Vector Functions and Its Differentiation

Vector functions and its differentiation

1.1 Vector function
Def. : A vector function f(t) as a function of a scalar t is defined as:
f(t)=f1(t) i + f2(t) j +f3(t) k
in which f1(t), f2(t) and f3(t) are the scalar functions of t.
Example: The trajectory of a cannon ball fired at 45o to the horizontal ground with
an initial velocity v is given by r(t)= v(cos45o)t i + [v(sin45o)t-0.5gt2] k. Find the
velocity and acceleration of the cannon ball.

1.2 Parametric equation of plane curves

For a plane curve in the two dimensional space, we have already known that it
is usually represented by an equation in x and y. For example, a circle is represented
by x2+y2=r2 or a parabola is represented by y=ax2. However, a plane curve is also
possibly represented by the so called parametric equation, which is indeed a vector
function.
Consider the case of a circle with radius r0 in the x-y plane,
y

r0

x=r0cos and y=r0sin

and we represent the circle locus by the
parametric equation:
f()=r0cos i +r0sin j

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Def. : If the vector function f(t)=f1(t) i + f2(t) j + f3(t) k is the parametric equation of a locus in
the three dimensional space, then the coordinates of all the points on the locus satisfy: x=f1(t),
y=f2(t), z=f3(t) for t [a, b], where [a, b] is the range.
Example :
Find the Cartesian equation of the locus represented by the parametric equation: f(t)=t i +et j.
Solution : x=t and y= et
1.3 Differentiation and integration of vector function
Differentiation of vector function
If f(t)=f1(t) i + f2(t) j + f3(t) k is a vector function and f1, f2 and f3 are differentiable, then the
derivative of f(t) is defined as:
df
f '(t) f1 '(t)i f 2 '(t) j f 3 '(t)k
dt

(1)

Example 1: If f()=(cos)i+e2j, find f().

Solution : f()=-sin i+ 2e2 j
Example 2: The trajectory of a cannon ball fired at 45o to the horizontal ground with an initial
velocity v is given by r(t)= v(cos45o)t i + [v(sin45o)t-0.5gt2] k. Find the velocity and acceleration
of the cannon ball.
Solution : v(t) = dr(t)/dt = v(cos45o) i + [v(sin45o)-gt] k
a(t) = dv(t)/dt = -g k

1.3 Integration of vector function

If f(t)=f1(t) i + f2(t) j + f3(t) k is a vector function and f1, f2 and f3 are integrable, then
the indefinite integration of f(t) is defined as:

f (t)dt [ f (t)dt] i
1

[ f 2 (t)dt] j + [ f 3 (t)dt ]k C

where C is a constant vector.

Likewise, the definite integral of f(t) is defined as :

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(2)

 f (t)dt [ f (t)dt]i [ f
b

a 1

(t)dt]j [ f 3 (t)dt]k
2
b

(3).

In previous example if r(t) is the vector function denoting the position vector of a particle as a
function of the time t. Then, the velocity vector and the acceleration vector is described by the
vector function: r(t) and r(t).
Properties of Vector Differentiation
(i)

If f and g are differentiable vector functions,

d
df dg
f g

dt
dt dt

(i)

If f is differentiable vector function and is a constant scalar,

d
df
f
dt
dt

(ii)

If f(t) is a vector function, v is a constant vector and vf is differentiable,

d
df
v f v
dt
dt

(iii)

If h(t) is a scalar function, f(t) is a vector function and hf is differentiable,

d
df
dh
hf h f
dt
dt
dt

(iv)

If f and g are vector functions and fg are differentiable,

d
dg
df
( f g) f
g
dt
dt
dt

(v)

If f and g are vector functions and fg are differentiable,

d
dg
df

f g g f

dt

dt
dt

Example 1: If f(t)=ti+t3j, g(t)=(cost)i+(sint)j and v=2i-3j. Calculate (a) (f+g); (b) (vf) and
(c) (fg).
Solution :
(a) f+g= (t+ cos t )i + (t3+sint)j so (f+g)=(1-sin t )i + (3t2+cos t)j
(b) vf=2t-3 t3 so (vf)=2-9 t2 ,
you can also check (vf)=v(f)=(2i-3j)( i+3t2j)= 2-9 t2
(c) fg=t cos t + t3 sin t so (fg)=cos t tsin t + 3 t2sin t + t3cos t
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Try

