antenna major operational disadvantages are low efficiency, low power, poor polarization purity, spurious feed
radiation and very narrow frequency bandwidth, which is typically only a fraction of a percent or at most a few
15
percent [9]. Maybe in some application, such as in government security system, narrowband width is required.
Yet, with the rapid growth of wireless communication, broadband or ultra wide band microstrip antennas are in
strong demand to cover various applications with fewer antennas.
Ultra wide band is a radio technology for transmitting large amount of data over a wide frequency band
with very low power for a short distance. The system covers the frequency range from 3.1GHz to 10.6 GHz,
which based on narrow pulse to transmit data of tremendously low power and looks like random noise to mist
conventional radio system. In last few years, the development and applications ultra wideband has influences a
lot in the communication technology; hence the interest has growth exponentially. In this chapter I will brief
about the ultra-wideband antenna, Band-notched antenna and also different types of band-notched antenna with a
different shape. [10].
fabrication cost.
They are easier to integrate with other MICs on the same substrate.
They allow both linear polarization and circular polarization.
They can be made compact for use in personal mobile communication.
They allow for dual-band and triple frequency operations.
UWB in an unusual type of radio technology, from these days the world of Ultra wide
band (UWB) has been changed intensely. Ultra Wide Band is used for radar remote
sensing, communications and some part of military applications in the past two decades
until now. From the beginning of February 2002, a substantial change occurred when the
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) released a declaration that Ultra Wide Band
(UWB) can be used for data communications as well us for safety applications and radar
(FCC, 2004).Meanwhile, fast advance in UWB communication technology has occurred
and hence it offers a promising high data rate wireless communication technology. [11]
Ultra-Wideband (UWB) is a communications technology that employs a wide bandwidth
(typically defined as greater than 20% of the center frequency or 500MHz). UWB is
usually used in short-range wireless applications but can be sent over wires. UltraWideband advantages are that it can carry high data rates with low power and little
interference. UWB is the modern version of older "impulse" technologies which are
generated by very short pulses (impulse waveforms). They were called "carrier-free" or
"baseband" because the energy is so widespread in the frequency domain that there is no
discernible
carrier
frequency.
Ultra-wideband (also
known
as UWB, ultra-wide
band and ultra band) is a radio technology pioneered by Robert A. Scholtz and others
which may be used at a very low energy level for short-range, high-bandwidth
communications using a large portion of the radio spectrum.
Most technologies are born and they are either surviving or they die. UWB or ultra wideband seems to do it
differently by constantly reincarnating itself and never quite at getting there. Ultra wideband technology is not a
17
new concept although this technology is the revolutionaries of the wireless communication system. The early
ultra wideband radio developed by Guglielmo Marconi in the late of 1800s was the pulse-based Spark Gap
radio. Transmitting the Morse code through the air waves was employed by this so called pulse-based Spark Gap
radio. By 1924, Spark Gap Radios were forbidden in most of the applications due to strong emissions and
interference to continuous wave radio system which were developed by early 1900s. [12]
The majority of the initial concepts and patents for ultra wideband (UWB) technology are originated in
the late 1960's at the Sperry Research Center (Sudbury, MA) and also at the part of the Sperry Rand Corporation,
under the direction of Dr. Gerald F. Ross. During that time, this technology was referred by them as baseband,
carrier-free or impulse. The term "ultra wideband" was not applied to this technology until approximately 1989.
By this time, UWB theory, techniques and many hardware approaches had experienced well over 30 years of
extensive development. [12]
I will discuss in detail for the advantages of UWB, UWB regulations, UWB applications in a several areas.
2.3.2
There are many inspiring benefits of UWB that make this technology as a good candidate for wireless broad
band compared to the other technologies. The advantages of UWB are explained in following analysis.
The reasons of why UWB Antenna becomes a good solution to wireless broadband rather than other
technologies are because of it advantageous.
