Prior knowledge in

design: a dynamic
knowledge-based model
of design and creativity
Rivka Oxman
Facuby of Architecture & Town Planning, Technion Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 3200 Israel

The incorporation of precedents into a present design situation by adaptation, restructuring and
reformulation depends upon processes of typification and generalization. The function of prototypes as a
characteristic form of generalized and structured knowledge in design is described. A precedent-based
design model employing menmry-based reasoning is proposed. It is argued that ~ypological concepts can
serve as a matching level between situation types and solution types. In such an approach both the
organization of structured knowledge and the mechanisms of matching to prior knowledge such as
cross-indexing and analogy appear to be of seminal importance. A memory-based reasoning process in
routine, innovative and creative design is postulated. This is based on concepts of dynamic and episodic
memory. Relevant work in the fields of memory organization, machine learning and analogical
reasoning is considered with respect to its significance to the field of knowledge-based design.
Keywords: knowledge-based design, design knowledge, memory-based reasoning, creativity
The objective of this paper is to investigate the implications of cognitive concepts of dynamic structures and
dynamic memory in design, in the phenomenon of
creativity, and their potential for knowledge-based design systems. In order to accomplish this, we first
explicate the nature of design knowledge and the role of
the structure and organization of design knowledge in
memory. We introduce a multi-level structure of design
knowledge from specific, context-dependent precedents to
the high level knowledge of prototypes and concepts.
Typification and generalization of knowledge from design
experience are seen as the processes which develop this
complex structure of design knowledge. These concepts
provide a theoretical basis for a knowledge-based dynamic
model of design. We then consider the important process
of indexing to prior design knowledge and discuss the

Vol 11 No 1 January 1990

relevance of analogical inference mechanisms. Finally,

we consider some of the research questions of analogical
reasoning in creative design.
The large and well-developed body of research in
artificial intelligence in the area of memory organization,
primarily associated with S c h a n k 1-3, provides a theoretical basis for this work. The important related area of
study, machine learning, provides the concepts for dealing
with conceptualization, generalization, indexing and
analogical matching of knowledge in design. Furthermore, it offers insights into learning during the process of
design, a phenomenon characteristic of the exploratory
nature of reasoning which is integral to design. The
significance of this paper lies in its implicit aims to
extend our understanding of design through artificial
intelligence concepts and methodologies and to contri-

0142-694x/90/01017-12 $03.00 O 1990 Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd

17

bute to our ability to accommodate knowledge-based

creative design beyond routine design.
The specific design domain in which these ideas are
explored is that of architectural design. One of the
interesting phenomena of the last two decades has been
the effort, both on the part of researchers and designers,
to reformulate and to rigorously formalize what might be
thought of as architectural knowledge 4. It is the existence
of this work which makes the present effort to incorporate well-formulated knowledge into knowledge-based
design systems possible to consider, as well as opportune.

DESIGN KNOWLEDGE

situations. In order to understand this complex process,

we require a theory of knowledge structures and
adaptation processes which can help to explain how
knowledge in memory is adapted in order to create new
knowledge, and how these adaptations of experience
have a role in design generation and creativity. In this
respect, design has an analogous relationship to learning,
since design may be conceived of as a form of learning in
which the existence of prior conceptualizations are the
threshold for the formation of new knowledge. Modelling the way in which design experience is interpreted,
classified and stored as knowledge may provide the basis
for the implementation of these ideas in knowledge-based
design systems.

Prior knowledge in design

The role of structured knowledge in design
Observations on research in design methodology by
Cross 5 have shown that the various design methods
shared a common view of design as a cyclic process which
contains an analytical phase of problem definition and
formulation, a synthesis phase of design solution and an
analytical phase of evaluation. One of the characterizing
aspects in the emergence of a theory of design methods
has been the belief that logic and rational procedure were
in themselves the foundations of design. Method transcended content in the attempt to forge a modern
approach distinct from the precedent-based traditions of
past design. The common approach was that 'The logical
nature of the act of designing is largely independent of
the thing designed'6. In their enthusiasm to distance
themselves from past design traditions based upon
preferred models, modern design theoreticians not only
refocused emphasis upon procedure, but tended to
denigrate the recourse to tradition and stylistic precedents. These assumptions were questioned by other
researchers who were concerned with explicating cognitive processes of design7, and cognitive structures of design
knowledge s based upon past experience and accepted
tradition. The term tradition is employed here less in the
stylistic sense than in the epistemological sense; traditions, such as artistic traditions, formulate the knowledge
of precedents.
Current design theoretical literature contains frequent
references to design as a form of knowledge9'1. Prior
knowledge in a particular structured formulation of underlying types such as concepts, prototypes and precedents
is an intrinsic ingredient of design. Schon9 focuses on
similar underlying types such as functional building
types, references, spatial gestalt and experiential archetypes, and describes their roles in skilled designing. It is an
assumption of our work that design is, in fact, a dynamic

process of adaptation and transformation of the knowledge of

prior experiences in order to accommodate them to the
contingencies of the present.
In such an interpretation, design is seen as founded
upon cognitive processes which are involved in the
classification and adaptation of design knowledge. Designers can adjust an initial encoding of their world
experience to reflect the necessities of newly encountered

18

Designers utilize their past experience in various ways.

