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CHAPTER 2
TRANSFORMERS
2.1 What is a Transformer?
A device that transfer energy from one system to another. It can
accept energy at one voltage and deliver it at another voltage. It permits
electrical energy to be generated at relatively low voltages and transmitted
at high voltages and low currents, thus reducing line losses, and to be used
at safe voltages.
Transformer is a device which uses the phenomenon of Mutual
Induction to change the values of alternating voltages and currents. Main
advantages of AC transmission and distribution ease alternating voltage
can be increased or decreased by transformer. Losses are low & efficiency is
high.
Being static they have a long life and very stable . The range in size
from the miniature units used in electronics applications & to large power
size in power station. Principle of operation is the same for each.
2.2 TRANSFORMER CONSTRUCTION
(i)

Core
Transformer is consists of two electrical circuits linked by a common

ferromagnetic core as shown in figure 2.1 Broadly classifying, the core

construction can be separated into core type and shell type. In a core type
construction the winding surrounds the core. In a shell type on the other
hand the iron surrounds the winding.

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(a) Transformer coil and core

Chapter

(b)

Circuit symbol
Figure 2.1 Transformer construction

Figure 2.2 Transformer Core

(ii)

Windings

In a two winding transformer two windings would be present. The one

which is connected to a voltage source and creates the flux is called as a
primary winding. The second winding where the voltage is induced by
induction is called a secondary winding. If the secondary voltage is less
than that of the primary the transformer is called a

step

down

transformer. If the secondary voltage is more then it is a step up

transformer.
(iii)

Insulation

The insulation used in the case of electrical conductors in a

transformer is varnish or enamel in dry type of transformers. In larger
transformers to improve the heat transfer
characteristics the conductors are insulated using un-impregnated paper or
cloth and the whole core-winding assembly is immersed in a tank containing
transformer oil. The transformer oil thus has dual role. It is an insulator and
also a coolant. Cooling is achieved by air in small transformers and oil in
large transformers.
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2.3 Principle of Operation

When the secondary is open circuited and an alternating voltage V1 is
applied to the primary winding, a small current called no load current Io,
flows, sets up a magnetic flux in the core.
This alternating flux links with both primary and secondary coils and
induces EMFs in them of E1 and E2 respectively by mutual induction. Induced
EMF E in a coil of N turns is given by
E=N

d
dt

volts

where (d/dt) - rate of change of flux. In an ideal transformer , the rate of

change of flux is the same for both primary and secondary and thus
E 1 E2
=
N1 N2
(ie), induced EMF per turn is constant . Assuming no losses,
E1= V1 & E2=V2
Hence
V 1 V 2 V 1 N1
= =
N1 N2 V 2 N2
Where,
V1/ V2

- Voltage ratio

N1/N2

- Turns ratio or transformation ratio

if N2 is less than N1 then V2 is less than V1 and then the device is termed as
step down transformer. If N2 is greater than N1 then V2 is greater than V1
and then the device is termed as step up transformer.
when a load is connected across the secondary winding I2 flows. In an
ideal transformer losses are neglected and transformer is considered to be a
100 percent efficient. Hence
Input power = Output power or V1I1= V2I2

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In an ideal transformer, primary and secondary ampere turns are equal .

Thus
V 1 I2
=
V 2 I1
Combining equations,
V 1 N1 I2
= =
V 2 N2 I1
Rating of a transformer is stated in terms of the volt- amperes that it can
transform without overheating. The transformer rating is either V 1I1 or V2I2,
where I2 is the full load secondary current.
2.4

EMF EQUATION OF A TRANSFORMER

The magnetic flux set up in the core of a transformer when an

alternating voltage is applied to its primary winding is also alternating and is

sinusoidal. Let m be the maximum value of the flux and f

be the

frequency of the supply. The time for 1 cycle of the alternating flux is the
periodic time T, where T =(1/f ) seconds. The flux rises sinusoidally from zero
to its maximum value in (1/4) cycle, and the time for (1/4) cycle is (1/4f )
seconds. Hence,
the average rate of change of flux =

m
1
4f

= 4 f m Wb/s, and

Since 1 Wb/s=1 volt,

The average e.m.f. induced in each turn = 4 fm volts.
As the flux

varies sinusoidally, then a sinusoidal e.m.f. will be induced in

each turn of
both primary and secondary windings. For a sine wave,
r.m.s. value
Form factor = ___________________ = 1.11
average value
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Hence

