Course Compamon

1 Cells

Prokaryotic cells
P ro k ary o te s w e re th e first o rg an ism s to evolve o n E a rth a n d th e y
still h av e th e sim plest cell stru c tu re . B acteria are p ro k a ry o tes.
T hey are m o stly sm all in size, u n ic e llu la r a n d are fo u n d alm o st
e v e ry w h e re - in soil, in w ater, o n o u r skin, in o u r in te stin e s a n d
ev en in pools of h o t w a te r in volcanic areas.
The ele c tr n m ic ro g ra p h b elo w show s a cell of Escherichia coli
(E . coli), a b a c te riu m fo u n d in th e h u m a n in testin e s. M ost
stra in s of E. coli are h arm le ss, b u t som e cause food p o iso n in g .
Cytoplasm

Cell wall

fluid filling the space inside the plasma

mem brane
water with many dissolved substances
contains m anyenzym es
contains ribosomes
does not contain any membrane-bound
organelles
carries out the chemical reactions of
metabolism

always present
com posed of peptidoglycan
protects the cell
maintains its shape
prevens cell from bursting

Ribosom es

Plasma m em brane

small granular structures (70S)

smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes which
are 80S
synthesizes proteins

thin layer mainly composed of

phospholipids, pushed up against the
inside of the cell w all in healthy cells
partially perm eable
Controls entry and exit of substances
can also pump substances in or out by
active transport
produces ATP by aerobic cell respiration

N ucleoid
regin of cytoplasm containing the
genetic material (usually one molecule of
DNA)
DNA m olecule is circular and naked (not
associated with protein)
total am ount of DNA is much smaller than
in eukaryotes
the nucleoid is stained less densely than
the rest of the cytoplasm because there
are few er ribosomes in it and less protein

P ili ----------------------------------------------protein filaments protruding from the cell

wall
can be pulled in or pushed out by a
ratchet mechanism
used for cell to cell adhesin
used w hen bacteria stick together to form
aggregations of cells
used w hen tw o cells are exchanging DNA

Flagella
structures protruding from the cell wall
w ith a corkscrew shape
base is em bedded in the cell wall
using energy they can be rotated, to
propel the cell from one area to another
unlike eukaryotic flagella they are solid
and inflexible

during a process called conjugation

F ig u re 2 8 Electron micrographs of E. coli

tukaryotic cens
E u k ary o tic cells h av e a m u c h m o re cojnplicated in te rn a h s tr u c tu re
th a n p ro k a ry o tic cells. T hey h av e a ^ u d e u s a n d p r g a iie lW in th e
cy to p lasm w ith single or double m em b ra n es. E ach organelle has a
d istin c tiv e s tru c tu re a n d fu n c tio n . Six ty p e s a re described here.

How many of each type of organelle

are visible in the electrn micrograph
of liver tissue?

N ucleus

Rough endoplasm ic reticulum (rER)

Golgi apparatus

The nuclear m embrane is double and has pores

through it. Uncoiled chrom osom es are spread
through the nucleus and are called chromatin.
There are often densely staining areas of
chromatin around the edge of the nucleus. The
nucleus stores almost all the genetic material
of the cell. It is w here DNA is replicated and
transcribed, and w h ere m RNA is modified
before export to the cytoplasm.

The rER consists of flattened m embrane sacs

called cisternae. Attached to the outside of
these cisternae are ribosomes. The main
function of the rER is to synthesise protein for
secretion from the cell. Protein synthesised
by the ribosomes of the rER passes into the
cisternae and is then carried by vesides (small
membrane sacs), which bud off and are moved
to the Golgi apparatus.