Experienced designers are able to solve complex problems through cognitive processes which appear to
economize search and adaptation by, among other
things, the characterization of design problems H, problem abstraction and generalization7. The embodiment of
the experience of the designer in the form of design
knowledge is dependent upon the structure and organization of knowledge in memory. The designer's memory
provides the format for design learning and for the
storage of newly acquired knowledge. It is likely that
among these cognitive processes are the typification and
generalization of design experience. The generalization
of knowledge contributes to a hierarchical structure of
levels of knowledge. It is this structure which provides the
medium for accessing prior knowledge in a creative way.
The experienced designer is insightful because of his
access to generic knowledge within a richly structured
world. The organization of knowledge in memory is a
reflection of our generalizations, both personal and
cultural. Part of the role of a tradition, or of a paradigm
in the cultural sense 12, is the provision of a structure of
knowledge. Design provides a rich field for the exploration of knowledge structures as well as mechanisms of
retrieval and transformation which employ and modify
that structure. The reasoning processes which occur in
the recall and restructuring of knowledge are among the
foundations of design; they may also provide a basis for
the explanation of creativity.
Concepts from the theory of dynamic memory2 are
relevant to the application of these ideas to design, since
we may assume that the way in which the designer
applies knowledge in memory depends, at least in part,
upon memory organization. Knowledge structures are
organized in such a way that they support the process of
exploratory thinking which is characteristic of design.
Searching through these structures in order to select
relevant knowledge can be regarded as part of the
creative process. Researchers in both memory theory and
machine learning have investigated the mechanisms of
knowledge retrieval is. These mechanisms offer us an
important interpretation of reasoning processes in de-

DESIGN STUDIES

sign, and one which has utility in helping to explain

design. In terms of relevance to knowledge-based design,
these ideas offer promise for reasoning mechanisms that
support innovative and creative design.

Typification and generalization in accessing prior

design knowledge and knowledge structuring
In the theory of memory organization and knowledge
formation one of the key concepts is generalization. In
daily life, generalization appears to be controlled by sets
of abstraction levels similar to those postulated by
Schank 1'2. Generalization is a process of accessing and
classifying prior knowledge by abstracting the specifics
of a newly encountered object, or situation, in order to
match with prior knowledge in memory. Such an
interpretation of generalization implies that one powerful
medium of memory organization, as well as memory
indexing and accessing, is the abstracting process of
generalization. Typification is a form of generalization,
which involves making typical in order to accommodate
experience within some schema, or classification of
concepts. Typification is, therefore, controlled by categories of higher level abstractions which are part of the
structure of knowledge in memory.
As knowledge becomes highly typified and abstracted,
it becomes relatively domain-independent in the form of
design concepts and principles which may be relevant to
various design domains as a form of general design
knowledge. One such form of generalization in design is
the ability to typify situations, constraints and goals
during the early, conceptual stages of design. In current
work constraints have been used to model design. Gross
et al. TM use constraints as knowledge representation
schema in design. Oxman and Gero ~s use both constraints and goals to describe a process of design related
to knowledge, in which the designer typifies the design
problem in order to fit it to the closest solution type in
memory. Typification and abstraction continues through
levels of abstraction until some match is achieved.
Abstraction levels are levels in a continuum from the
specific, contextual knowledge to the contextindependent knowledge of higher level concepts. These
are levels within a hierarchical, multi-level structure of
design knowledge. Transition to a higher abstraction
level of design goals can continue until a match between
goal and conceptual solution is made. It is then modified
in order to fit the required profile of requirements. The
movement upwards through abstraction levels characterizes typification.
The initialization of design occurs by referring to
significant typifications based on design experience. We
shall sketch two aspects of the typification phase:
specification typification, including constraints and goals;
and formal typification, including artefacts and operations.

Intrinsic constraints as situation typification

Typification can be considered the abstraction and
classification of salient aspects of precedents in terms of
both situations and solutions. Situation typification is a
classic category of memory organization in which classification is in terms of recurrent types of situations. In
design, it can also include the particular physical
constraints which are usually imposed by these recurrent
types of situations. Situation typification is an important
and well-formulated type of classification in architecture.
Some common classes of typifications of situation derive
from site geometry, orientation, topography and access
conditions. For example, the typification of local constraints in architecture includes aspects related to the
context such as the physical characteristics of the site.
Factors such as useable percentages of site area or site
geometries are generalized as cases which are recognized
from prior knowledge and are associated with paradigms
of approach to site planning. Constraints which are
intrinsic to the context are termed intrinsic constraints.
These are reinterpreted as extrinsic constraints which are,
in fact, typified design goals. These goals enable
potential matching to typified solution types.