18
In the beginning, Ultra wideband can achieve a huge capacity as high as hundreds of Mbps or several Gbps
with distance 1 to 10 meters. Such high capacity is due to the characteristics of UWB itself in which it has very
wide operating frequency bandwidth. This makes UWB systems perfect candidates for short range, high data rate
wireless. Applications such as, Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs). Furthermore, based on ShannoHartley theorem, channel capacity is in proportional to bandwidth. Consequently, having several gigahertz of
bandwidth available for UWB signals, a data rate of gigabits per second (Gbps) can be stated. [11]
Moreover, UWB operates at very low power density transmission level. The effect upon any frequency is
below the acceptable divide across huge frequency spectrum (cravotta, 2002, Nekoogar, 2005). In short, UWB
provides secure and highly reliable communications solutions. The reason is that UWB has very low energy
density and its signal is noise like which makes unintended detection quite difficult. Furthermore, the noiselike signal means that the signal has a particular shape compared to the real noise signal in which it has no
shape. Because of, it is almost impossible to the red noise to obliterate the pulse because interference would have
to spread uniformly across the entire spectrum to obscure the pulse. [11]
19
To sum up, UWB features low cost and low complexity (Aiello, 2006) this is the reason of the fact which
UWB is based on impulse radio and a rises from essentially the baseband nature of the signal transmission. On
the top of that, UWV does not require components such as mixers, filters, amplifiers, and local oscillators
because it does not have modulation and demodulation of complex carrier waveforms. [11]
To summarize the above paragraphs, UWB Advantages are as follows:
2.3.3
UWB regulations
The UWB systems operate in a very large bandwidth necessitating it to share the
spectrum with other users as well as with the existing communication systems and
consequently, interferences may occur. Regulation of UWB radio spectrum is therefore
necessary to establish a framework where UWB systems can peacefully co-exist with
legacy systems. Radio regulations are rules which address the coordination of spectrum
access amongst multiple wireless services and applications. Existing regulations which
thus far focus only on narrowband radios will therefore have to accommodate the UWB
paradigm. In this Chapter we focus on the regulation of the UWB technology and discuss
how this new technology in wireless communications shapes the way of spectrum sharing
and consequently impacts the decisions of radio regulation bodies. The objective of this
chapter is to give the reader a flavor of the activities of various regulatory bodies to
facilitate and streamline UWB spectral access. It should be mentioned at this point that
this chapter is by no means a comprehensive and updated document on the UWB
20
regulation efforts, but rather an attempt to indicate the importance of the regulation and
standardization of this technology. [13]
The FCC
Part 15 Rules permit the operation of classes of radio frequency devices without the need
for a license or frequency coordination. It also attempts to ensure a low probability of
unlicensed devices causing harmful interference to other users of the radio spectrum. On
14 February 2002 the US FCC issued a First Report and Order for UWB technology and
authorized
the
commercial
deployment
of
UWB
technology,
though
subject
to
technological and operational constraints. This followed extensive consultations that led
the FCC to conclude: UWB devices can be permitted to operate on an unlicensed basis
without causing harmful interference provided appropriate technical standards and
operational restrictions are applied to their use. [13]
The UWB radiation mask defined by FCC has been depicted in Fig. 2, and the
Effective Isotropic Radiation Power (EIRP) figures are re-produced in. In the figure and
table the limits are for indoor and outdoor handheld systems.
The FCC continuously evaluates the UWB technology through tests and
measurements and makes necessary amendments. Therefore, the FCC regulations on
21
UWB are expected to evolve with time in the course of developments of future
technology.
2.3.3.2
Standard
Institute)
and
CEPT
(European
Conference
of
Postal
and
Subsequently
in
2004
and
following
the
completion
of
spectrum
compatibility studies by CEPT, ETSI established a task group ERM TG31A to develop a set
22
of harmonized standards for short range devices using UWB technology. The new
regulations lay down that UWB equipment should be used predominantly indoors and
thus avoid interference. Further, it also imposes a few additional restrictions on device
capabilities. For example, it rules that UWB equipments must cease transmission within
10 s unless they receive acknowledgement from an associated transceiver that its
transmission is being received. Further, the outdoor use of UWB technology should not
include a fixed outdoor location or connected to a fixed outdoor antenna or in vehicles.
The technical requirement for the devices using UWB technology in bands below 10.6 GHz
permitted under ECC decision is depicted in Fig. 10.2 and Table 10.2. The limits are for
indoor UWB communication. Even while recognizing issues of scalability and conformance
to global standards for UWB applications, the regulatory bodies in Europe are more
cautious than that of the USA. In order to compare the ECC and FCC limits, both masks
are illustrated in Fig. 10.3. From this figure it is seen that the European approach to UWB
emission is more restrictive than FCC, and only in the band 68.5 GHz does it have the
same emission level as the FCC.