Electrical Power Technology

Chapter

r.m.s. value = form factor X average value

= 1.11 X average value

Thus r.m.s. e.m.f. induced in each turn = 1.11 X 4 f m volts

= 4.44 f m volts
Therefore, r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in primary,
E1 = 4.44 f m N1 volts

--------

(1)

and r.m.s. value of e.m.f. induced in secondary,

E2 = 4.44 f m N2 volts

--------

(2)

Dividing the equations (1) and (2) gives:

E1 N1
=
E2 N2

2.5 Transformer No-load Phasor diagram

Core flux is common to both primary and secondary windings in a
transformer and is thus taken as the reference phasor diagram. On no load ,
primary winding takes a small current called no load current (I o). By
neglecting the losses, then primary winding are pure inductor, this current
lags the applied voltage V1 by 90. For no loss transformer, shown in figure
2.3(a) Io produces the flux and is in phase with the flux.

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Figure 2.3 Transformer on no-load phasor diagram

Primary induced EMF in opposition to V1 (By Lenzs Law) and is shown
180 out of phase with V1 and equal in magnitude. Secondary EMF is shown
for 2:1 turns ratio transformer. No load phasor diagram for a practical
transformer is shown in fig(b).

When losses are considered then no-load

current (Io) is the phasor sum of two components:

(i) Im- magnetizing component ( in phase with flux)
(ii) Ic - core loss component (supplying hysteresis & eddy current loss ) 90
out of phase with flux.
No-load current, I0 = IM2+IC2
where
IM =I0 sin 0 and IC =I0 cos 0.
Power factor on no-load= cos 0 = (IC/I0).
The total core losses (i.e. iron losses)= V1I0 cos 0
2.6 TRANSFORMER ON-LOAD PHASOR DIAGRAM
If the voltage drop in the windings of a transformer is assumed
negligible, then the terminal voltage V2 is the same as the induced e.m.f. E2
in the secondary. Similarly, V1 =E1. Assuming an equal number of turns on
primary and secondary windings, then E1 =E2, and
let the load have a lagging phase angle 2. In the phasor diagram of Fig. 2.4 ,
current I2 lags V2 by angle 2.

When a load is connected across the

secondary winding, a current I2 flows in the secondary winding. The resulting

secondary e.m.f. acts so as to tend to reduce the core flux. However this
does not happen since reduction of the core flux reduces E1,

hence a

reflected increase in primary current I1 occurs which provides a restoring

m.m.f. Hence at all loads, primary and secondary m.m.f.s are equal, but in
opposition, and the core flux remains constant. I1 is sometimes called the
balancing current and is equal, but in the opposite direction, to current I2 as
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shown in Fig. 2.4. I0, shown at a phase angle 0 to V1, is the no-load current of
the transformer. The phasor sum of I1 and I0 gives the supply current I1 and
the phase angle between V1 and I1 is shown as 1.

Figure 2.4 Transformer on load phasor diagram

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2.7

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Chapter

REGULATION OF A TRANSFORMER

When the secondary of a transformer is loaded, the secondary terminal

voltage, V2, falls. As the power factor decreases, this voltage drop increases.
This is called the regulation of the transformer and it is usually
expressed as a percentage of the secondary no-load voltage, E2. For full-load
conditions:

Regulation =

E2V 2
E2

X 100%

The fall in voltage, (E2 V2), is caused by the resistance and reactance
of the windings. Typical values of voltage regulation are about 3% in small
transformers and about 1% in large transformers.
2.8

TRANSFORMER LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY

There are broadly two sources of losses in transformers on load, these

being copper losses and iron losses.
(a)

Copper losses are variable and result in a heating of the conductors, due
to the fact that they possess resistance. If R1 and R2 are the primary and
secondary winding resistances then the
Total copper loss =

(b)

I12R1 +I22R2

Iron losses are constant for a given value of frequency and flux density
and are of two types hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.
(i) Hysteresis loss is the heating of the core as a result of the internal
molecular structure reversals which occur as the magnetic flux
alternates. The loss is proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop
and thus low loss nickel iron alloys are used for the core since their
hysteresis loops have small areas.