d
dg
df
yourself to see if you get the same result.
( f g) f
g
dt
dt
dt

1.4 Geometric Interpretation of f(t)

Suppose f(t) is the parametric equation of a locus. The derivative of f is:

f (t t) f (t)
t 0
t

f '(t) lim

and its geometric meaning is indicated in the figure. Notice that as t0, the vector f(t+t)-f(t)
will become parallel to the tangent. Therefore, f(t) is indeed has the same direction with the
tangent vector to the curve.
1.4.1 Unit tangent vector
If f(t) is a vector function representing the parametric equation of a curve, then the unit tangent
vector T is defined as:

T(t)

f '(t)
f '(t)

(4)

The unit tangent vector indeed represents the direction of the tangent to the curve.
Example :
Find the unit tangent vector of the following curves:
(i)
f=(ln t)i + (1/t)j at t=1
Solution: f=(1/t) i + (-1/t2)j; f=(1/t2+1/t4)1/2 when t=1, we T(t=1)=(1/(2)1/2) i + (-1/(2)1/2)j
(ii)
f(t)=(cost)i +(sint)j +(sint)k.
Solution : f(t)=(-sin t)i +(cos t)j +(cos t)k and f(t)= (sin2t+cos2t + sin2t)1/2
= (1 + sin2t)1/2

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Theorem 2
If f(t)=f1(t)i+f2(t)j+f3(t)k be a vector function and the magnitude
f (t) [f1 (t)]2 [f 2 (t)]2 [f 3 (t)]2 is a constant for all value of t, then

f(t)f(t)=0 for all t.

Proof: Suppose ff=|f|2=C=constant,
d
df
dC
(f f ) = 2(f )
0
dt
dt
dt

Therefore, ff=0.

Example: Prove that Theorem 2 is valid for the case f(t)=cost i + sint j.
Solution : f2 (t)= (sin2t+cos2t ) = 1 then f(t)=(-sin t)i +(cos t)j and ff=-sint(cos t)+cost(sint)=0
1.4.2 Unit normal vector
As we know that the magnitude of the unit tangent vector T is always unity, by Theorem 2,
TT=0,
which means that the derivative T is always perpendicular to the unit tangent vector T.
Def. : The unit normal vector of a curve represented by a parametric equation is defined as:

n(t)

T' (t)
T' (t)

(5)

N.B. The direction of the unit normal vector is always pointing in the direction of the concave
side of the curve.

Examples: Calculate the unit normal vectors to the following curves:

(i)f(t)=cos t i + sin t j
Solution : f(t)=(-sin t)i +(cos t)j and f=1 since T(t)

f '(t)
= f(t)
f '(t)

T(t)= f(t)=-cost i +(-sin t)j and T(t)=1, therefore n(t)

We can see explicitly that Tn=sint cost-cos t sin t =0

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T' (t)
=-cost i +(-sin t)j
T' (t)

(ii)f(t)=[(t3/3)-t]i+t2j
Try this yourself and make sure that you get Tn=0

1.5 Vector field

Vector field is a function that assigns a unique vector F p for each point p in a region. Imagine
the flow of a stream, at each point, the water has a certain velocity, which can be represented as a
vector. Thus the stream is a vector field with velocity vectors. There are a lot of applications of
vector field used in our daily life. For example, gravitational force and Coulomb force are vector
fields as the force vector is a function of the position vector.
We will use bold face character as vector and the conventional symbols: i is the unit vector in
the x-axis direction, j is the unit vector in the y-axis direction and k is the unit vector in the zaxis direction.

Example
(a)

Fx, y i j .
In this vector field, the same vector i j is assigned to every point.

(b)

Fx, y xi yj .

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(c)

Fx, y

(c)

Fx, y sin yi xj .

x
x2 y2 4

y
x2 y2 4

j.

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1.5.1 Gradient and directional derivatives

The gradient of a (scalar) function f f x, y is defined by
f x, y f x x, y i f y x, y j .

As we can see, the gradient of a function is a vector field. It is the vector field which will points
in the direction of the greatest rate of change of the function f. The magnitude of the gradient is
the greatest rate of change.

The rate of change of the function f x, y at x0 , y0 in the direction u is define to be

Du f x0 , y0 f x0 , y0 u .