23
Figure 4: Comparison of the FCC indoor UWB mask with the European one
The Japanese UWB radiation mask for indoor devices has two bands; from 3.4 to 4.8
GHz and from 7.25 to 10.25 GHz. For the 3.44.8 GHz band, it is required to use a
technology to reduce interference with other radio services. This interference mitigation is
called Detect And Avoidance (DAA) to ascertain the coexistence with incumbent systems
and new services such as 4G systems. However, temporary measures are taken until end
of 2008 to permit the use of 4.24.8 GHz band without an interference reduction
technology. It should be noted that no DAA is required for the band 7.2510.25 GHz. [13]
frequencies and therefore the UWB regulation standards are formulated based on local
needs. Therefore, devising a generic regulatory standard that caters to all markets across
the globe will be one of the goals of the future.[13]
Military applications for un seen objects behind the world and commercials
Wireless USB
Toys and Games
Consumer Electronics
Handset
An alternate way to reduce the resonance frequency of the microstrip patch antenna is to
increase the path length of the surface current by cutting slots in the radiating patch.
There are plenty of types that can be used such as:
U Shaped Patch
W Shaped Patch
Turning fork type UWB patch
All these type of slot are widely used in order to achieve the UWB characteristics. Here, all
these type will be discussed more briefly to have more understanding of these
techniques.
reactance in the input impedance of the patch, because the substrate is electrically thick and even if the feed
point is shifted to the edge of the patch, it is not possible to achieve impedance matching. So, a U-slot adds a
capacitive component in the input impedance that compensates for the inductive component of the coaxial
probe.
2.5.1.2 W slot
Figure 1 shows the geometry of the proposed antenna, with a W-shaped slot on the
radiating patch. The patch has the form of a rectangle with a three steps at its lower end
to improve the matching of the antenna over the operating bandwidth. A partial ground
plane with a slit is used on the other side of the substrate. The total size of the antenna is
30mm 35mm with metal thickness of 0.07 mm. The used substrate is FR4 which has
dielectric constant, r = 4.4 and its thickness, h = 1.57 mm. [14]
27
Figure 6: Geometry and configuration of the proposed antenna: (a) top layer view, (b)
fabricated antenna top layer view, (c) bottom layer view, (d) fabricated antenna bottom
layer view.
2.5.1.3
The structure of the antenna is shown in Fig. 1. A rectangular patch of dimension 12.45
mm16mm is on one side of an FR4 substrate of thickness 0.8 mm and relative
permittivity 4.4 with the partial ground plane located on the other side. The dimension for
the substrate is 32 mm28mm.The antenna plate is fed by a microstrip of 50 feedline of
width W and placed L distance from one edge of the substrate. The width of the partial
ground is G. The parameters W, L and G are optimized to operate the antenna within
28
UWB range. The cut part is shown within the rectangular patch. The width of the cut part
is 8mm and the length of the cut part is Lc, when Lc=14 mm, the rectangular patch
becomes tuning fork type patch. [15 ]
29
(a)
(b)
Figure 8: (a) and (b) show the geometry of Microstrip (patch)
As shown in figure 8, a micorstrip antenna in its simplest configuration consists of a radiating patch on
one side of a dielectric material (r < 10), which has a ground plane on the other side. The patch conductors,
normally of copper or gold, can assume virtually any shape, but regular shapes are generally used to simplify
30
analysis and performance prediction. Ideally, the dielectric substrate should be low ( r < 2.5), to enhance the
fringe field that account for radiation [9]. However, other performance requirements may need to use dielectric
constant whose dielectric constant greater than the above mentioned value.
31
2.6.1
Characteristics and specifications of Microstrip
Patch Antenna
A microstrip or patch antenna is a low profile antenna that has a number of advantages over another. This
topic will introduce some of the basic concepts that we have to know about the microstrip patch antenna.
However, the main focus will be on explaining the characteristics and specifications of microstrip patch antenna
in order for us to be familiarize with this antenna that we are going to design. Firstly, we are going to discuss on
the fundamental specifications of microstrip patch antenna.