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(ii) Eddy current loss is the heating of the core due to e.m.f.s being
induced not only in the transformer windings but also in the core.
These induced e.m.f.s set up circulating currents, called eddy currents.
Owing to the low resistance of the core, eddy currents can be quite
considerable and can cause a large power loss and excessive heating
of the core. Eddy current losses can be reduced by increasing the
resistivity of the core material or, more usually, by laminating the core
(i.e. splitting it into layers or leaves) when very thin layers of insulating
material can be inserted between each pair of laminations. This
increases the resistance of the eddy current
path, and reduces the value of the eddy current.
Transformer efficiency,
=

output power input powerlosses

=
input power
put power

=1

losses
input power

Transformer efficiency is usually expressed as a percentage. It is not

uncommon for power transformers to have efficiencies of between 95% and
98%
Output power= V2I0 cos2
Total losses=copper loss + iron losses, and
input power=output power + losses
Maximum efficiency
It may be shown that the efficiency of a transformer is a maximum
when the variable copper loss (i.e. I12R1 +I22R2) is equal to the constant iron
losses.
2.9
(a)

TRANSFORMER TEST
OPEN CIRCUIT TEST
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The purpose of this test is to determine no-load losses or core losses

and no load current I0. It is helpful in finding X0 and R0. To carry out open
circuit test it is the LV side of the transformer where rated voltage at rated
frequency is applied and HV side is left opened as shown in the circuit
diagram The readings on voltmeter, ammeter and the wattmeter which are
connected to the primary of the transformer are taken. As there is no load in
secondary, a small current called no-load current I 0 flows in primary. Since I 0
is very small copper loss I2R is negligible. Hence wattmeter gives only core
loss under no load condition.

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Figure 2.5 Open circuit test

No load power factor

cos 0 = W / VI

Magnetizing current

Im = I0 sin 0

Core loss component

Ic = I0 cos 0

Reactance
Resistance

X0 = V1/ Im
R0 = V1/ Ic

(b)

Short circuit test

Equivalent impedance (Z01 0r Z02), leakage reactance (X01 or X02)and

total reactance (R01 or R02)of the transformer can be determined using the short
circuit test This test is used to find the copper loss at full load. This loss is

used to calculate the efficiency of transformer. Regulation of the transformer

can also be determined using this test.

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Figure 2.5 Short circuit test

Primary winding is connected to supply. Secondary winding is solidly
short circuited. Voltage in the primary winding is slowly increased till the full
load currents are flowing in primary and secondary winding. As very small
voltage is applied core losses are very small. The wattmeter gives the full
load copper loss I2R for the whole transformer ie both primary Cu loss and
secondary Cu loss.
If Vsc is the voltage required to circulate the rated load current, then

Z01 = Vsc / I1
Ro1 = W / I12
X01 = (Z012 R012)
2.10 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER
Three-phase double-wound transformers are mainly used in power
transmission and are usually of the core type. They basically consist of three
pairs of single phase windings mounted on one core, as shown in Fig. 21.17,
which gives a considerable saving in the amount of iron used. The primary
and secondary windings in Fig. 21.17 are wound on top of each other in the
form of concentric cylinders, similar to that shown in Fig. 21.6(a). The
windings may be with the primary delta-connected and the secondary starconnected, or star-delta, star-star or delta-delta, depending on its use.

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Figure 2.6 Three phase transformer

Figure 2.7 Three phase transformer connection types

2.11 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER
1. Auto Transformer
An auto transformer is a transformer which has part of its winding
common to the primary and secondary circuits. Fig. 21.14(a) shows the
circuit for a double wound transformer and Fig. 21.14(b) that for an auto
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transformer. The latter shows that the secondary is actually part of the
primary, the current in the secondary being (I2 I1). Since the current is less
in this section, the cross-sectional area of the winding can be reduced, which
reduces the amount of material necessary. Figure 21.15 shows the circuit
diagram symbol for an auto transformer.