This is called the directional derivative of f at x0 , y0 in the direction of u.

Note: u is a unit vector.
Example

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Find the directional derivative of f x, y x 2 y 3 y in the direction of 1, 2 at the point 1, 2 .

Solution

f 1, 2 212i 1

The gradient of f is f f xi f y j 2 xyi x 2 3 j . At the point 1, 2 ,

2

The unit vector in the direction 2i j is u

3 j 4i 4 j .

2i j

2i j

2i j
2 1
2

2
5

1
5

The directional derivative is

2
2
2 1
1
1
4
.
Du f 1, 2 f 1, 2
i
j 4i 4 j
i
j 4
4

5
5
5
5
5
5 5

Example
Find the direction in which the function f x, y x 2 y 3 y has the highest rate of change at the
point 1, 2 .
Solution
The directional derivative at the point x0 , y0 in the direction of u is

Du f x0 , y0 f x0 , y0 u f x0 , y0 u cos f x0 , y0 cos
since u is a unit vector and is the angle between the two vectors f x0 , y0 and u. From the
right side of the equation, the quantity Du f x0 , y0 is largest when cos reaches its maximum,
i.e., cos 1. This happens when 0 . Since is the angle between the two vectors
f x0 , y0 and u, that means u is parallel to f x0 , y0 .

Thus f x, y x 2 y 3 y has the highest rate of change at the point 1, 2 in the direction

f 1, 2 212i 12 3 j 4i 4 j .

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1.5.2 Divergence and curl

We have been working on real valued functions: functions where the output is just a number.
Although we had defined what a vector field is, we have not done any operation yet. We will
next define two operations on vector fields in 3-D space.
Del or Nabla operator

i
r x
y

j z k
z

Let Fx, y, z f x, y, z i g x, y, z j hx, y, z k be a vector field in the 3-D space. Then the
divergence of F, denote div F, is defined to be

divF

f g h
.

x y z

The curl of F, denote curl F, is defined to be

curl F F
i

x
f

y
g

z
h

h g f h g f
i j
k
y x z x x y
Divergence is the flux density across a rectangular region:
Flux across rectangle boundary P Q

Rectangle area
x y

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This is the net rate of change of the mass of fluid flowing from a point. If divF 0 (for all
points), then the field F is said to be incompressible. If divF( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) 0 , the point
( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) is called a point source because the field is gaining fluid at the point. If
divF( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) 0 , the point ( x0 , y0 , z 0 ) is called a point sink because the field is losing fluid
at the point.

Curl is the circulation density around a rectangular region:

Circulation around rectangle boundary Q P
.

Rectangle area
x y
This is a measure of the rate of rotation of the field about a point. If (curl F) = 0 at a point P,
then the fluid is free of rotations at P and F is called irrotational at P.

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Derivation of Curl in the Plane

Lets look at a simple development of curl (circulation density or spin) at a point (x, y). Consider
the circulation around a small rectangle with corners ( x, y), ( x x, y), ( x x, y y), and
( x, y y) as shown below.
Circulation and curl are oriented concepts. ( x, y y)
Following the right hand rule, we regard
counter-clockwise travel or rotation as being
positive orientation. We imagine the rotation
(x,y)
at the point (x, y) in the plane about a vertical axis.
In this manner, we consider the effect of the field
F( x, y) P( x, y)i Q( x, y) j along the positively
oriented rectangle. We make the following
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( x x, y y)
( x x, y)

observations:
Across the bottom of the rectangle:
Across the right side of the rectangle:
Across the top of the rectangle:
Across the left side of the rectangle:

F dr P( x, y)x
F dr Q( x x, y)y
F dr P( x, y y)x
F dr Q( x, y)y

The careful reader should note that we have chosen to evaluate F at the point closest to (x,y) in
each case. Therefore the circulation around the rectangle is
P( x, y)x Q( x x, y)y P( x, y y)x Q( x, y)y

If we factor out xy , we get the circulation about the rectangular area:

Q( x x, y) Q( x, y) P( x, y y) P( x, y)

xy
x
y

Taking the limit as x and y go to zero yields

Q P

x y

omitting the area differential

We regard this quantity as the circulation density or curl at the point (x, y).
Curl in 3 Dimensions
To develop the curl about a point in three dimensions, we also consider the curl components
about the axis in the i direction with respect to y and z and about the axis in the j direction with
respect to x and z.
For the spin with respect to y and z about ( y, z z )
the axis in the i direction, we simply replace
x and y in our previous development with y and
z, respectively. Therefore, we obtain the
(y, z)
following relationships.
Across the bottom of the rectangle:
Across the right side of the rectangle:
Across the top of the rectangle:
Across the left side of the rectangle:

( y y, z )

F dr Q( y, z)y
F dr R( y y, z)z
F dr Q( y, z z)y
F dr R( y, z)z

Taking the limit as y and z go to zero gives

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( y y, z z)

R Q

y z
Due to the right-hand rule, k i j , the remaining component of curl is
P R

z x

Thus, the 3D version of the curl of F at a given point (x, y, z) is

R Q P R Q P
i
k
curl F

j
y z z x x y

Furthermore, we have the following notation using the differential operator :

i

curl F F
x
P

y
Q

z
R

Note: curl F is a vector

P Q R

x y z

Note: div F is a scalar

and

div F F

Rules: f,g scalar functions of position; A,B vector functions of positions

fg f g gf
Gradient

A B A B B A A B B A
Divergence

Curl

A B B A A B
fA f A A f
A B B A A B A B B A

fA f A A f

2
2
2
2 2 2 2 Laplacian operator
x y z
curl grad 0

A div curl A 0

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Note that div F is a scalar function whereas curl F is a vector field.

Example
Find the divergence and curl of the following vector fields

Fx, y, z xyi xz y j x y 2k .
Solution

divF

f g h xy xz y x y 2

y 11 y .
x y z
x
y
z

h g f h g f
curl F i j
k
y x z x x y

x y 2 xz y xy x y 2 xz y xy
i
k

j
y
x z
x
y
x

1 z i j z x k

The divergence of a vector field measures how the vector field is expanding (positive value) or
contracting (negative value) at a certain point. For example, the vector field

Fx, y 2 2 x i 3 y j has divergence div F 3

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and the divergence for the vector field in the 3-D space Fx, y, z xi yj zk is div F 3

The curl of a vector field captures how a vector field rotates. It gives the axis of rotation and the
speed of the rotation. The curl of the vector field Fx, y, z yi xj k is curl Fx, y, z 2k .

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and for a vector field such as Fx, y, z xi yj zk , the curl is zero which says that there is no
rotational action.

A three dimensional vector field is defined as a function mapping from a three

dimensional vector, e.g. position vector r(x,y,z), to a three dimensional vector. i.e.

F ( x, y, z) P( x, y, z)i Q( x, y, z) j R( x, y, z)k , where P, Q and R are three variable functions.

1.6.1 Line integral

Consider a segment of the curve C beginning at points A and B, with the coordinates given by

r (a) and r (b) respectively. Now we try to partition the curve segment into N partitions so as to
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obtain the partition points X1, X2,... and XN-1. We can then construct a vector dli from point Xi-1

to point Xi. The force field vector at this partition can also be obtained as Fi F (r (t i )) , where

r (ti ) is the function of the line in parametric form. The line integral of the vector field F over
the curve C from point A to B is given by

F dl lim F (r (ti )) dli .
dli 0

Remark :
X4
X1
X2
C1

C3
X3

C2
If the integrating path of the line integral C is made up of several sections of curve C 1, C2 and C3
as shown in the figure, then the line integral over the path C from point X1 to X2 is:




F

d
l

d
l

d
l

F
(2)

dl
C

C1

C2

C3

Line Integrals in 2-Dimensional Space R2 or 3-Dimensional Space R3

In General

2-Dimensional Space R2

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A vector field is given by:

F ( x, y) P( x, y)i Q( x, y) j
and a curve C is given by the parametric equation :
C : r (t ) xi yj f (t )i g (t ) j , atb.

The line integral of the vector field F along the curve C is defined as:
b

F d r P x, y dx Q x, y dy
C

a
b

P f (t ), g (t )
a

a
b

df
dg
dt Q f (t ), g (t ) dt
dt
dt
a

Or 3-Dimensional Space R3

A vector field is given by:

F ( x, y, z) P( x, y, z)i Q( x, y, z) j R( x, y, z)k
and a curve C is given by the parametric equation :
C : r (t ) xi yj zk f (t )i g (t ) j h(t )k , atb.