2.6.2
Radiation Pattern
The patchs radiation at the fringing fields will results in a certain far field radiation pattern. This far field
radiation pattern shows that the antenna radiates more power in a certain direction than another direction. So, this
antenna is said to have a certain directivity which commonly expressed in dB. The rectangular patch that excited
in its fundamental mode has maximum directivity in the direction perpendicular with the patch (broadside). The
directivity decreases as it moving away from broadside towards the lower elevations. 3 dB beam width or
angular width is twice the angle respect to the angle of the maximum directivity. Hence, this directivity has rolled
off 3 dB with respect to the maximum directivity. [17]
Antenna Gain
Antenna gain is the antenna directivity times a factor representing the radiation efficiency. Efficiency also is
defined as the ratio of radiated power to the input power. Input Power transformed into radiated power and
surface wave power while a small portion is dissipated due to conductor and dielectric losses of the materials
used. Furthermore, antenna gain also can be specified using the total efficiency instead of the radiation efficiency
32
only. So, total efficiency is a combination of the radiation efficiency with efficiency linked to the impedance
matching of the antenna. [18]
33
2.6.3
2.6.4
The advantages of microstrip antenna make them useful and suitable for numerous applications.
Communications antennas on missiles need to be thin and conformal are often utilizes microstrip antenna.
Aircraft related applications include antennas for telephone and satellite communications. [20] Microstrip arrays
34
antenna have been used for satellite imaging system. Microstrip antennas also have been used on communication
links between the ship and satellites.
The size of a microstrip antenna is inversely proportional to its frequency. At frequencies lower than
microwave, microstrip patches don't make sense because of the sizes required. At Xband a microstrip antenna is
on the order of 1 centimeter long (easy to realize on soft-board technology). If you wanted to make a microstrip
antenna to receive FM radio at 100 MHz it would be on the order of 1 meter long which is a very large circuit for
any type of substrate. For AM radio at 1000 KHz, the microstrip patch would be the size of a football field,
utterly impractical. [21]
Therefore for many applications, the advantage of microstrip antennas far outweighs their limitations.
Some notable application for which microstrip antenna have been used and developed include: [22]
2.6.5
One of the simplest yet widely used microstrip antennas configurations is rectangular microstrip antenna.
Figure 2.5 shows the top and side views of the rectangular microstrip antenna also with the coordinate system.
Rectangular patch antenna defines by its length, L and also its width, W. The simple microstrip antenna will have
small width and wavelength. [22] Rectangular patch antenna width is comparable to the wavelength to enhance
the radiation from the edges. Since the substrate thickness is much smaller than the wavelength, rectangular
patch antenna is considered to be a 2-D planar configuration for the sake of analysis.
35
Figure 12:(a) Top (b) side views of a Rectangular Microstrip Antenna (c) coordinate
system.
2.6.6
Feeding Techniques
The microstrip antenna can be excited directly either by a coaxial probe or by a microstrip line. It can also
be indirectly excited using electromagnetic coupling or aperture coupling and a coplanar waveguide feed, in
which cases there is no direct metallic contact between the feed line and the patch. [9] Feeding technique
influences the input impedance and characteristics of the antenna, and is an important design parameter.
However, the feeding techniques can be divided into two main types contacting and non-contacting.
Where the coaxial probe and microstrip line are contacting and aperture coupling and proximity coupling are
non-contacting.
The coaxial or probe feed arrangement is shown in Figure 2.6. The center conductor of the coaxial
connector is soldered to the patch. The main advantage of this feed is that it can be placed at any desired location
inside the patch to match with its input impedance. The disadvantages are that the hole has to be drilled in the
substrate and that the connector protrudes outside the bottom ground plane, so that it is not completely planar.
Additionally, this feeding arrangement makes the configuration asymmetrical. [9]
2.6.6.2
Microstrip line feed is one of the easiest ways to fabricate. Conducting strip just required to be connected
to the patch and therefore also can be called extension of patch. The microstrip feed line is also a conducting
strip, usually of much smaller width compared to the patch. The microstrip-line feed is easy to fabricate, simple
to match by controlling the inset position and rather simple to model. However as the substrate thickness
increases, surface waves and spurious feed radiation increase, which for practical designs limit the bandwidth
(typically 25%) [9].