Extrinsic constraints as goals typification

The typification of goals and constraints and their
propagation in design is a process which continues
throughout design. Goal typification is, in itself, a
reflection of the designer's experience, since the inference of higher level goals from the initial statement of
lower level constraints is a reflection of experience and
insight. Inference in initial goal typification in
architecture is already based on knowledge such as formal
architectural knowledge. Formal types may also be considered as goals in the typification of the design brief and
in its expression employing morphological, or functional,
types. This process of typification generalizes the characteristics of the brief on the basis of preferred solution
prototypes. Formal prototypes may override site constraints. We would refer to this as a formalist approach.
For example, a court house would normally not be
considered as a prototype associated with sloped sites.
Given a formal typification-- house with private interior
space-- an override might take place. Eventually a
unique sub-type may result which is subsequently stored
in memory as a solution indexed as novel in its
differences from the standard script of sloped site
solutions.
The process of the restatement of goals as confignrative types may be as follows

initial intrinsic constraints: open site

extrinsic goal typification: privacy, identity
redefined goal typification: introspective, enclosed
The process of goal typification in any domain may
include higher level knowledge such as goal-themes which

Vol 11 No 1 January 1990

19

are part of the content of knowledge of a design tradition,

an ideological movement, or a style. An example in
architectural planning of such thematic goal statements
might be the concepts open, or flexible, as a potential
matching for formal typifications of architectural solution types. A design tradition may also, in itself,
formulate universally valid goals such as efficiency or
mmtmlzauon.
Goal typification is a form of reasoning which is
essential to related subjects such as creativity. Typification may also apply in the formulation of design goals at
an appropriate level of abstraction. A new goal category
is seen in terms of a known goal cateogry and designers
often reinterpret goal specifications as they design. One
of the capabilities of generalization of the experienced
designer is the ability to appropriately explicate the
implied goals of a particular design prototype with which
he may be working. For example, a new concept of
marketing, the 'drug-store', is a typological innovation
motivated by goal redefinition due to the principle of the
gathering of people as a prerequiste to retailing.

cognitive processes is that design knowledge is, among

other things, knowledge of typification through abstraction levels. A high level of typified and generalized
domain-dependent knowledge makes possible the correlation of situation types to solution types by matching
at a level of typological knowledge and formal abstractions. Figure 2 illustrates this.

NEW FROM KNOWN: THE PARADOX OF

PRECEDENT-BASED CREATIVITY
A basic assumption of this work is that current design is
based upon prior design experiences which have been
abstracted and encoded in a structured form in memory.
This entails an apparent paradox in that the knowledge of
the precedent is, by definition, of the past. How can it be
used not only to explain, but to generate, the new? Does
a theory of typified knowledge contradict the possibility
of creativity?
How are new solutions derived from knowledge of past
solutions? A fundamental factor would appear to be the
classification of prior solutions in memory as abstract and
generalized knowledge stored in a structure of abstraction levels. The high level abstraction of knowledge can,
in itself, contribute to the creative application of prior
experience in design. An example would be the mechanism of cueing to relevant knowledge through a novel
reformulation of the problem in order to make a creative
connection with precedents. Metaphoric thinking is one
such mechanism for novel problem interpretation.
Furthermore, from high level abstractions of solution
types, numerous derivations are theoretically possible
within the class of that type. The historical distinction
between iconic source and generic type has been frequently
employed to explain the usage of high level abstractions
as a source of architectural knowledge, types being
capable of diverse design solutions from one generic
typological source.

Design precedents typification

One of the most significant forms of typification in
design is that of formal typifications of descriptions of
design. Such typification establishes the classes of formal
types above that of explicit precedents. This would
include, for example, syntactic classes of solution type as
higher level knowledge than functional types or particular precedents. Figure 1 refers to such a structure of
formal typological knowledge. Such formal and typological knowledge constitutes one of the most important
classes of design knowledge and is particularly relevant
knowledge in design generation. Formal grammars are
an example, and the Palladian Grammar 16 is one of the
most well known formulations.
The assumption underlying this interpretation of the

Formal prototypes:
architectural non-contextual

Functional prototypes:
functional context

[
~l
~ ~ , ~

Precedents :
highly contextual

Figure I. Precedentstypification through the generalization of high level concepts

20

DESIGN STUDIES

Situation typification

Constraints

Goals

Typological formal prototypes:

Typological formal prototypes:

Functional prototypes:

Precedents :

Solution typification

Figure 2.