This organelle consists of flattened membrane

sacs called cisternae, like rER. H o w everth e
cisternae are not as long, are often curved, do
not have ribosomes attached and have many
vesicles nearby. The Golgi apparatus processes
proteins brought in vesicles from the rER. Most
of these proteins are then carried in vesicles to
the plasma m embrane for secretion.

nucleus

rough endoplasmic
reticulum (rER)

free
ribosomes

X 14 400

golgi
apparatus

mitochondrion
lysosome

F ig u re 2 9 Electron micrograph of part of a liver cell

Lysosom es

M itochondria

Free ribosom es

These are approximately spherical with a

single m embrane. They are formed from
Golgi vesicles. Lysosomes contain high
concentrations of protein, w hich makes them
densely staining in electrn micrographs. They
contain digestive enzymes, which can be used
to break dow n ingested food in vesicles or
break down organelles in the cell or even the
w hole cell.

A double m em brane surrounds mitochondria,

w ith the inner of these m em branes invaginated
to form structures called cristae. The fluid
inside is called the matrix. The shape of
m itochondria is variable but is usually spherical
or ovoid. They produce ATP for the cell by
aerobic cell respiration. Fat is digested here if it
is being used as an energy source in the cell.

These appear as dark granules in the cytoplasm

and are not surrounded by a membrane. They
are the same size as ribosomes attached to the
rER - about 20 nm in diameter. Free ribosomes
synthesize protein, releasing it to work in
the cytoplasm, as enzymes, or in other ways.
Ribosom es are constructed in a regin of the
nucleus called the nucleolus.

1 Cells

) Chapter 1 questions
1 Figure 30 represents a cell from a multicellular organism.

3 Siphonous green algae are marine organisms, found on

many coral reefs. They are ecologically very successful
and some species have even caused problems when
accidentally introduced to new areas. Codium frage for
example has damaged shellfish industries after spreading
off the north-west coast of the United States. Bryopsis
pennata has become a pest species in aquaria, after
accidentally being introduced on coral rock.
Figure 32 is a photograph of part of an individual of

Bryopsis pennata. It can be 100 mm tall overall and

consists of branched structures called siphons (scale
bar = 0.6 mm).

F ig u re 3 0
(a) Identify, with a reason, whether the cell is
(i) prokaryotic or eukaryotic; [1]
(ii) part of a root tip or a finger tip; [1]
(iii) in a phase of mitosis or in interphase. [1]
(b) The magnification of the drawing is 2500 x.
(i) Calclate the actual size of the cell. [2]
(ii) Calclate how long a 5 |jm scale bar should be
if it was added to the drawing. [1]
(c) Predict what would happen to the cell if it was placed
in a concentrated salt solution for one hour. Include
reasons for your answer. [3]

(a)
Calclate the length of the smallest branch of the
siphon, visible in the photograph. Give your answer in
micrometres. [2]
Figure 33 is a diagram of part of one siphon.
(magnification = 180 x)

2 The electrn micrograph in Figure 31 shows part of an

animal cell.
(a) Identify the labelled structures. [3]
(b) The structure indicated by the first label is
1.5 |im long. Calclate the magnification of the
micrograph. [2]
(c) Determine how long a 10 nm scale bar would be on
the micrograph. [2]
(d) Calclate the length of the structure indicated by
label III. [3]

F ig u re 33
(b) Calclate the actual diameter of the siphon. [3]
(c) The structure of coris shows that they are animals.
Deduce whether Bryopsis pennata is an animal, from
the structure of its siphon. [2]
(d) According to the cell theory, living organisms are
composed of cells. Discuss whether Bryopsis pennata
should be described as multicellular, unicellular or

II

acellular. [4]
(e) The vacuoles in the branched siphons are all
interconnected and the fluid inside them is
under pressure Suggest one advantage and one
disadvantage of having interconnected, pressurised

F ig u re 31

vacuoles. [2]
(f) The aquaria in which this species has become a pest
contain water with salt dissolved, like the sea. Predict
the effect of transferring Bryopsis pennata from sea
water to fresh water. [2]