A patch excited by microstrip line feed is shown in Figure 2.7. This feed arrangement has the advantage
that it can be etched on the same substrate, so the total structure remains planar. The drawback is the radiation
from the feed line, which leads to an increase in the cross-polar level. Also, in the millimeter-wave range, the size
of the feed line is comparable to the patch size, leading to increased undesired radiation. Another drawback of
37
this method is as the substrate thickness increase, surface wave and spurious feed radiation increase which limit
the bandwidth.
The return loss of the UWB without slot antenna with the variation of L, the
feedline position from the edge of the substrate is shown in Fig. 2 by maintaining the
partial
ground width G=7.6mm and feedline width W=1.8mm. The ultra wide band
38
operation is possible for L=3.325mm which is not located at the centre, that is,
asymmetric feed line results ultra wideband operation. The figure also shows that the
return losses for the L=4.325mm and L=6.325mm are same, because the feedline
distance from both edges of the substrate is same. The similar behavior also observed for
the distances L=3.325mm and L=7.325mm.
Figure 16: Simulated return loss in dB showing that the best performance is obtained for
the feedline position L=3.325 from the substrate edge.
Figure 15, shows the UWB antenna without slot return losses for varying the
partial ground width G from 7.2mm to 8.2 by maintaining L=3.325mm and W=1.8mm.
39
figure 15 shows that the width of 8.2mm results band reject property. The lower cut-off
frequency is obtained by reducing the width of the partial ground. The lowest return loss
is obtained for the partial ground width G ranging from 7.4 to 7.8mm within wider
bandwidth. The width W of the microstrip feedline was varied from 1.2 to 2.2mm by
maintaining L=3.325mm and G=7.6mm and the simulated return losses are shown in Fig.
4. Figure 4 shows that the variation of feedline width does not changes the bandwidth of
the antenna appreciably.
Simulation has done by varying various sizes of partial ground width G, feedline width
W and feedline position from the edge of the substrate L. The optimum performance of
UWB antenna is obtained by selecting G=7.6 mm, L=3.325 mm and W=1.8 mm and the
return loss and VSWR of the antenna are shown in Fig. 5. The figure shows that this
antenna can be operated within the frequency range 3.66 GHz to 14.68 GHz and within
this frequency range the VSWR varies from 1.02 to 1.92.
Figure 17:Simulated return loss in dB showing that the best performance is obtained
for the partial ground width G=7.4mm and G=7.6 mm
40
Figure 18: Simulated return loss in dB for different feedline width for
G=7.6mm and L=3.325mm.
Figure 19: Simulated return loss and VSWR for the antenna with
G=7.6mm, L=3.325mm and W=1.8mm.
41
2.8.2
by considering
Fig.
6,
42
Figure 20: Simulated return loss of the antenna with slot for varying
length ll by maintaining length lw= 11.4mm
Figure 21: Simulated return loss of the antenna with slot for varying
length lw by maintaining length ll= 6.6mm.
43
Figure 22: Simulated return loss of the antenna with slot for varying
slot width by maintaining length ll= 6.6mm and lw=11.4mm.
Figure 23 shows the UWB antenna characteristics with 14.68 GHz
without introducing any slot. However, the band rejection properties
observed for the frequency range 5.17GHz to 5.98GHz and 11.06GHz
to 11.49GHz within the operating frequency from 3.34GHz to 13.65GHz
with introduction of L-shaped slot, which almost covers the bandwidth
of the FCC definition for UWB indoor communication systems.
44
Figure 23: Simulated return loss of the antenna with and without slot
after optimization.
Figure 24: Simulated VSWR for antenna with and without slot.
Figure 24 shows a comparison between the simulated voltage standing
wave ratio (VSWR) with and without the L-slot and the figure shows
that the VSWR is always less than 2 within the UWB region except for
the band rejection region.
..............................................................
(2.2)
where eff_slot is the effective dielectric constant of the narrow slot
structure
..............................................................................