Typologicalconcepts as a matching level between situation types and solution types

The prototype as a medium for the formal

definition of structured design knowledge
One promising structuring schema for design knowledge
is the prototype. Prototypes can be defined according to
various types of content such as functional or formal
prototypes. They offer a convenient basis for the
organization of various classes of complex knowledge.
Diverse categories of knowledge such as the functional and
configurational can be integrated in prototypes. Our
knowledge of prototypes, though domain-dependent,
tends towards the generalized. We use the terms
archetype and type to refer to the generalized qualities of
specific generic structures of knowledge in design. The
prototype provides a medium for representing this
complex structure of knowledge. It is a formalized
framework for the organization and structured representation
of the complex high level knowledge of a typological category
in a design domain. This includes various types of
knowledge such as the salient characteristics and variables of the type, processes of generation, classes and
variables of sub-types, the forms of refinement and
modification, the interpretation and control of these
processes. Furthermore, the prototype also contains
membership in higher level conceptual schema which are

Vol 11 No 1 January 1990

important for their role in creative design.

With respect to knowledge-based design systems, the use
of the prototype, as a knowledge structure, provides an
effective basis for the organization of design knowledge.
The prototype can be regarded as one of the fundamental
structures of design knowledge which can be employed
to encode knowledge. A prototype according to Gero 17
may be defined as follows
P = (Dpg, I, V, K)
where Dpg can be a parametrized design description or
parametrized design generator; I represents a set of
typifications based on interpretations of conditions,
requirements or goals; Visa set of design elements which
are the basis for design description; and K is the
knowledge relating design descriptions and its interpretations. In a routine design situation a prototype is selected
and specialized to the task at hand by providing values to
parameters. But design usually requires some form of
accommodation of the general description of the prototype to the specifics of the new situation. It is in its
adaptability, as well as in the descriptive strength of the
prototype, that its power as a medium of knowledge-based
design resides.

21

The prototype in the continuum of design

creativity
The use of the prototype in design can be classified 17 into
three processes of design generation: prototype refinement, prototype adaptation and new prototype generation. Routine design, or prototype refinement, is the lowest
level of prototype-based design in which a prototype is
selected and specialized to the task at hand by providing
values to parameters.
Routine design can be described as

D = t (Dpg, I)
where D is a design description as a result of transformation processes, t, which are acting on Dpg, the design
prototype.
Prototype refmement utilizes a successive process of
transformation in order to generate design descriptions in
knowledge-based design systems. Current knowledgebased design systems fall into this category ls'19. A
concept of a generative prototype for a refinement process
has been proposed and implemented employing design
prototypes as a general design shell s'2. Its use was
demonstrated in the architectural domain of a dwelling
plan type.
In adaptive design, or prototype adaptation, the prototype is selected but requires modification before
refinement. Transformation processes can modify knowledge, including vocabulary elements and interpretations, incorporating them into modified design descriptions.

D -- t(Dpg', I')
In original design, or prototype generation, the prototype is
not available and needs to be generated from existing
knowledge. Knowledge-based design systems have been,
until now, largely restricted to routine design. Compiled
knowledge of a prototype does not allow the designer to
step outside the current design situation. This is postulated as being a major characteristic of design in
non-routine design. We suggest that this is achieved by
reference to higher level concepts which make connections
between precedents and prototypes and assist in the creation of
a new prototype out of the existing ones.

The role of high level concepts in non-routine

design
In non-routine design we are interested in how new, or
modified, vocabularly elements and/or goals can be
found and incorporated. Goal-constraint propagation is
the term applied to the phenomenon of the redefinition
of goals and constraints on the basis of a current design
situation. It is the redefinition of goals and constraints
through the process of typification according to some
structured representation of past experience which provides the prototype match, even in non-routine design.