Cell divisin
Cell cycle
G ro w th , ase x u a l re p ro d u c tio n , tissue re p a ir a n d m a in te n a n c e are
ex am p les of processes th a t re q u ire th e c reatio n of n e w cells.
In eu k a ry o tic cells, divisin of th e n u cleu s to fo rm tw o genetically
id en tical nuclei is te rm e d m itosis. D ivisin of th e cy to p lasm to
fo rm tw o cells is called cytokinesis.

mitosis and
cytokinesis
cell prepares

cell grows

to divide

P ro k ary o tic cells re p ro d u ce by a process called b in a ry fission. This

involves re p lic atio n of th e single c irc u la r ch ro m o so m e. The tw o
copies of th e ch ro m o so m e m ove to opposite ends of th e cell, a n d
cy to k in esis q u ick ly follows.
The life of a cell can be th o u g h t of as a n ordered sequence of events,
called th e cell cycle. The cell cycle refers to th e events b etw e en one
cell divisin an d th e n e x t in a eukaryotic cell. It can be roughly
divided into in terp h ase a n d cell divisin. In terp h ase is a n active
p erio d in th e life of a cell w h e n m an y m etabolic reactions occur,
including p ro tein synthesis, DNA replication a n d a n increase in the
n u m b e r of m ito ch o n d ria a n d /o r chloroplasts. It is n o t necessarily a
p erio d of p reparation for m itosis, as a cell can re m a in in in terp h ase
indefinitely.

replication
of DNA

F ig u re 1 The cell cycle. Note that during

the S phase, the chromosome in the
model cell is duplicated through the
process of replication.

In te rp h a se consists of th re e phases, th e G1 phase, th e S ph ase a n d

th e G2 phase. D u rin g th e S p h ase th e cell copies all genetic m aterial,
so th a t after m itosis b o th n e w cells have a com plete set of genes.

Data-based question: cell size and the cell cycle

Figure 2 shows the daily life cycle pattern of Emiliania

huxleyi (a species of phytoplankton) as observed

under laboratory conditions. The hypothesis is that
the cell cycle appears to be timed so that the light
period can be used for photosynthesis linked to
growth whereas energy consuming processes can
occur in the dark, the daughter ceils being prepared for
photosynthesis by the onset of the next day.
1 State the time of day when:
(a) most DNA replication occurs
(b ) when mitosis is most likely to occur. [2]
2 Identify the cell cycle stage when most of the
increase in cell size is occurring. [1]
3 Evalate the claim that the timing of the cell cycle in

Emiliania huxleyi is an adaptation to take advantage

of light resources. [3]

Time of day

F ig u re 2 The cell cycle in Emiliania huxleyi follows a

daily pattern.

The four phases of mitosis

M itosis is th e d iv isi n of a eu k a ry o tic n u cleu s in to
tw o g en etically id en tical nuclei. Before m itosis ca n
occur, tw o copies of each ch ro m o so m e are n eed ed .
E ach ch ro m o so m e in itia lly consists of a single
DNA m olecu le. This h as to b e rep licated before
m itosis, a n d it th e n consists of tw o id en tical DNA
m olecules, called sister ch ro m a tid s. A lth o u g h it
is a c o n tin u o u s process, cytologists h av e div id ed
th e ev en ts of m itosis in to fo u r phases: p rophase,
m etap h a se, a n a p h a se a n d telo p h ase. The events
th a t o cc u r d u rin g th ese stages in a n a n im a l cell
are s u m m a riz e d here.
Prophase
The ch rom osom es becom e sh o rter a n d fatter by
coiling (Figure 3a). To becom e sh o rt en o u g h th e y
h ave to coil repeatedly. This is called supercoiling.
At th e e n d of p ro p h ase th e n u clea r m em b ra n e
b reaks dow n.
M ic ro tu b u le s grow from th e poles of th e cell from
a s tru c tu re called th e m icro tu b u le organizing
cen tre (MTOC) to th e chrom osom es (Figure 3b).
These m icro tu b u les form a spindle shape a n d so th e
MTOCs to g eth er w ith th e m icro tu b u les are referred
to as th e m ito tic spindle.