. (2.3)
This slot corresponds to a nearly half-wavelength resonator at the
center frequency of the required stop-band. This resonator would
introduce high reflection at its resonance frequency which corresponds
to the operation of a band-rejection filtering effect. Thus, as a first
order of approximation, the required slot length to obtain the notch
frequency is given by:
.. (2.4)
46
It is found that the slot length has a greater impact on the bandrejection than the slot width. Therefore, the two parametersll and lw
are the most significant factors to designing an UWB antenna with
band notched property. [ 16]
47
Chapter 3
Design of Ultra Wide Band Antenna with band
notched
3.1
Introduction
Ultra-wideband (also
known
as UWB, ultra-wide
radio
spectrum. UWB
has
traditional
applications
in non-
48
3.2
Antenna parameters
3.2.1
Return loss
) is defined
as the wave ratio of the amplitude of the incident wave at the junction
of a transmission line and the antenna terminals.
ZinZo
(3.1)
Zin+ Zo
3.2.2
49
required to provide a return loss less than -10 dB over its frequency
band width.
The Frequency band width of an antenna can be expressed as either
absolute band width (ABW) or fractional bandwidth ( FBW), Which are
given by:
ABW =FH FL(3.3)
FBW =
FH FL
FH + FL
; at Fo=
(3.4)
Fo
2
Where FH and FL are the Upper edge frequency and Lower edge
frequency of the antenna band width respectively
3.3
Parameters Considerations
3.2.1
Substrate selection
The first and the most important consideration in designing the Rectangular
Microstrip Patch Antenna are making the best selection of the dielectric substrate and the
appropriate thickness. The substrate in the microstrip antenna is needed since it will
provide the mechanical support of the antenna metallization. To provide this support,
substrate needs to consist of dielectric material which may affect the electrical
performance of the antenna. Furthermore substrate must also satisfy the electrical and
mechanical requirement simultaneously.
The thicker the substrate, more radiating power it will have, conductor loss will
be reduced and it will improve the impedance bandwidth. However, the drawback of
50
thicker substrate will result on increasing weight, dielectric loss, surface wave loss and
the extraneous radiations from the probe.
A rectangular patch antenna will stop resonating for substrate thickness greater
than 0.110
constant r has similar importance to that of substrate thickness. A high loss tangent
increases dielectric loss and will also reduces antenna efficiency. [19]
The price of the mass produced microstrip antenna is directly proportional with of
the substrate and the connector cost. Epoxy / glass (FR4) is most popular and widely used
material for low frequency and digital circuit boards. FR4 are easy to get, low cost, and
the most important are its ease of fabrication. In our project, we also used this type
substrate.
3.2.2 Patch Width and Length
The patch width and length are the important things that have to be found since in
designing the antenna, this is the most important parameter. However, the patch width has
a minor effect on the resonant frequency and radiation pattern of the antenna. So a larger
patch width increases the power radiated and thus gives decreased resonant resistance,
increased bandwidth, and increased radiation efficiency.
A constraint against a larger patch width is the generation of grating lobes in
antenna arrays. The patch width should be selected to obtain good radiation efficiency if
real state requirements or grating lobe are not overriding factors. It has been suggested
that 1 < W/L < 2. [26]
51
Based on the simplified formulation that has been described, a design procedure is
outline which leads to practical designs of rectangular microstrip antennas. The procedure
assumes that the specified information includes the dielectric constant of the substrate,
(r), resonant frequency, (fr) and the height of the substrate h. The procedures include [6]:
Specify:
Determine:
W and L
Design Procedure:
For the design procedure, we will discuss it in the following subtopic.
3.2.2.1
For and efficient radiator, a practical width that leads to good radiation efficiencies is:
W=
1
2
Vo
2
=
2 fr oo r+1 2 fr r +1
(3.5)
3.2.2.2
L=
1
2 L
2 fr oo eff
... (3.6)
W
+0.364)
h
L=0.412 h
W
( reff +0.258 ) ( +0.8)
h
( reff +0.3 ) (
3.2.3
(3.7)
Radiation Efficiency
The radiation efficiency of the microstrip patch antenna is not only affected by
conductor and dielectric losses, but also by surface wave excitation since the dominant
TM 0 mode of the grounded substrate will be excited by the patch. As the substrate
thickness increase, the surface wave will also increase, thus limiting the efficiency.