22

Our assumption is that creative derivations are based on

particular structures of knowledge which share high-level
concepts which may be common to several prototypes. A
resultant restructuring and reorganization of knowledge
can occur which, in effect, generates a new prototype.
This formulation appears to be germane to the explanation of the exploratory processes of creativity.
In matching to a prototypical design, or part of a
prototypical design, the designer would go to a conceptual level, in order to determine the implications of a
required adaptation. The representation of design knowledge as prototypes includes the formalization of such
modifiers, or operations of transformation. Adaptation
includes procedures for the transformation of a typological class. In the prototype, the two are combined, with
the prototypical solution carrying its own rules of
transformation integrating the interpreters and modifiers.
Wittkower 2~ has described the role of the typological
and adaptive in the villa designs of Palladio. From a first
match to preference, an ideal type (double axis symmetry
in a centralized 'nine-square' plan) is localized and made
specific through a particular vocabularly of modifications
such as providing local emphasis upon one axis to
accommodate sites with changes of level, while still
preserving the integrity of the main monumental axis of
approach.
There are also general modifying operations which are
associated with relatively domain-independent general
knowledge. The characteristics of the museum or the
house as a building functional prototype become purely
organizational and con figurative at a higher level of
abstraction. The structure of typological knowledge
would appear to include configurative knowledge which
evolves from specific typologies (the Palladian Villas), to
general typologies (the centralized plan), to general
configurative knowledge (centralized configurations).
This continuum from the specific precedent towards
domain-independent general knowledge enables the derivation of modifying operations and adaptive strategies.
Figure 3 elaborates the ideas in Figure 1 with known
architectural precedents.
There is potential significance in the dynamic interrelationship between the formal schema of a prototype
and goal-constraint redefinition. The example illustrates
goal generalization through context typification and
processes of adaptation of a generative prototype. The
writings and work of Kahn 22 provide an explicit example
of redefinition of design goals by generalization in order
to be able to match to an organizational prototype. It is
interesting to observe the sequential transformation of
the generic type of spatial organization as it is accommodated, and adapted, to context. Contextual information
involves the identification of constraints which derive
from the local or the contingent. Localization is essentially the cause for the adaptation of the ideal solution in a
conceptual state to be adjusted to the realities of place
and time. In the theory of the architect Kahn 22 there is a
distinction between form and design. Form is a Platonic
pre-form, an archetype of solution class in a pure state;

DESIGN STUDIES

Centralized

type

.v

>,

Church

type

Library

type

DIeD

x.x.x.,....~.........

E
First Unitarian Church
Kahn
1959-1967

Villa type

Exeter Library
K a h n 1967-1972

Villa Rotonda
P a l l a d i o 1566-1571

Figure 3. Precedents,functional types, high level typological concepts

design is the accommodation of form to the contingent.

Thus constraints are the sources of modifications and
adaptations in the general class of solutions. In a
memory-based system, interpretation can include generalizing to fit the vocabulary of precedents in memory or
any simplification which makes match, or fitting,
possible.

A DYNAMIC MODEL OF DESIGN

One of the implications of this work is that there appears
to be an integral relationship between the organizational
structure of design knowledge through prototypes and high
level concepts and the processes of design. It is this
organizational structure which is relevant to the representation of knowledge in knowledge-based design systems. In the following sections, we discuss the organization of design knowledge in memory and the role of
episodic indexing in creative design. We summarize with
discussion of a memory-based approach and its relevance
to creativity in design in knowledge-based systems.

Semantic and episodic design memory

Design knowledge derives from the building of generalizations as high level concepts on the basis of episodic
experience. It is the structure of design knowledge which
is germane to creativity in design, including storing
knowledge gained through episodic design experience,
and accessing that knowledge in current design. Experienced designers traverse the space between the episodic
and the generic with some ease. Typification is the
concept which we have introduced to describe the
process of indexing an episodic event to a class of events
which are stored in the designer's memory. These

DESIGN STUDIES

concepts have implications for structuring of design

knowledge in memory.
Memory organization theory deals with the relationship between the structure of knowledge in memory,
and the implications of the structuring for the enhancement of
the matching processes. Theories of semantic memory23
depict memory organization as a series of concepts
related to one another. Once the concepts are established, they are not changed even after being used.
Episodic long-term memory provides the conceptual organization through which the events related to these
concepts can be found. It is this organizational structure
of memory which provides the ability to generalize about
episodes from particular experience 13. Episodic memory
therefore has a significant role in design. Events in
episodic memory can be regarded as precedents in design.
Designers accommodate the known to the new. This
involves classification and integration with what they
already know. Memory is in a constant process of
dynamic reorganization as the important and relevant is
rendered accessible. Memory must be appropriately
organized to accommodate various operative mechanisms
of matching and retrieval. Matching may be through
complex processes of abstraction, typification and association.

The role of episodic memory and precedents

indexing in design
Design precedents can be stored and retrieved in episodic
memory under preferred design indices. Designs would
be organized in memory by what they have in common as
generalized indices, and discriminated within these
classes by their differences. Creating indices for designs
is enhanced when a rigorous, formalized structure
already exists. The organization of memory can reflect

23

the way precedents and prototypes are associated with

higher level concepts. A design can be retrieved from
memory by using these concepts as indices, thus
permitting precise focus in search.
How is new information accommodated in a design
memory? Classification is a significant cognitive process
in design. The designer uses what he knows in order to
process current design experience. The experienced
designer categorizes his experience by generalization,
which makes it available in processing new experiences;
and, vice versa, new experience can contribute to the
growth and adjustment of categories of knowledge. How
prior experiences are categorized affects the accessibility
of their knowledge in current situations. Memory is
organized under conceptual generalizations based upon
similarities. Kolodner's description of episodic memory
organization 13 recommends that 'similar items in memory should be organized around the same concepts
according to their differences'. In this way items can be