The line integral of the vector field F along the curve C is defined as:
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F d r P x, y, z dx Q x, y, z dy R x, y, z dz
C
b

a
b

df
dg
dh
P f (t ), g (t ), h(t ) dt Q f (t ), g (t ), h(t ) dt R f (t ), g (t ), h(t ) dt
dt
dt
dt
a
a
a

Steps for Line Integrals

Parametrize and Integrate
a) C is a line joining A and B: Use r (t ) A t ( B A) or r (t ) (1 t ) A t ( B)
b) C is a circle: Use r (t ) (a cos t )i (a cos t ) j (c)k
c) C is an Ellipse: Use r (t ) (a cos t )i (b cos t ) j (c)k
d) C is a Hyperbola: Use r (t ) (a cosh t )i (b cosh t ) j (c)k
e) C is a Parabola: Use r (t ) (t )i (at 2 bt c) j
f) C is a Helix: Use r (t ) (a cos t )i (a cos t ) j (ct )k
g) C is given by y=f(x). Use r (t ) (t )i f (t ) j

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Examples:
(i)
A particle is moving along the parabola y=x2 subject to a force given by F( r ) = 2xy
i + (x2+ y2) j. Calculate the work done when the particle moves from (1,1) to (3,9).
Solution : First we need to express the curve in terms of parametric form, i.e.
r (t ) f (t )i g (t ) j , where f(t)=x, g(t)=y. We can choose x=t for simplicity then y= t2
because y=x2. Therefore r (t ) ti t 2 j and the range of integration is 1 t 3. We can also
express the force in terms of parameter t, i.e.
F (t ) 2 x(t ) y(t )i ( x(t )2 y(t )2 ) j 2t 3i (t 2 t 4 ) j
3

W F dl P f (t ), g (t )
C

(2t )(1)dt (t 2 t 4 )(2t )dt 322

3

(ii)

Calculate

df
dg
dt Q f (t ), g (t ) dt
dt
dt
1
2
3

if
F
( x, y) xyi ye x j and C is the close rectangle path joining
F

d
l

the points (0, 0), (2, 0), (2, 1) and (0, 1).
Solution: The line can be divided into 4 paths shown in figure below

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Here C1: r(t)=2ti for 0 t 1 and r(t)=2i , C2 : r(t)=2i + tj for 0 t 1 and r(t)=j, C3 : r(t)=
(2-2t)i + j for 0 t 1 and r(t)=-2i , C4 : r(t)= (1- t)j for 0 t 1 and r(t)=-j

F dl F dl F dl F dl F dl

C1

C2

C3

C4

On C1 , x=2t and y =0 so that xy =0 and ye =0, hence

C1

F dl 0

hence
On C2 , x =2 and y =t so that F (r)=2ti+te2j and r'(t )=j,
1

C2

F dl te2 dt e2 / 2
0

You can show that

C3

F dl 2 and

C4

F dl

1
2

Find the line integral if F ( x, y, z ) xi yj zk over the line r (t ) ti t 2 j t 3k

joining the points (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1).
Solution
:
Here
P(t)=x(t)=f(t)=t,
Q(t)=y(t)=g(t)=t2,
R(t)=z(t)=h(t)=t3
:
b
b
b
df
dg
dh
C F dl a P f (t ), g (t ), h(t ) dt dt a Q f (t ), g (t ), h(t ) dt dt a R f (t ), g (t ), h(t ) dt dt

(iii)

(t )(1) dt (t 2 )(2t) dt (t 3)(3t 2) dt

3
2

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1.6.2 Exact vector field

Consider there are two points A and B in the space and we can construct infinite number
of curves which pass through these two points. If C1 and C2 are two curves which pass through



A and B, and F (r ) is a vector field, then in general the two line integrals F dl and F dl
C1

C2

may not be equal.

Definitions : A vector field F (r ) is said to be an exact field if and only if the line integral of

F (r ) joining the two end points is independent of the path.

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Example: Let F ( x, y) yi xj . Calculate the line integral if C is as follows:
(i) The straight line from (0, 0) to (1, 1)
(ii) The parabola y=x2 from (0, 0) to (1, 1)

(iii) The curve r (t ) t 3 / 2 i t 5 j from (0, 0) to (1, 1).