Surface wave excitation is actually undesirable for other reasons as well, since surface
waves contribute to mutual coupling between elements in an array. [10] For a substrate
that have a moderate relative permittivity such as r = 2.2, the efficiency will be
maximum when the substrate thickness is approximately 0 = 0.02. The radiation
efficiency is defined by:
e r=
Psp=
P sp
Psp
=
PTotal Pc + Pd +P sw + P sp
.. (3.8)
Pd=
Psw=
53
3.2.4
After determining the patch dimension L and W for a given substrate, the next
task is to determine the feed point (x 0, y0) so as to obtain a good impedance match
between the generator impedance and input impedance of the patch element. However,
the feed point can be selected anywhere along the patch width but it better to choose y 0 =
W/2 if W > L. Moreover, we can get an expression for xf which is [19]:
xf =
Where
L
2 (L)
( L )=
. (3.9)
r + 1 r 1 W
+
( )
2
2
L
. (3.10)
For very thin substrate, typically the feed reactance is very small compared to the
resonant resistance. However for thick elements, the reactance may be significant and
needs to be taken into account during impedance matching also for determining the
resonant frequency of a loaded element. After concerning the impedance, the magnetic
wall will be taken into account by introducing multiple images with current flow in the
same direction as the actual feed. The largest reactance is when the feed is at or near a
corner while the smallest is when the feed is far removed from an edge or corner. A
formula that has been suggested to approximate the feed reactance is
x f
[( )
kh
kd
ln
+0.577
2
4
] ..
(3.11)
CHAPTER 4
4.
Technology Software and MATLAB Software. First of all, I used MATLAB software in
order to calculate the parameters such us, Width, Height, and Length and feed line.
Based on the design by the designer from entire nation, I can conclude that using this
three methods is most preferable method for m in term of ease of fabricate and most
importantly it will give me the desired output which is Ultra Wide Band frequency. The
methods are:
Partial grounding.
L slot
55
In order to determine the best design, there are several parameters that will be
taken into account such as radiation pattern, return loss S11, and bandwidth. The screen
shot of the simulation and results (return loss, S11) will be included in this chapter.
4.1 MATLAB Calculation
To start with the simulation, first of all we need to have the dimension of the
rectangular microstrip patch antenna. In order to calculate the dimension, we have to
setup the calculation in the MATLAB software. The MATLAB code are created base on
the equation of the patch that have been explained in chapter 3. By using MATLAB
software, we have got the dimension needed for our design and simulation. The
dimension needed are such as physical width of patch, W, effective length of patch, L eff,
and physical length of patch, L. The constant parameter that we need to have such value
that have been mention before are resonant frequency, f 0, dielectric constant of substrate
(r), height of the substrate (h) and the input impedance, Z0. Figure 4.1 below is the
56
screenshot of the MATLAB windows that shows all the dimension result.
57
4.2
Before achieving the objective of the project which is to get the UWB frequency,
firstly it is necessary for us to begin with the simple rectangular patch antenna. Later we
will start to analyze the effect of the ground dimension and the further studies of the
effect of the stairs and also slotted ground. Therefore, it is important for us to start the
simulation for the simple rectangular patch antenna and try to get the optimum
performance.
The construction and simulation of the antenna is done by following procedure.
Explanation of each steps are as follow:
Step 1: Template is selected.
58
59
60
61
Step 12: Simulating: S-parameters and the far field are calculated using the transient
solvers.
Table 4.1 summarizes the result of MATLAB calculation for Microstrip Antennas
dimension:
62
63
Parameters
Type of the antenna
Value
FR4.
Lower Frequency
Upper Frequency
Resonant Frequency
Dielectric constant
Bandwidth
W
3.1 GHz
10.6
6.85 GHz
2.2
7.5 GHz
32 mm
Description
Width
of
the
28.1 mm
0.8 mm
substrate
Length of the substrat
Thickness of the
16 mm
substrate
Physical width of the
PL
14.05 mm
patch
Physical length of the
T
Wf h
0.8 mm
1.8 mm
patch
Thickness of the patch
Width
of
the
Lf
8 mm
microstrip feed
Length of microstrip
Wsh
11.4 mm
feed
The width of the slot
Lsh
-0.5 mm
in horizontal
The length of the slot
0.07 mm
in horizontal
The thickness of the
0.5 mm
cutting plane
The width of the slot
-6.6 mm
in vertical
The length of the slot
L
t
PW
Wsv
Lsv
T
0.07 mm
in vertical
The thickness of the
slot
64
65
are using the fully ground structure and the patch in the standard dimension.