referenced in various ways including the possibility of

cross-contextual indexing. Adding events to episodic memory is accomplished by selecting appropriate indices and
modifying them by differentiation in order to create new
indices. Not all episodic events are stored directly in
memory. An episodic event would be stored under some
feature which discriminates it from the pattern type.
Storage by class, by discrimination features, is an indexing
mechanism which can contribute to the creation of new

classes.
Design descriptions, as we have stated, are stored in
memory according to what they have in common, their
generic qualities; they are organized under such indices
and discriminated by differences. Such an organizational
schema contributes the ability to gain generalized knowledge from particular precedents and episodes. The more
general the description of features in an index, the more
accessible the index. The generalization of the unique
features stored in indices enhances matching and retrieval in design. Memory growth, the acquisition of design
experience, is that process of differentiation of knowledge
through experience, which both particularizes existing
conceptual categories and creates new ones. Thus, the
storage of new designs, or new design experience, results
not only in the expansion of memory, but also, potentially,
in a dynamic process of memory reorganization.
We have suggested that the theory of episodic memory
can be used to establish a dynamic memory organization
in design. Some of the other key issues in retrieval from
episodic memory are the significance of levels of abstraction to indexing and to cross-contextual remindings.
Designs from different domains would be indexed at
various levels of abstraction. For example, in a building
domain, a court has a function associated with outdoor
activities. At a higher level of abstraction, a courtyard
may have a role as a separating element between spatial
zones. The more abstract the description of objects and
attributes, the more the possibility of retrieval of the
same object in various domains. For example, the court
as a separating space between zones can be retrieved as a
typological device in various functional prototypes such

24

as a museum, a residence or a school. We also assume

that the more general the description of designs with
respect to abstraction levels, the deeper its hierarchy and
richer its conceptual structure; this contributes to a
higher capacity of the system to exhibit reasoning leading
to creativity. Creativity may involve sophisticated
mechanisms of reminding in which partial matching to
solutions at one level can cue a match at a higher level of
abstraction.
Designers may have personal styles of creating indices
for reminding and retrieval. Experience in design from the

point of view of memory theory is the particularization and

relationships of indices. We assume that all design
experience undergoes processes of typification in order to
create indices for the storage, and ultimately for the
retrieval, of design episodes; and that the way in which
this occurs is a function of the form of classification and
existing structure of the designer's memory.

Formal indices in architectural design

Comprehension of the designer's utilization of memory
in the application and adaptation of designs will also help
to understand how memory is applied in creative design.
First of all, as we have already suggested, this is
connected with the conceptual structure of design
knowledge. Our ability to remember depends upon our
ability to form this underlying conceptual representation.
The experienced designer has a large repertoire of
conceptual indices which are used for the purpose of,
reminding and a well-developed technique for matching
for relevance to various situations.
Remindings in design requires the recognition of
similarities between current design situations and prior
design experiences. The designer's experience provides
the cues which index relevant solutions. Such cues may
be strongly domain-dependent, but they may also be cues
to the generic and conceptual knowledge of the particular
domain. In architecture, cueing to solution types in the
initial phase of design is conceptual in nature.
Architectural concepts in this phase deal mainly with the

formal qualities which reflect significant domain concepts.

For example, in museum design, the key factors as
interpreted from a functional point of view are the
organization and character of displays, the relationship to
the circulation system, and control. These are factors
which define the prototype as a set of formal indices. These
formal prototypes and key relationships of dominant
variables form sub-classes of the prototype which are the
typological variations. The museum as a building prototype has relevance for all other functional prototypes in
which similar formal indices are part of the typological
definition. It is clear, therefore, that cross-contextual
reminding is a significant phenomenon in design.

MEMORY-BASED STRATEGIES FOR

MATCHING
Prototype-based creativity derives from the capability of

DESIGN STUDIES

conceptualization which elevates the designer from the

level of the domain to the level of principle at which
cross-contextual connections can be made and precedent
modifiers inherited. This invokes certain strategies for
generating novel designs in which a level of abstraction
and cross-contextual remindings occurs. What occurs
when an exact match does not exist, and how is matching
made? Matching has an important role in knowledgebased design. The designer matches the situation to
prototypes and conceptual schema. In the matching
process the retrieval of similar designs and relevant
precedents is according to the level of specificity of the
index which is matched. The search for matching in
memory is selective and focused on the relevant examples. In the real world, there is probably no exact match.
How can memory be searched for relevant matches
without search being exhaustive? Among the strategies
which can be applied in memory-based reasoning in
design are partial matching and reconstructive reasoning;
cross-contextual matching; explanation matching, and analogical reasoning.