Figure 2.8 Auto transformer

Advantages of auto transformers
The advantages of auto transformers over double wound transformers
include:
1. saving in cost since less copper is needed
2. less volume, hence less weight
3. higher efficiency, resulting from lower I2R losses
4. continuously variable output voltage is achievable if a sliding
contact is used
5. smaller percentage voltage regulation.
Disadvantages of auto transformers
The primary and secondary windings are not electrically separate,
hence if an open-circuit occurs in the secondary winding the full primary
voltage appears across the secondary.
Uses of auto transformers
Auto transformers are used for reducing the voltage

when starting

induction motors and for interconnecting systems that are operating at

approximately the same voltage.

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2. ISOLATING TRANSFORMERS
Transformers not only enable current or voltage to be transformed to
some different magnitude but provide a means of isolating electrically one
part of a circuit from another when there is no electrical connection between
primary and secondary windings. An isolating transformer is a 1:1 ratio
transformer with several important applications, including bathroom shaversockets, portable electric tools, model railways, and so on.

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PROBLEMS ON TRANSFORMER RATIO

1. A transformer has 500 primary turns and 3000 secondary turns. If the
primary voltage is 240V, the secondary voltage, assuming an ideal
transformer ?
PROBLEMS ON TRANSFOMER ON LOAD
2. A transformer takes a current of 0.8A, when its primary is connected to
a 240V, 50Hz supply, the secondary being open circuit. If the power
absorbed is 72 watts, determine (a) the iron loss current, (b) the power
factor on no-load, and (c) the magnetizing current.
PROBLEMS ON EMF EQUATION
3. A 100 KVA, 4000V / 200V, 50 Hz single phase transformer has 100
secondary turns. Determine (a) the primary and secondary current, (b)
the number of primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of the flux.
4. A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 25 primary turns and 300
secondary turns. The cross-sectional area of the core is 300 cm 2. When
the primary winding is connected to a 250V supply, determine (a) the
maximum value of the flux density in the core, and (b) the voltage
induced in the secondary winding.
5. A 60 kVA, 1600V/100V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer has 50
secondary windings. Calculate (a) the primary and secondary current,
(b) the number of primary turns, and (c) the maximum value of the
flux.
[(a) 37.5A, 600A (b) 800 (c) 9.0 mWb]
6. A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 40 primary turns and 520
secondary turns. The cross-sectional area of the core is 270 cm 2. When
the primary winding is connected to a 300 volt supply, determine (a)
the maximum value of flux density in the core, and (b) the voltage
induced in the secondary winding.
[(a) 1.25T (b) 3.90 kV]
7. A single-phase 800V/100V, 50 Hz transformer has a maximum core
flux density of 1.294T and an effective cross-sectional area of 60 cm 2.
Calculate the number of turns on the primary and secondary windings.
[464, 58]
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8. A 3.3 kV/110V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer

Chapter

is to have an

approximate e.m.f. per turn of 22V and operate with a maximum flux of
1.25T. Calculate (a) the number of primary and secondary turns, and
(b) the cross-sectional area of the core.
[(a) 150, 5 (b) 792.8 cm2]
PROBLEMS ON REGULATION
9. The open circuit voltage of a transformer is 240V. A tap changing
device is set to operate when the percentage regulation drops below
2.5%. Determine the load voltage at which the mechanism operates.
PROBLEMS ON EFFICIENCY
10.

In a 25KVA, 2000 / 200 V power transformer the iron and full load

copper losses are 350W and 400W respectively. Calculate the

efficiency at unity power factor at (i) full load and (ii) half load.
11.
A 220 / 400V, 10KVA, 50Hz single phase transformer has at full
load, a copper loss of 120W. If it has an efficiency of 98% at full load,
unity power factor, determine the iron losses. What would be the
efficiency of the transformer at half full load at 0.8 power factor
lagging?
12.
The efficiency of a 400 KVA, single phase transformer is 98.77%
when delivering full load at 0.8 power factor and 99.13% at half load
and unity power factor. Calculate (i) the iron loss (ii) the full load
copper loss.