66
Value
67
Type of Antenna
FR4
Resonant Frequency
6.85 GHz
Dielectric Constant
2.2
Height of Substrate, h
0.8
32 mm
28.1 mm
16 mm
14.05 mm
0.5 mm
68
CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, theory behind ultra-wide band system as well as
the parameter consideration and the techniques apply to increase
bandwidth of the micro strip Patch antenna has been studied. The
physical parameters such as dimension and location of the substrates,
effect of dielectric constant, feed line, ground plane and patch of the
antenna were examined in this study. Antenna parameters also had
69
like
resonant
frequency,
input
electric
resistance,
bandwidth, come back loss and directivity. The design of the ultra-wideband
antenna in this project was done by three approaches in symmetrical design. The
approaches are included, partial ground, stairs and slotted ground.
The configuration has been analyzed by applying CST software.
The bandwidth achieved is 7.5 GHertz and the return loss is -45.963 dB
which is below than 10 dB that is acceptable. But, this is only my
preliminary consequence and I will do further optimization with other
different design in FYP 2.
71
Signals
and
Communication
Technology,
DOI
72
APPENDIX A
ATTECHMENT OF MATLAB CODE FOR PATCH ANTENNA
CALCULATION
function []=MICROSTP;
clear all;
close all;
warning off;
% Input Parameters (freq, epsr, height, Yo)
freq=[];
while isempty(freq),
freq=input('INPUT THE RESONANT FREQUENCY (in GHz) = ');
end;
er=[];
while isempty(er),
er=input('INPUT THE DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF THE SUBSTRATE = ');
end;
h=[];
while isempty(h),
h=input('INPUT THE HEIGHT OF THE SUBSTRATE (in m) = ');
end;
Zin=[];
while isempty(Zin),
Zin=input(['INPUT THE DESIRED INPUT IMPEDANCE Zin (in ohms) =
']);
end
% Compute W, ereff, Leff, L (in cm)
W=0.3/(2.0*freq)*sqrt(2.0/(er+1.0));
73
ereff=((er+1.0)/2.0)+((er-1)/(2.0*sqrt(1.0+12.0*h/W)));
dl=0.412*h*((ereff+0.3)*(W/h+0.264))/((ereff-0.258)*(W/h+0.8));
lambda_o=0.3/freq;
lambda=0.3/(freq*sqrt(ereff));
Leff=0.3/(2.0*freq*sqrt(ereff));
L=Leff-2.0*dl;
ko=2.0*pi/lambda_o;
Emax=sinc(h*ko/2.0/pi);
% Input Impedance at Y=0 and Y=Yo
[G1,G12]=sintegr(W,L,ko);
Rin0=(2.*(G1+G12))^-1;
Y=acos(sqrt(Zin/Rin0))*L/pi;
disp(strvcat('INPUT PARAMETERS','================'));
disp(sprintf('\nRESONANT FREQUENCY (in GHz) = %2.2f',freq));
disp(sprintf('DIELECTRIC CONSTANT OF THE SUBSTRATE = %2.2f',er));
disp(sprintf('HEIGHT OF THE SUBSTRATE (in cm) = %2.2f',h));
disp(sprintf('\nPHYSICAL WIDTH OF PATCH (in m) = %2.2f',W));
disp(sprintf('EFFECTIVE LENGH OF PATCH (in m) = %2.2f',Leff));
disp(sprintf('PHYSICAL LENGH OF PATCH (in m) = %2.2f',L));
fprintf('FOR DESIRED IMPENDANCE %2.2f ohms, THE FEED POINT POSITION Yo=
%2.2f m\n\n',Zin, Y);
function [G1,G12]=sintegr(W,L,ko)
th=0:1:180; t=th.*pi/180;
ARG=cos(t).*(ko*W/2);
res1=sum(sinc(ARG./pi).^2.*sin(t).^2.*sin(t).*((pi/180)*(ko*W/2)^2));
res12=sum(sinc(ARG./pi).^2.*sin(t).^2.*besselj(0,sin(t).*(ko*L)).*sin(t)
.*((pi/180)*(ko*W/2)^2));
G1=res1./(120*pi^2); G12=res12./(120*pi^2);
74
75