Solution :
(i)For a straight line r (t ) t i t j , P(t)=y(t)=f(t)=t, Q(t)=x(t)=g(t)=t,
1

W F dl P f (t ), g (t )
C

df
dg
dt Q f (t ), g (t ) dt
dt
dt
0

(t )(1)dt (t )(1)dt 1

(ii)For the parabola r (t ) ti t 2 j ,P(t)=y(t)=f(t)=t2 , Q(t)=x(t)=g(t)=t,

1

W F dl P f (t ), g (t )
C
1

df
dg
dt Q f (t ), g (t ) dt
dt
dt
0

(t )(2t )dt (t )(1)dt 1

2

(iii)For the curve r (t ) t 3 / 2 i t 5 j

P(t)=y(t)=f(t)=t5 , Q(t)=x(t)=g(t)=t3/2 ,
1
1
df
dg
W F dl P f (t ), g (t ) dt Q f (t ), g (t ) dt
dt
dt
C
0
0
1

3
(t 5 )(5t 4 )dt (t 3/2 )( t1/2 )dt 1
2
0
0

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

Theorem

Let F ( x, y, z) P( x, y, z)i Q( x, y, z) j R( x, y, z)k be a three dimensional vector.

following three statements are necessary and sufficient conditions of each other.

The

(1) F ( x, y, z ) is an exact vector field.

(2) There exists a scalar function ( x, y, z) such that ( x, y, z) F ( x, y, z) .

(3)

P Q R P Q R

y x x z z y

Actually these relations can be proved easily from (2).

Remarks: (i) If the vector space is a two dimensional vector space, then statement (3) becomes:

P Q

y x

(1) If F is an exact vector field and F , then the line integral of F over any path C

joining two fixed points r1 ( x1 , y1, , z1 ) and r2 ( x2 , y 2, , z 2 ) will be identical and equal to:

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r2

F dl d (r1 ) (r2 )
C

r1

(2) If F is an exact vector field, then the line integral of F over any closed path will be equal
to zero, which is obvious from above expression.

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

In fact exact vector field exist in nature, e.g. gravitational field, static electric field etc. On the
other hand frictional force is not exact vector field.

Examples
(1)Test the following functions to see if they are exact and then find the function such that
F
(a) F i j k , (b) F 2 xyi ( x 2 1) j and (c) F 2 x cos yi x 2 sin yj
Solution
By using (3) of Theorem 1, the first two functions are exact and the last one is not. (a)
x y z C and (b) x2 y y C

(2)In last example we have shown that the work done by a force vector field, F ( x, y) yi xj ,
is the same for three different paths. Lets see if this force vector field is exact. We can see that

P
Q
P Q
P=y and Q=x,
. Therefore F is an exact vector field that is
1 and
1

y
x
y x
why the line integral of last example is independent of path.

1
1

(3) Let F ( x, y ) 4 x 3 y 3 i 3x 4 y 2 j . Prove that F is an exact field and then

x
y

calculate the line integral joining the points (1, 1) and (2, 3).

Solution : For this vector field

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015


1
1

P( x, y ) 4 x3 y 3 and Q( x, y ) 3x 4 y 2
x
y

P
Q
P Q
12 x3 y 2 and
12 x3 y 2

y
x
y x
Since this is an exact field so we can choose any path to obtain the line integral, the simplest path
for this integration should be C= C1 + C2, where C1 is y=1 (dy=0) and C2 is x=3 (dx=0). The line
integral is given by
W F dl ( Pdx Qdy ) ( Pdx Qdy ) 431 ln 2 ln 3
C

C1

C2

( Pdx Qdy)

3 3 1
4 x (1) x dx 15 ln 2

C1

1
3(2) 4 y 2 dy 24 (33 1) ln 3

1
y

C2
We can choose another path, for example C= C1 + C2, where C1 is x=1 (dx=0) and C2 is y=3
(dy=0). The line integral becomes
3
1
4 2
3
C ( Pdx Qdy) 1 3(1) y y dy 3 ln 3 1
1

( Pdx Qdy)

( Pdx Qdy)

C2

3 3 1
4 3
3
4 x (3) x dx 2 3 ln 2 3

( Pdx Qdy ) 431 ln 2 ln 3

C1 C2

HW: Repeat the above line integral by using r (t ) x(t )i y(t ) j (t 1)i (2t 1) j . You should
obtain the same result.
(You can also try to find such that W= (2,3)-(1,1). Of course in this example is very easy
to be obtained and it may not be true in general. )