Partial matching and reconstructive memory

One of the characteristics of human memory is the ability
to cue reminding on the basis of partial cues. Reminding
can be activated by few cues. This is a form of reminding
somewhere between a conception of rote reminding in
episodic memory, and reminding by the mechanism of
reconstructive memory. Reconstructive memory may be
understood as follows: 'when people try to retrieve
information about particular episodes, they do not have
the entire episode, immediate and available. They try to
reconstruct the rest of the episode '13.
Partial matching to wholes is one approach. Part to
whole description z4 involves constructing the description
of a whole object by observing only selected parts of it.
These parts may be described by diverse relevant
attributes. The process of construction of the whole from
a partial set of diverse attributes may result in unique
combinations due to the reconstructive process. Thus
reconstructive memory may, in itself, be viewed as one
form of creative behaviour. It is a mechanism which may
be used to overcome incomplete, or insufficient, knowledge of a domain, and may help to produce new indices
for retrieval of relevant designs from other contexts, or
for the creating of new designs.
The establishment of matching criteria is an important
topic in matching. Performance specification is a useful
basis for matching criteria in design, but the application
of such criteria is not a simple matter of match and
retrieve, particularly when non-routine solutions are
required. Dyer et al. 25 have pointed out some problems
of matching and relevance. In matching to the performance criteria of door operation, for example, bicycle
mechanisms are irrelevant. On the other hand, matching
to the gear mechanism of a bicycle might contribute to
the development of an innovative opening mechanism for
doors. Therefore, recall by specifications and within

Vol 11 No 1 January 1990

contexts must be directed through various levels of

abstraction. This example indicates the particular relevance of matching at high conceptual levels in creative
design.
Partial matching relies on our ability to reconstruct the
whole picture by pulling a fragment of the description.
Triggering past designs is probably not by an explicit, or
complete, description of a past design. Partial cueing
may be through one characteristic of that design such as a
goal, a constraint or certain explanations associated with
the design. This bead can then help to pull the whole
description of a past design through a reconstructive
process.

Domain-free cross-contextual matching

Cross-contextual matching appears to be another of the
characteristics of creativity2. A rich body of high level
concepts in design will support cross-contextual indexing
and enhance the possibility of adapting by combining
elements from solutions of diverse problem contexts.
Such matchings appear to be dependent upon abstraction
levels which function as the mechanisms which transcend
domain boundaries. Knowledge expansion strengthens
these links to the generic and the ability to make
cross-contextual linkages. Designers may store this
high-level generic knowledge in the pithy form of a
metaphor, and the high level typification applies to a
leading knowledge source in the domain, such as spatial
configurations in architectural design. Le Corbusier's
chambered nautilis metaphor for an 'endless museum'
was adapted in various designs. Metaphorical reasoning
is a form of reasoning in which there is a creative use of
matching. Experience enhances the ability to generalize
which is critical to the ability to make cross-contextual
references. Pulling relevant memory from cross-contexts
requires an organizational schema for knowledge which has
some communalities of indices at a high level despite a
diversity of contextual distinctions at lower levels.

Explanation matching
The understanding of how certain designs have developed may be connected with the designer's ability to
be creative. When we attempt to understand why
something was designed, we search in our memory for a
set of values or goals in order to explain it 3. This would
support our main assumption that it is abstraction levels
which both reflect and define the explanatory power of
the representations in our memory.
Goal specifications at a generalized level may have
similar motivations in diverse contexts and provide a
potential basis for reminding in design. The 'why',
indexed to the 'what' and the 'how', may serve as an
index for the retrieval of a description of the prototype
and its generative rules. An example of the process in
architecture is

25

index-goal: high density; match to high-rise urban

form

index-goal: communality; match to village form

retrieve representations of." high-rise scheme + street
organization scheme from rural form and integrate
organizational prototypes
This is the phenonmenon which promulgated the high
level of experimentation to develop new housing types in
Europe for high density living during the 1950s. The
specification was high density which cued a high-rise
building type. Because an additional goal was social
interaction, the type was criticized as alienating and
inhibiting interaction. A new generalized goal was
formulated as interaction between people and nonalienation. There was a period of cross-contextual
reminding during which these goals were associated with
village life and primitive societies which were admired
for their social cohesiveness. Designers attempted to
solve this problem by achieving village attributes at high
density. One attribute of the village was the importance
of in-between space and street life. The matching of the
new goal of 'street organization' brought its own rules,
and the prototype, high-rise housing structure, was
adaptated accordingly. The matching of street into tower
is one of the interesting stories of typological adaptation
in post-war European architecture. The history is quite
interesting, since there also existed a precedent which
controlled the adaptation process until a new type
emerged. This was Le Corbusier's Unite building at
Marseilles, one of the first 'streets in the air'. Furthermore, the social attributes and adopted goal, interactions between people, was also inherited by other building
lypes.