(b)

M etaphase
S pindle m ic ro tu b u le s a tta c h to th e cen tro m eres.
C hrom osom es are m o v ed to th e e q u a to r of th e cell
(F igure 3c), w ith a sp in d le m ic ro tu b u le a tta c h e d
to one of th e sister ch ro m a tid s fro m one pole
a n d a n o th e r sp in d le m ic ro tu b u le a tta c h e d to th e
opposite sister c h ro m a tid fro m th e o th e r pole.
Anaphase
At th e sta rt of an ap h ase, th e pairs of sister
ch rom atids separate a n d th e spindle m icrotub u les
p u l th e m tow ards th e poles of th e cell (Figure 3d).
U ntil th e n th e centrom eres h a d held th e m tog eth er.
M itosis p ro d u ces tw o g enetically id en tical nu clei
b ecau se sister ch ro m a tid s are p u lle d to opposite
poles. To e n su re th is, th e ce n tro m eres of sister
ch ro m a tid s m u st be a tta c h e d in m e ta p h a se to
sp in d le m ic ro tu b u le s from d iffe ren t poles.
Telophase
N uclear m e m b ra n e s re fo rm a ro u n d th e
ch ro m a tid s, n o w called ch ro m o so m es, at each
pole (F igure 3e). The ch ro m o so m es u n co il, th e
cell divides a n d th e tw o d a u g h te r cells e n te r
in te rp h a se again.

nuclear
^/envelope
disintegrates

Metaphase
pate
equator

(c)

spindle
microtubules
sister chromatids
Spindle apparatus

(e)
Cleavage
furrow

Fig u re 3 The stages of mitosis:

Nuclear
envelope
forming

(a) early and (b) late prophase.

(c) metaphase. (d) anaphase.
(e)

telophase.

37

h f

Meiosis

S ex u al re p ro d u c tio n is a m e th o d o p ro d u c in g offspring th a t also

g en erates genetic d iv ersity in a species. In eu k a ry o tic o rganism s, it
involves th e process o fertilizatio n . F e rtiliz a tio n is th e u n i n of sex
cells, or g am etes, u su a lly fro m tw o d ifferen t p a re n ts. F ertiliz atio n
w o u ld double th e h e re d ita ry in fo rm a tio n each g en e ratio n , if th e
process of creatin g g am etes did n o t involve th e h a lv in g of h e re d ita ry
in fo rm a tio n before fertilizatio n .
As a co n se q u en ce of fertiliza tio n , h u m a n s h av e p airs of
ch ro m o so m es, w ith one ch ro m o so m e in a p a ir fro m each p a re n t.
A n u cleu s like th is w ith tw o ch ro m o so m es of each ty p e is d ip lo id .
A n u cleu s w ith o n ly o n e ch ro m o so m e of each ty p e is h a p lo id .
M eiosis is th e process by w h ic h h e re d ita ry in fo rm a tio n is halv ed
d u rin g th e p ro d u c tio n of gam etes. It is ach iev ed by h alv in g th e
n u m b e r of ch ro m o so m es. The process can be su m m a riz e d as follow s
(see F ig u re 1).
1 D u rin g in te rp h a s e , th e ch ro m o so m es replicate. E ach
ch ro m o so m e consist of tw o id en tical c h ro m a tid s.
2 At th e s ta rt of m eiosis I, hom ologous ch ro m o so m es p a ir up. The
ho m o lo g o u s ch ro m o so m es ex c h an g e genetic m a te ria l w ith each
o th e r in a process te rm e d Crossing over.
3 D u rin g m eiosis I, th e hom ologous p a irs of ch ro m o so m es
sep arate. O ne of each p a ir goes to each of th e tw o d a u g h te r cells.
The re su lt is tw o haploid d a u g h te r cells.
4
In m eiosis II, th e tw o d a u g h te r nuclei divide again. This tim e th e
ch ro m a tid s of each ch ro m o so m e separate. M eiosis II is sim ila r to
m itosis. The e n d re su lt is fo u r haploid cells.