(4) Let F ( x, y) xi ( x y) j . Prove that F is not an exact field and calculate the line integral
joining the points (0, 0) and (1, 1) through the two different paths:
(a) C1 : y x 2
(b) C2 : y x 3

P
Q
P Q
0 and
1

y
x
y x
Therefore this is not an exact vector field.
1
1
df
dg
W F dl P f (t ), g (t ) dt Q f (t ), g (t ) dt
dt
dt
C1
0
0
P( x, y) x and Q( x, y) x y,

(a) (t )(1)dt (t t 2 )(2t )dt 2

0
0
3
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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

df
dg
W F dl P f (t ), g (t ) dt Q f (t ), g (t ) dt
dt
dt
C2
0
0
1

(b) (t )(1)dt (t t 3 )(3t 2 )dt 3

0
0
4
We can see that the line integral is path dependent if the vector field is not exact.

(5) Let F ( x, y, z ) yzi xzj xyk be a vector field. Prove that F is an exact field and find the
line integral joining the points (1, 1, 1) and (2, -1, 3).
Solution:
P( x, y, z ) yz, Q( x, y, z ) xz, R( x, y, z ) xy
P
P
Q
Q
R
R
z,
y,
z,
x,
y,
x
y
z
x
z
x
y
P Q R P Q R

y x x z z y
Therefore this is an exact vector field.
We choose C= C1 + C2 +C3, where C1 is (1,1,1) to (2,1,1)(it means y=1, z=1, dy=0, dz=0) , C2 is
(2,1,1) to (2,-1,1) (it means x=2, z=1, dx=0, dz=0) and C1 is (2,-1,1) to (2,-1,3) (it means x=2,
y=-1, dx=0, dy=0).

F dl F dl F dl F dl P( x, y 1, z 1)dx Q(2, y,1)dy R(2, 1, z )dz

C1

C2

C3

(1)(1)dx (2)(1)dy (2)(1)dz 1 (2)(2) (2)(2) 7

HW: Repeat the above line integral with (1,1,1) to (1,-1,1) to (1,-1,3) to (2,-1,3) to see if you can
the same result.
(Again you can find first and use it to find the line integral)

1.6.3 Flux

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

1.6.4 Green's theorem in two dimensional plane

is an area region in the two dimensional plane and the area region is enclosed by the closed

loop . F ( x, y) P( x, y)i Q( x, y) j is a vector field. Green's theorem states that :

Q P
F

d
l

x y dA

Example :
(1) Find the line integral

xydx ( x y)dy if is the rectangle {(x, y): 0x1, 1y3}.

Solution: Using the Greens theorem

Q
P
P( x, y ) xy, Q( x, y ) x y,
1,
x so
x
y

F dl x y dA

0 1

(1 x)dydx 1

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

You can convince yourself by doing the line integral directly (Be careful about the integration
direction, which must follow (0,1) to (1,1) to (1,3) to (0,3) to (0,1)). The result of the line integral
should be , -2, -3/2 and 4 for these four paths respectively.

(2) Find the line integral

C ( x

y 3 )dx (2 y 3 x 3 )dy where C is a unit circle centered at the

origin.
Solution:

Since the integration range is a unit circle for the line integral so it
corresponds to a disk in area integration. Next we have
Q P

3x 2 3 y 2 so
x y
2 1
Q P
2
2
2
F

dl

dA

3
x

y
dA

x y

0 0 (r )rdrd
3

You can also carry the line integral and you will find that it is more difficult. You need to use the
following parametric equation : x=cos t and y=sin t

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

An Alternative Application of Greens Theorem

In the previous two examples, we have used Green's Theorem to find the line integral by
calculating its corresponding double integral. On the other way around, we can also find the area
of a region by calculating the corresponding line integral.

Area of dA

Construct a vector field F ( x, y) yi xj and apply Green's Theorem:

2 dA F dl

( y)dx xdy

dA 2 ( y)dx xdy
1

(5)

In fact the function is not unique, either F(x,y)=-yi and F(x,y)=xj can be used. The above
expression can be rewritten as
1
dA 2 ( y)dx xdy y dx xdy
You can choose any one of these three integrals to get the area.