Short answer questions on Transformer

1. What is a transformer?
2. Explain briefly how a voltage is induced in the secondary winding of a
transformer
3. Draw the circuit diagram symbol for a transformer
4. State the relationship between turns and voltage ratios for a transformer
5. How is a transformer rated?
6. Briefly describe the principle of operation of a transformer
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7. Draw a phasor diagram for an ideal transformer on no-load

8. State the e.m.f. equation for a transformer
9. Draw an on-load phasor diagram for an ideal transformer with an inductive
load
10. Name two types of transformer construction
11. What core material is normally used for power transformers
12. Name three core materials used in r.f. transformers
13. State a typical application for (a) a.f. transformers (b) r.f. transformers
14. How is cooling achieved in transformers?
15. State the expressions for equivalent resistance and reactance of a
transformer, referred to the primary
16. Define regulation of a transformer
17. Name two sources of loss in a transformer
18. What is hysteresis loss? How is it minimized in a transformer?
19. What are eddy currents? How may they be reduced in transformers?
20. How is efficiency of a transformer calculated?
21. What is the condition for maximum efficiency of a transformer?
22. What does resistance matching mean?
23. State a practical application where matching would be used
24. Derive a formula for the equivalent resistance of a transformer having a
turns ratio
of N1:N2 and load resistance RL
25. What is an auto transformer?
26. State three advantages and one disadvantage of an auto transformer
compared with
a double-wound transformer
27. In what applications are auto transformers used?
28. What is an isolating transformer? Give two applications
29. Describe briefly the construction of a threephase transformer
30. For what reason are current transformers used?
31. Describe how a current transformer operates
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32. For what reason are voltage transformers used?

33. Describe how a voltage transformer operates

Multi-choice questions on transformers

1. The e.m.f. equation of a transformer of secondary turns N2, magnetic flux
density Bm,
magnetic area of core a, and operating at frequency f is given by:
(a) E2 =4.44N2Bm a f

volts

(b) E2 =4.44(N2Bmf)/a volts

(c) E2 =(N2Bmf) / a volts

(d) E2 =1.11N2Bm a f

volts

2. A step-up transformer has a turns ratio of 10. If the output current is 5A,
the input
current is:
(a) 50A

(b) 5A

(c) 2.5A

(d) 0.5A

3. A440V/110Vtransformer has 1000 turns on the primary winding. The

number of turns on the secondary is:
(a) 550
(c) 4000

(b) 250
(d) 25

4. An advantage of an auto-transformer is that:

(a) it gives a high step-up ratio

(b) iron losses are reduced

(c) copper loss is reduced

(d) it reduces capacitance between

turns
5. A 1 kV/250V transformer has 500 turns on the secondary winding. The
number of turns
on the primary is:
(a) 2000

(b) 125

(c) 1000

(d) 250

6. The core of a transformer is laminated to:

(a) limit hysteresis loss

(b) reduce the inductance of the

windings
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(c) reduce the effects of eddy current loss

Chapter

(d) prevent eddy currents

from occurring
7. The power input to a mains transformer is 200W. If the primary current is
2.5A, the secondary voltage is 2V and assuming no losses in the
transformer, the turns ratio is:
(a) 40:1 step down (b) 40:1 step up
(c) 80:1 step down (d) 80:1 step up
8. A transformer has 800 primary turns and 100 secondary turns. To obtain
40V from the secondary winding the voltage applied to the primary
winding must be:
(a) 5V

(b) 320V

(c) 2.5V

(d) 20V

9. A 100 kVA, 250V/10 kV, single-phase transformer has a full-load copper

loss of 800W
and an iron loss of 500W. The primary winding contains 120 turns. For the
statements in questions 10 to 16, select the correct answer from the
following list:

(a) 81.3kW
(f) 4800
(k) 200W

(b) 800W
(g) 1.3kW
(l) 101.3kW

(c) 97.32%
(h) 98.40%

(d) 80kW
(i) 100kW

(e) 3

(j) 98.28%

(m) 96.38%

(n) 400W

10.

The total full-load losses

11.

The full-load output power at 0.8 power factor

12.

The full-load input power at 0.8 power factor

13.

The full-load efficiency at 0.8 power factor

14.