homologous
chromosomes

daughter

\ nud* 1 f s

( n jijf c x M
n

meiosis II

\3 /
n

daughta

( 'v i)

nucie" vS/
n

F ig u re 1 Outline of meiosis

Table 1 gives m o re d etailed in fo rm a tio n ab o u t th e seq u en ce of events.

T a b le 1 Diagrams in the central column represent animal meiosis while most of the micrographs in the final column are cells from
the anther of a Lily.
N u c le a r
e n v e lo p e
d is in te g ra te s

Prophase I
Cell has 2n chromosomes (double
chromatid): n is haploid number of
chromosomes.
Homologous chromosomes pair (synapsis).

C h ro m o so m es
e a c h c o n s is t o f
t w o sister
c h ro m a tid s
S p in d le
m ic r o tu b u le s

Crossing over occurs.

P ro p h a s e I

C h ia s m a
( p o in t o f
cross o v e r)

Metaphase I
Spindle microtubules move homologous
pairs to equator of cell.
Orientation of paternal and maternal

E q u a to r

chromosomes on either side of equator

is random and independent of other
homologous pairs.

127
M e ta p h a s e I

 M eiosis

11

Telophase I

N u c le a r e n v e lo p e s
f o r m in g

Chromosomes uncoil. During interphase

that follows, no replication occurs.
Reduction of chromosome number from
diploid to haploid completed.
Cytokinesis occurs.

N u c le o lu s

C le a v a g e

f o r m in g

fu rro w

T e lo p h a s e I

Prophase II

Chromosomes, which still consist of two

chromatids, condense and become visible.

S p in d le m ic r o t u b u le s
f o r m in g a t r ig h t a n g le s
t o p r e v io u s s p in d le

P r o p h a s e II

Metaphase II

C h r o m o s o m e s lin e u p
a lo n g e q u a to r

M e ta p h a s e II

Anaphase II

D a u g h te r c h r o m o s o m e s
s e p a ra te

Centromeres separate and chromatids are

moved to opposite poles.

A n a p h a s e II

Telophase II
Chromatids reach opposite poles
Nuclear envelope forms
Cytokinesis occurs

T e lo p h a s e II

N u c le a r e n v e lo p e
d is in te g r a te s

INIWI I

U I J J U I

IV-UIWI I

M eiosis is so m etim es subject to errors. O ne ex a m p le of th is is w h e n

ho m o lo g o u s ch ro m o so m es fail to sep a rate at an a p h a se . This is
te rm e d n o n -d isju n c tio n . In o th e r w ords, segregation does n o t o cc u r
for a c e rta in p a ir of hom ologous ch ro m o so m es. The re su lt w ill be
a g am ete th a t e ith e r h as a n e x tra ch ro m o so m e or is deficient in a
ch ro m o so m e. If th e g am ete is involved in h u m a n fertiliza tio n , th e
re su lt w ill be a n in d iv id u a l w ith e ith e r 45 or 47 ch ro m o so m es.

For each of the following

syndromes, research the
chromosomes involved in the
non-disjunction event and some
of the component features of the
resulting syndrome.
a) Turner's syndrome
b) Klinefelter's syndrome
c) Patau syndrome.

