MPhys Long Report

Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy Using a High-Purirty

Germanium Detector
University of Sussex
Candidate Number: 107695
May 7th 2015

Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy Using a High-Purirty Germanium

Detector
Candidate no.: 107695
University of Sussex
High-Purity Germanium detectors are used for gamma
spectroscopy. Three reference radionuclides were used to perform an
energy
calibration.
The
radio-background
was
measured
these
in
conjunction were used to find a low radioactivity mystery source
radionuclide make up which was determined to be Radium-226
Abstract.

ii

Preface
The data collected for this long report was done by both me and my lab partner under the guidance of
Simon Peeters and Phil Meek

Contents
Abstract

Preface

ii

1 Introduction

2 Background

1-6

2.1 Gamma-ray Interactions

2.1.1 Photoelectric Effect

2
2

2.1.2 Compton Effect

2-3

2.1.3 Pair Production

2.2 Full Spectrum Effects

2.2.1 Secondary Electron Escape

2.2.2 Bremsstrahlung Escape

2.2.3 Characteristic X-Ray Escape

2.2.4 Secondary Radiations

2.2.5 Housing Effects

4-5

2.2.6 Summation peaks

2.2.7 Background Radiations

2.3 Semiconductors
2.3.1 HGPe Geometry
3 Experimental Apparatus
4 Results

5
5-6
6
6
6-7

4.1 Data Acquisition

4.2 Energy Calibration

4.3 Background

4.4 Mystery Source

5 Discussion

7-8

6 Conclusion

References

Appendix A

10

1 Introduction
Gamma-ray spectroscopy enables the ability to
determine the energy and photon count-rate of
gamma radiation. This is useful as different
radionuclides emit gamma photons at discrete
energies, thereby allowing the ability to infer the
sources of the gamma radiation [1]. In more detail if
a radionuclidal make-up of a source needed to be
investigated a calibrated gamma spectrometer can
create a spectrum of energies and the count-rate of
each of these energies; eliminating any background
noise then referring back to theoretical or measured
values of radionuclides spectra will identify the
source.
Natural radioactivity was discovered
accidentally by Becquerel in 1896 including: alpha,
beta and gamma radiation. In 1900 Villard noticed
that one of the types of natural radioactivity which
path did not bend under the influence of magnetic
fields and was far more penetrative then the other
types of natural radioactivity, distinguishing it and the
name gamma-rays being coined as a label. Both of
these were done with photographic plates, which was
a slow process, (as they had to get developed) and
distinguishing the different types of radiation was
difficult. The process was improved by the creation
of various types of gas-filled counters greatly
improving on many of the pitfalls of the photographic
plate. The first being created by Rutherford and
Geiger in 1908. Generally these detectors could not
directly determine the energy of the photons that
were detected. The next large step in detectors was
made by Hfstadter in 1948, the NaI(Tl) detectors

were chemically and physically stable, boasted a

relatively high resolution and efficiency, and could
detect photons of energies ~1Mev. Other types of
detectors were made including magnetic electron
spectrometers and the diffraction spectrometers each
with their own techniques, advantages and
disadvantages in measuring gamma-ray transitions.
But the next significant jump was the successful
creation of the Ge(Li) semiconductor based detector
in 1962 by Freck and Wakefield. These boasted
resolutions ten-times that of the Na(Tl) detectors!
Working effectively as a diode with its current being
the creation of electron-hole pairs acting as charge
carriers by the absorption and emission of incident
gamma photons. These detectors had one main
disadvantage however they had to be kept very cold
at all times, (Generally liquid nitrogen temperature,
approximately 77 K), due to the creation of electronhole pairs which happens at appreciably high
temperatures. This requires a relatively sizable
upkeep. This has been alleviated somewhat in later
years with the development of the high-purity
germanium detector (HPGe) which can be
transported and stored at room temperature [2]

2 Background
Gamma spectrums created by HPGe have certain
distinct characteristics which broadly are due to one
or more of the following categories:

Interaction or lack thereof of gamma

photons with matter inside the HPGe
crystal

Interaction of gamma photons with matter

inside the housing

Near simultaneous interactions

2.1 Gamma-Ray Interactions

Photons interact with matter in three

different ways:
The Photoelectric Effect, Compton Effect or by pair
production. The probability that any particular
interaction will take place is a function of both the
energy of the incident gamma photon, E, and the
atomic number of the material the photon is
interacting with, Z, (Fig. 2.1)

The kinetic energy of this photoelectron, Ee-, is

Ee-=hv - Eb where hv is the energy of the incident
gamma photon and Eb is the workfunction to liberate
the electron from its initial energy level. This is
depicted in Fig. 2.2

Fig 2.2- Pictorial representation of photoelectric

effect [3].
This results in a photopeak (full-energy peak)
in the spectrum which is seen in Fig 2.3

.
Fig. 2.1- Dominance of different interactions of
matter [3].
From Fig. 2.1 it is seen that at low incident
gamma photon energies and high atomic number the
photoelectric effect is dominant. At high energy
incident gamma photons and high atomic number
pair production is dominant. For intermediate photon
energies the Compton effect is dominant.
2.1.1 Photoelectric Effect

In the photoelectric effect an incident

photon approaches a material then is wholly absorbed
by an atoms bounded electron of the material
unbounding the electron, now called a photoelectron.