Example: Use Green's theorem to find the area of the ellipse:

Solution:

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

x2
a2

y2
b2

1.

First we need to find the line equation of the ellipse, which has
the parametric form as
r (t ) a cos t i b sin t j and 0 t 2

xdy

A dA

(a cos t )

d (b cos t )
dt
dt

ab (cos 2 t )dt ab (1 cos 2t )dt ab

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

Hints on Line Itegrals

Case 1. Parametrize and Integrate

h) C is a line joining A and B: Use r (t ) A t ( B A)
i) C is a circle: Use r (t ) (a cos t )i (a cos t ) j (c)k
j) C is an Ellipse: Use r (t ) (a cos t )i (b cos t ) j (c)k
k) C is a Hyperbola: Use r (t ) (a cosh t )i (b cosh t ) j (c)k
l) C is a Parabola: Use r (t ) (t )i (at 2 bt c) j
m) C is a Helix: Use r (t ) (a cos t )i (a cos t ) j (ct )k
n) C is given by y=f(x). Use r (t ) (t )i f (t ) j
Case 2. Stokes Theorem
a) In R2, Stokes Theorem is called Greens Theorem. You might as well do every problem
referring to Greens Theorem by using the general Stokes theorem formula.
b) In the xy plane , if F=<P,Q,0>, then X F=<0,0, Qy-Px>
c) In the xy plane , dS = <0,0,dx dy>, so W F dS (Qy Px )dxdy
R

d) In the xz plane, dS (dx)i (dz)k (dxdz) j

e) In the yz plane, dS (dy) j (dz)k (dydz)i
Case 3. Easy. Find the potential f and evaluate at the end points.

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

Summary of Line Integrals

Type
of Int.

Notation
(Look closely)

line integral of a real-valued function

f ( x, y) ds

lim f [ x(ti* ), y (ti* )]si

n

i 1

(mass/moments of a wire in the

plane/ surface area of a curtain)

dx dy
f [ x(t ), y(t )] dt ,
dt dt
b

(i.e.,

f (r(t )) r(t ) dt )
a

f ( x, y) dx

(similar for dy, this is

NOT ds)

lim f [ x(ti* ), y(ti* )]x

n

i 1

(for convenience in representing

and evaluating line integrals of
vector fields)

f ( x, y, z ) ds

lim f [ x(ti* ), y (ti* ), z (ti* )]si

n

f (r(t )) x(t ) dt
a

i 1

(mass/moments of a wire in
space)

dx dy dz
f [ x(t ), y(t ), z (t )] dt ,
dt dt dt
b

(i.e.,

f (r(t )) r(t ) dt )
a

f ( x, y, z ) dx

(similar for dy and dz.

This is NOT ds)

line integral
of a 2-dim.
vector field

Major Theorems that

Indicate How to Compute
Indirectly

Definition (& Application and/or

Standard/Direct Way to Compute
Geometric Interpretation)

lim f [ x(ti* ), y (ti* ), z (ti* )]x

n

i 1

(for convenience in representing

and evaluating line integrals of
vector fields)
n

F dr , OR
C

F Tds , OR

f (r(t )) x(t ) dt
a

lim F x(t i* ), y(t i* ) T(t i* )si

n

Use only when F

is conservative

i 1

(work)

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

Path Independence Thm:

Evaluate the standard way over
a more convenient path
Fund. Thm. of Line Int.:
F dr f (r(b)) f (r(a))

P dx Q dy

F(r(t )) r' (t )dt

line integral of a 3dim. vector field

F dr , OR
F Tds , OR
P dx Q dy R dz
C

lim F x(t i* ), y(t i* ), z (ti* ) T(t i* )si

n

i 1

(work)

F(r(t )) r' (t )dt

Not helpful when F is

conservative (since we
know from Theorem
that the value of the
integral is zero)

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Sk/EUM114/ Vector 2 Lecture/2015

Not helpful when F is

conservative (since we
know from Theorem
that the value of the
integral is zero)
Use only when F
is conservative

Greens Theorem:
Q P
C Pdx Qdy D x y dA
where C is the boundary of D
Path Independence Theorem:
Evaluate the standard way over
a more convenient path
Fund. Thm. of Line Int.:
F dr f (r(b)) f (r(a))
Stokes Theorem:
F dr curlF dS where C
C

is the boundary of S