A n ab n o rm al n u m b e r of chrom osom es w ill often lead to a person

possessing a syndrom e, i.e. a collection of physical signs or sym ptom s.
For exam ple trisom y 21, also k n o w n as D ow n syndrom e, is due
to a n o n -d isju n ctio n event th a t leaves th e individual w ith th re e of
chrom osom e n u m b e r 21 instead of tw o. W hile individuis vary, some
of th e co m p o n en t features of th e syndrom e include h earin g loss, h ea rt
a n d visin disorders. M ental a n d g ro w th re tard atio n are also com m on.
diploid parent
cell with two
chromosome 21
gamete with no
chromosome 21

gamete with two

chromosome 21

cell dies

trisomy: zygote
with three
chromosome 21

F ig u re 2 How non-disjunction can give rise to Down syndrome

Data-based question: risk of chromosomal abnormalities

with advancing age of the parent

1 Outline the relationship between

The data presented n Figure 3 shows the relationship between

maternal age and the incidence of

maternal age and the incidence of trisomy 21 and of other

chromosomal abnormalities in live

chromosomal abnormalities.

births. [2]

2 (a) For mothers 40 years of age,

determine the probability that
trisomy 21

they will give birth to a child

with trisomy 21. [1]

all
chromosomal
abnormalities

(b ) Using the data in Figure 3,

calclate the probability that
a mother of 40 years of age
will give birth to a child with
a chromosomal abnormality
other than trisomy 21. [2]
3 Only a small number of possible

20

40

60

maternal age (years)

chromosomal abnormalities are ever

found among live births, and trisomy

F ig u re 3 The incidence of trisomy 21 and other chromosomal

abnormalities as a function of maternal age

21 is much the commonest. Suggest

reasons for these trends. [3]
4 Discuss the risks parents face
when choosing to postpone
having children. [2]

129

11

Meiosis

(a)

Testing for D ow n syndrom e

S S

For older p a re n ts, a sta n d a rd clin ical practice is to a d m in is te r a

se ru m blo o d test su ch as th e trip le test or th e q u ad test. These are
blood tests p e rfo rm e d on e x p e c ta n t m o th e rs th a t look for u n u s u a l
levels of su ch chem icals as a lp h a -fe to p ro te in (AFP) a n d h u m a n
ch o rio n ic g o n a d o tro p in (HCG). AFP is p ro d u c ed in th e yolk sac a n d
in th e liver of th e developing fetus. HCG is p ro d u c ed by th e p lacen ta.
The levels of each of th ese chem icals in th e m o th e r's blood varies
w ith th e g estatio n al age of th e p re g n an cy . W ith triso m y 21, th e
m o th e r's blood w ill sh o w levels of A FP th a t are ab o u t 25 p e r cent
lo w er th a n n o rm a l levels a n d HCG levels th a t are a p p ro x im a te ly tw o
tim es h ig h e r th a n th e n o rm a l HCG level.
If th e se ru m test raises co n cern , th a n p a re n ts w ill be advised of
th e o p tio n to h av e a k a ry o ty p e p ro d u c ed w h ic h can give a m ore
d efin itiv e diagnosis. A k a ry o ty p e (see F ig u re 4) is a n o rg an ized
im age of m e ta p h a se fetal ch ro m o so m es. T ech n ician s sta in th e
ch ro m o so m es, w h ic h re su lts in a b a n d in g p a tte rn . The te c h n ic ia n
c a n th e n o rg an ize th e ch ro m o so m es by th e ir le n g th , th e p o sitio n of
th e ir c e n tro m e re a n d by th e b a n d in g p a tte rn .
ultrasound transducer
bladder/
chorionic vfli

amniotic fluid
fetus (8-10 weeks) ^

cathete

y a=

Ts

?!
s
yy

T7
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f g s g
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6

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13

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m.. m
II

ss
10

81

10

11

12

88

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SI

14

15

16

17

M
gtt

18

mm
li
19

20

21

22

(b)

r i;| V

ff Ir ji {> 1/ i
! f ir
II k n
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# * f *
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vagina
uterine cavity

Figure 5 Ultrasound sean mage of

Figure 6 Chorionic villus sampling

12-week-old fetus

(Figure 4a) and photograph of a

human karyotype (Figure 4b)