Fig. 2.3- Characteristic signature of photopeak with

E being energy and

being the count-rate.

2.1.2 Compton Effect

Compton scattering is the scattering of photons off a

quasi-free electron of mass m e, decreasing the energy
of the incident photon, hv, at an angle and
producing a recoil electron at an angle . Depicted in
Fig. 2.4.

atom. There is a minimum energy contingent for this

interaction to take place the minimum energy is
simply the mass-energy of two electrons 2m ec2 this
leads to the following equation,
Ee_ + Ee+= hv -2mec2.
Fig. 2.4- Pictorial representation of Compton Effect
[4]
By energy conservation it can be shown that
the energy of the recoil electron is
= =

2
1cos()

1+(
)(1cos() )
2

. (1)

As any between -180 to 180 degrees is

realised this leads to the Compton continuum and
Compton edge in the spectrum. Fig 2.5

Fig 2.5- Compton effect with E being energy and

(2)

This would lead to a peak at the point at hv -2mec2

called the Double-escape peak In an ideal detector
these all the gamma interactions would be absorbed
by the detector however it is not always the case.
Upon pair production a positron is created. In an
electron rich environment this would almost
instantaneously annihilate creating two 0.511 MeV
photons. Sometimes one of the photons escapes and
this leads to the single escape peak. Fig. 2.6

being the count-rate. [3]

The two extremes of (1) are when =0 and
=. When =0 the scattered photon retains all of
its energy and the recoil electron receives zero. When
= the photon is backscattered; this is the case of
maximum energy transfer.
2.1.3 Pair Production

Pair production is the creation of an electron

of energy Ee_ and a positron of energy E e+. This
happens when an incident photon of energy, hv, is in
the strong electric field near the nucleus of a materials

Fig. 2.6- Real life detector showing all the different

ways gamma photons can interact with the HPGe
crystal [3]
Due to the fact that pair production only happens
above a certain threshold energy theres a splitting in
the spectrums as depicted below. Fig 2.7

Fig. 2.7- two possible spectrums from the

interactions stated above [3]

does not get detected an extra peak forms on the

spectrum of the photopeaks energy minus the
characteristic X-rays. Fig 2.8.

2.2 Full Spectrum Effects

There are more subtle effects to also look out for:

2.2.1 Secondary Electron Escape

For high energy gamma photons, unbound electrons

created by the gamma-ray interaction (secondary
electrons) will also have a high energy. Therefore a
higher chance of escaping the detector. This will
change the spectrum by shrinking the photopeak and
creating a bias in the Compton continuum and other
sources of low-energy counts such that they will be
more highly counted relative to the higher energy
features.
2.2.2 Bremsstrahlung Escape

Bremsstrahlung photons are emitted by an electron

scattering off other nuclei. This is problematic when
Bremsstrahlung photons are not reabsorbed by the
detector. This changes the spectrum the same way
secondary electrons do however can be minimised by
using materials with a small atomic number.

Fig 2.8- pictorial representation and resulting

spectrum due to X-ray escape peak [3]
2.2.4 Secondary Radiations

Secondary radiation are beta minus and beta plus that

are emitted by the source instead of the intended
gamma ray. With beta minus Bremsstrahlung
radiation is created that can penetrate the detector.
Beta plus will annihilate creating gamma Rays.
2.2.5 Housing Effects

Often gamma-rays do not interact with the detector

however do interact with the detectors housing.
These in turn may interact with the detector and get
absorbed. There include:

Housing photoelectrically absorbs photon

emitting a characteristic X-ray which is then
absorbed

Photon backscatters of housing at an angle

such that it goes into the detector and is
absorbed

Pair production creates a positron which

annihilates creating a 0.511 MeV photon
which is absorbed. Fig. 2.9

2.2.3 Characteristic X-ray Escape

After the photoelectric effect takes place electrons in

the atom reconfigure causing the binding energy to
also be liberated as a characteristic X-ray. If this X-ray

2.3 Semiconductors

Fig. 2.9- Pictorial demonstration of housing effects

and adding effects of housing on spectrum [3]
2.2.6 Summation Peaks

Summations peaks occur when the source emits two

gamma photons in a very small period of time such
that they are detected as being the one signal.

The periodic lattice of crystalline materials creates a

continuum of energies that electrons can exist in
comparison to discrete energy levels. These
continuums are called bands. Forbidden energies
exist between bands. These are aptly called band gaps.
Two bands that are of particular interest are the
valences band, corresponding to the outer shell
electrons in the crystal. The other band of interest is
the conduction band which is the band after the
valence band. Electrons in the conduction band and
holes (lack of electrons where one could exist)
contribute to the materials electrical conductivity. Let
us name the gap between the valence band and
conduction band Eg. For semiconductors the valence
band is full and has a small E g this distinguishes it
from insulators which have a big E g .Fig 2.10. This has
the effect that small excitations can liberate electrons
in the valence band to the conduction band and in
turn a hole be created in the valence band in
semiconductors.