Analogical reasoning
Analogical reasoning may be one way to move across
different contexts at the conceptual level, by referring to
explanations and concepts. There are various strategies
based on analogical reasoning which can be employed in
matching procedures. Before reviewing some computational studies of analogy and their relevance to design, a
common terminology between these researchers will be
introduced and will be adapted for design throughout the
rest of this section. Analogy will be described as a
matching between concepts of a source domain design
and a target domain design26. The analogy matching
maps abstractions and descriptions from the source
domain into a target domain. These mapped descriptions
are analogical inferences and are verified by confirmatory
schemes.
Carbonell embeds analogical reasoning within a traditional problem solving framework27'28. He has proposed
two methods: transformational analogy and derivational
analogy. Transformational analogy transforms a solution
from a previous problem, the source domain, for the
target domain. Derivational analogy applies a complete
trace of a previously solved problem. It includes sub-

26

goals and alternative operators at each level with reasons

for decisions. It evaluates not only the actual solution
path, but also a record of why particular steps were taken
and succeeded or failed. This information is necessary
particularly in a complex domain like design. Carbonell's
approach to analogical reasoning involves: identification
of significant aspects which in design can be general
goals, formal concepts, functional concepts, etc.; selection
of relevant experience from organized memory; focusing
on relevant knowledge to be transferred from past
solution to current solution; transformation-modification
which in the case of an existing design supports
alternation such as the variation of an attribute, function,
etc. Analogical reasoning can be employed to cue to
similar prior situations by reviewing features of past
experience. Dissimilarities between the current situation
and situations in memory are then reviewed in order to
achieve the closest match. A similarity matrix can be
used to establish the mapping. It can employ contextsensitive expressions which are capable of identifying
relevant similarities between two object or process
descriptions.

Knowledge-based creative design: a memorybased approach to adapting, restructuring and

reformulating design prototypes
Current work in the field of knowledge-based creative
design is concerned with applying the techniques from
artificial intelligence and cognitive science described
above. An approach in the domain of engineering
design29 is based on the association of novelty with
creativity by providing an analogical mechanism for
introducing one or more design elements which are
imported from a source domain to the target domain.
Another approach is based on the retrieval of fragments
of previous design episodes and their incorporation into
the present design context3. A further approach in the
domain of mechanical design25 is based upon designs
being categorized on the level of class descriptions. In the
EDISON system, each device is stored in memory under
different class-descriptional attributes such as functional,
typological or situational. Designs can be retrieved by
focusing on any of the attributes. EDISON considers
three general strategies for creating new designs: generalizations, analogies and transformations. All of these
rely on memory organization, indexing and retrieval. At
some point in the modification of a prototype, the
performance is also transformed. With the transformation
of object attributes, a transformation of performance is
achieved which is more than a sub-class, since it cannot
be accommodated within the similarity matrix. A new
type has emerged through transformation. In EDISON,
certain heuristics for creativity, such as variations of
attribute scales, are proposed. One example of such a
scalar variation in architecture is Frank Lloyd Wright's
expansion of the ramp principle to become the organizational concept of the Guggenheim Museum. Other forms
of variations, such as variations of use and function, are
also possible sources of design creativity.

DESIGN STUDIES

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This paper has attempted to provide a theoretical basis
for memory-based reasoning in knowledge-based systems
to support design creativity. Furthermore, some of the
significant questions which are associated with the
development of memory-based systems for non-routine
design were identified. Until now in recent work in
knowledge-based systems, domain knowledge was unique compiled knowledge and did not permit the designer
to step outside this knowledge base. Memory-based
reasoning and matching processes appear to permit the
designer to step outside a domain base as he relates to an
open world which consists of prototypes and episodic
precedents. In the previous sections we have dealt with
design knowledge, the significance of its structure, the
indexing of past experience in memory, and some of the
existing approaches for the use of matching mechanisms
and analogical reasoning.
Within the model of non-routine design which we have
proposed creativity is enhanced by the ability to generalize to a high level of abstraction. The analogical
processes, the operations of modification, and the actual
mechanisms of activation constitute significant research
topics in this field. Computational studies of these
processes must elaborate them in the research framework
of design computing. Design knowledge in different
domains must be studied and formalized. As for the
architectural domain, architectural design knowledge
requires formulation as a research topic. Artificial
intelligence techniques will provide the potential for a
computable model for creative design only when domain
knowledge will be understood and well formulated.
Ultimately, it is our understanding of the complex and
dynamic nature of knowledge structures which will
enable the development of knowledge-based systems for
design.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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13 Kolodner, J Retrieval and organizational strategies in
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14 Gross, M D, Ervin, S M, Anderson, J A and Fleisher, A

'Constraints: knowledge representation in design' Design
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16 Stilly, G and Mitchell, W J 'The Palladian grammar'

Environment and Planning B Vol 5 (1978) pp 5-18
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The author wishes to thank Professors John Gero and

Robert Oxman for stimulating discussions.

18 Maher, M L and Fenves, S J 'HI-RISE--an expert

system for the preliminary structural design of high rise
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DESIGN STUDIES