There are tw o procedures for o btaining th e fetal chrom osom es

to produce th e karyotype. O ne procedure, called am niocentesis,
involves passing a needle th ro u g h th e m o th er's abdom inal w all, using
u ltraso u n d to guide th e needle. Figure 5 show s a n u ltraso u n d sean
im age of a fetus. The needle is used to w ith d raw a sam ple of am niotic
fluid from th e am n io tic sac of a developing fetus. Cells from th e fetus in
th e am n io tic fluid are cu ltu red a n d th e n used to p rep are a karyotype.
A second p ro c e d u re for o b ta in in g fetal ch ro m o so m es is ch o rio n ic
v illu s sam p lin g , or cvs. This p ro c e d u re sam ples cells fro m th e
p lacen ta, specifically th e ch o rio n , ra th e r th a n th e a m n io tic fluid. It
c a n be d o n e e a rlier th a n a m n io ce n te sis a n d th e sam p lin g tool ca n
e n te r th ro u g h th e vag in a (see F ig u re 6).

1 (a) For Figure 4a, distinguish between:

(i) chromosome 5 and chromosome 6
(i) chromosome 17 and chromosome 18
(iii) the X and Y chromosome. [3]
2 (a) State the gender of the subject of the human karyotype in Figure 4b. [1]

i^ n

Q+3+o x A / h o t h o r t h o

Figure 4 A diagram of the 24 types

of chromosomes in humans

le a n / n h / n o chn\A /c an\/ p h n n r m ^ l l t i p

rn

um asm aia
D u rin g p ro p h a se I of m eiosis, all of th e ch ro m a tid s of tw o
ho m o lo g o u s ch ro m o so m es becom e tig h tly associated in a process
called synapsis. The re su ltin g c o m b in ed p a ir of hom ologous
ch ro m o so m es is called a b iv alen t (referrin g to th e tw o hom ologous
ch ro m o so m es) or a te tra d (referrin g to th e fo u r c h ro m a tid s w ith in
th e s tru c tu re ).
The m a te rn a l a n d p a te rn a l ch ro m o so m es ex c h an g e co rresp o n d in g
sectio n s of DNA a n d once Crossing over is com plete, n e w
co m b in atio n s of aleles w ill h av e b ee n created. The process by w h ic h
o ffspring possess a co m b in atio n of aleles d ifferen t fro m th a t of
e ith e r p a re n t is called re c o m b in a tio n (see F ig u re 7).
A ch iasm a is a n X -shaped s tru c tu re fo rm ed b e tw e e n n o n -sister
ch ro m a tid s d u rin g p ro p h a se I of m eiosis. The c h ia sm a is a physical
m a n ife sta tio n of Crossing over. U sually b e tw e e n o n e a n d th re e
c h ia sm a ta form p e r hom ologous p a ir (F igure 8). The ch iasm a ta
p ersist th ro u g h m e ta p h a se I a n d play a role in th e p re v e n tio n of n o n d isju n ctio n .

Fig u re 7 The process o f Crossing over

Meiosis and genetic variety

The ra n d o m o rie n ta tio n of ch ro m o so m es at m e ta p h a se I leads to
v a ria tio n w ith in offspring. F or ev ery ch ro m o so m e pair, th e n u m b e r
of possible ch ro m o so m e co m b in atio n s doubles. For a hap lo id
n u m b e r of n, th e n u m b e r of possible co m b in atio n s is 2". For h u m a n s
w ith a h ap lo id n u m b e r of 23 th is a m o u n ts to 2 23 or over 8 m illio n
co m b in atio n s. C rossing over in creases th is n u m b e r still f u r th e r - so
m u c h so th a t m eiosis c a n p ro d u ce a n effectively lim itless n u m b e r of
gen etically d iffe ren t h aploid cell ty p es fro m o n e diploid cell ty p e.

F ig u re 8 This image shows that mltiple chiasmata can form

within one tetrad.

131