2.2.7 Background Radiations

Other peaks can come from background radiation.

Contributions from the background include:

Natural radioactivity from materials in the

detector

Natural radioactivity of objects near the

detector

Radiation from the Earths surface

Radiation from the air

Cosmic Radiation

Fig. 2.10- Band structures for insulators (left) and

semiconductors (right)

Unfortunately thermal excitations can also have this

effect so the apparatus needs to be immersed in liquid
nitrogen (77 K) temperatures.

4 Results

2.3.1 HPGe Geometry

The Spectrums of three reference materials: Co-60,

Ba-133 and Na-22 were found. (860,000 counts each)

In an ideal detection no gamma photons escape. This

would require a large detector which would be
expensive to run and cumbersome. To compromise
in order to maximise the detection of gamma photons
the HPGe has a coaxial geometry

4.1 Data Acquisition

3 Experimental Apparatus
Fig. 4.1- Gamma spectrum for Co-60

To see block diagram see Appendix A

The settings for the DPP-PHA were:
General
DC offset
In range
Self trig

36
0.6vpp
Enabled

Polarity
positive
Digital gain 1
Decimation 1
TTF
Threshold

Energy filter
Decay time
Rise time
Flat top

50 s
1 s

Baseline mean
Trapezoid gain

1024
1

3 s

Fig. 4.2- Gamma spectrum for Ba-133

150 LSB

Fig. 4.3- Gamma spectrum for Na-22

4.2 Energy calibration

The energy calibration was found using three

reference known radionuclides: Co-60, Ba-133 and
Na-22.

Fig. 4.6- Peaks found and energies assigned to each

on background
4.4 Mystery Source

Fig. 4.4- Energy calibration, Bin no. vs reference

energies of Co-60, Ba-133 and Na-22

The mystery sources spectrum was measured and

identified the mystery source as Radium-226

4.3 Background

The radioactive background was measured (200,000

counts) as to not measure fake peaks on the
identification of the mystery source which is relatively
a weak radioactive source.

Fig. 4.7- Mystery source spectrum

Fig. 4.5- Background spectrum

The Compton continuum was taken away so a step
function could be fitted to easily find all the peaks at
once.

The background showed what was expected with 21

radionuclides ranging from the Th-232, U-238 and K40 families. With the biggest peak not being able to
be identified as only 7 counts above the baseline after
a full days detecting and only a few above the noise.
The first single-escape and double-escape peaks were
also seen.

Fig. 4.8- Uranium-238/Radium-226 decay chain

(shaded regions show corresponding gamma
spectrum found)

The mystery source showed very clear peaks against

the noise however finding out what the mystery
source was proved difficult as the NAI Catalogue
does not show gamma emission values of
radionuclides of certain half-life ranges. However
after this revelation finding out the mystery source
was quick using the other catalogue.

5 Discussion

6 Conclusion and Suggestions

With all three reference the Compton continuum and

edge was identified; some showing shifting suggestive
if one of the full spectrum effects. we fitted Gaussians
to the peaks and obtained we obtained all the spectral
lines in the NAI catalogue later cross referencing with
a more accurate catalogue which covers the most
abundant peaks. With all of them you could also
identify an annihilation peak. They were all checked
beforehand by the oscilloscope for pile-up

The mystery source was demystified as radium-226.

Going further in this experiment could include seeing
how the Gaussian changes as a function of energy the
bias voltage could also be changed to see whether it
has an effect.

When making the energy calibration we did a

goodness of fit () and after identifying an over
estimation of the errors due to using the standard
deviation of the Gaussian. The error technique was
changed as the centre of the peak was always very easy
to distinguish, so the bin error went down from ~7.5
bins to 1 bin obtaining a reasonable of 0.65.

In retrospect I feel a longer detection time of both the

background and the mystery source with that the
smaller peaks could have been discerned.

References
[1]- Knoll, G. F. (1979). Radiation Detection and
Meaurement. 4th ed. United States of America: Wiley &
Sons. Page 321
[2]- Debertin, K. and Helmer, R. G. (1988). Gammaand X-Ray Spectrometry with Semiconductor Detectors.
Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. Pages 8-12
[3]- Rittersdorf, I (2007). Gamma Ray Spectroscopy.
Michagan: University of Michigan. Pages 5-44.
[4]http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/quantu
m/comptint.html

10

Appendix A
MCA Counts
Computer

MCA Data

Low voltage power

MCA
(CLEN 075730)

High voltage power

HPGe Detector
Detector Signal

Fig A.1- Block diagram of setup

Oscilloscope

Fig A.2- Diagram of HPGe

and Dewar