The half full-load copper loss

15.

The transformer efficiency at half full-load, 0.8 power factor

16.

The number of secondary winding turns

17.

Which of the following statements is false?

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(a) In an ideal transformer, the volts per turn are constant for a given
value of primary
voltage
(b) In a single-phase transformer, the hysteresis loss is proportional to
frequency
(c) A transformer whose secondary current is greater than the primary
current is a
step-up transformer
(d) In transformers, eddy current loss is reduced by laminating the core
18.

An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 1:5 and is supplied at 200V

when the primary
current is 3 A. Which of the following statements is false?
(a) The turns ratio indicates a step-up transformer
(b) The secondary voltage is 40V
(c) The secondary current is 15A
(d) The transformer rating is 0.6 kVA
(e) The secondary voltage is 1 kV
(f) The secondary current is 0.6A

19.

Iron losses in a transformer are due to:

(a) eddy currents only

(b) flux leakage

(c) both eddy current and hysteresis losses (d) the resistance of the
primary and
Secondary
windings
20.

A load is to be matched to an amplifier having an effective internal

resistance of 10ohm via a coupling transformer having a turns ratio of
1:10. The value of the load resistance for maximum power transfer is:
(a) 100 ohm
(c) 100m ohm

(b) 1 kohm
(d) 1m ohm

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Further

problems

on

Electrical Power Technology

the

transformer

Chapter

principle

of

operation
1. A transformer has 600 primary turns connectedto a 1.5 kV supply.
Determine the number of secondary turns for a 240V output voltage,
assuming no losses. [96]
2. An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 2:9 is fed from a 220V supply.
Determine its output voltage. [990V]
3. A transformer has 800 primary turns and 2000 secondary turns. If the
primary voltage
is 160V, determine the secondary voltage assuming an ideal transformer.
[400V]
4. An ideal transformer with a turns ratio of 3:8 has an output voltage of
640V. Determine its input voltage. [240V]
5. An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 12:1 and is supplied at 192V.
Calculate the
secondary voltage. [16V]
6. A transformer primary winding connected across a 415V supply has 750
turns. Determine how many turns must be wound on the secondary side
if an output of 1.66 kV is required. [3000 turns]
7. An ideal transformer has a turns ratio of 15:1 and is supplied at 180V
when the primary current is 4A. Calculate the secondary voltage and
current. [12V, 60A]
8. A step-down transformer having a turns ratio of 20:1 has a primary
voltage of 4 kV and a load of 10kW. Neglecting losses, calculate the value
of the secondary current. [50A]
9. A transformer has a primary to secondary turns ratio of 1:15. Calculate
the primary
voltage necessary to supply a 240V load. If the load current is 3A
determine the primary current. Neglect any losses. [16V, 45A]
10. A 10 kVA, single-phase transformer has a turns ratio of 12:1 and is
supplied from a
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2.4 kV supply. Neglecting losses, determine (a) the full load secondary
current, (b) the
minimum value of load resistance which can be connected across the
secondary winding without the kVA rating being exceeded, and (c) the
primary current.
[(a) 50A (b) 4 (c) 4.17A]
11.

A 20 resistance is connected across the secondary winding of a

single-phase power transformer whose secondary voltage is 150V.
Calculate the primary voltage and
the turns ratio if the supply current is 5A, neglecting losses. [225V, 3:2]

Further problems on the no-load phasor diagram

1. A 500V/100V, single-phase transformer takes a full load primary current
of 4A. Neglecting losses, determine (a) the full load secondary current,
and (b) the rating of the transformer. [(a) 20A (b) 2 kVA]
2. A 3300V/440V, single-phase transformer takes a no-load current of 0.8A
and the iron loss is 500W. Draw the no-load phasor diagram and
determine the values of the magnetizing and core loss components of
the no-load current. [0.786A, 0.152A]
3. A transformer takes a current of 1A when its primary is connected to a
300V, 50 Hz supply, the secondary being on open-circuit. If the power
absorbed is 120 watts, calculate (a) the iron loss current, (b) the power
factor on no-load, and (c) the magnetising current.
[(a) 0.40A (b) 0.40 (c) 0.917A]

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