Direct Current and Electric Current

1.

2.

3.

4.
5.

dq
.
dt
By convention, the direction of electric current is taken as the direction in which positive charge carriers
would move.





Current density: Current density is related to the current as i = J dA , where dA is a vector
perpendicular to a surface element of area dA, and the integral is taken over any surface cutting across


the conductor. J has the same direction as the velocity of the moving positive charges.


Drift speed: When an electric field E is established in a conductor, the charge carriers (assumed




positive) acquire a drift speed vd in the direction of E ; the velocity is related to current density J as :




J = (ne)vd .
Electric current: An electric current i in a conductor is defined by i =

Resistance of a conductor: If V is the p.d. applied across the conductor and i is the corresponding
current, then its resistance is defined as: R = V/i.
Change in or R with temperature: If R0 is the resistance of a wire at temperature 0C, then
resistance at any temperature t is R t
R 0 (1 + t) , where is the temperature coefficient of resistance. It
1 dR t
.
can be defined as =
R 0 dt

6.

Ohms law: Under given physical conditions the current i produced in the conductor is proportional to
the applied potential difference across the conductor.

7.

Combination of cells:
i) In series: If n identical cells each of emf and internal resistance r are connected in series, then
n

, in case when nr << R, i
n .

current in external resistor R: i =
nr + R
R

ii) In parallel: i =
, in case R << nr, i
n .
r
r
+R
n
n
iii)Series-parallel: If n cells are connected in series and m cells are in parallel, then i =
.
nr
+R
m

8.

Delta-star transformation: A combination of three resistors in the form of delta can be effectively
converted into star. A delta of three resistors R1, R2 and R3 in equivalent to a star with three resistors
R12, R13 and R23, where
R1R 2
R12 =
R1 + R 2 + R 3

R13 =

R1R 3
R1 + R 2 + R 3

R 23 =

R 2R 3
R1 + R 2 + R 3
B

R1
R3

A
R2

C
Delta of three
resistors

R12

R13

R23
C
Star of three
resistors


For any two junctions RAB in delta is equal to RAB in star, similarly RAC and RBC.
9. Meter bridge: It is used to find unknown resistance. If
be the balanced length and R is the known
1

.
resistance, then unknown resistance S = R


10. Potentiometer: It is an ideal devise of finding emf of the cells, internal resistance of the cell etc.

e

R0

If R0 is the resistance of the potentiometer wire, then emf of the cell e =

, where
is the balancing

0

length and
0 is the length of the potentiometer wire.

Internal resistance: r = R 1 2 , where
1 and
2 are the balancing lengths without R and with R.

2
11. Ammeter: Galvanometer of resistance G and full scale deflection current ig can be converted into an
ammeter of range i by connecting a shunt of resistance S, such that
S
ig = i
S+G
SG
Resistance of ammeter, R A =
S+ G
12. Voltmeter: A galvanometer of resistance G and full scale deflection current ig can be converted into a
voltmeter of range V by connecting a large resistance R0 in series, such that V = ig (G + R 0 ) .


Thermal and Chemical Effects of Current
1.

Electrical appliances: The resistance of any electrical appliance of power Pdesign and Vdesign can be
2
Vdesign
Pdesign
.
obtained by: R =
. The allowable current: i =
Vdesign
Pdesign

2.

In houses the electrical appliances are connected in parallel. If appliances of powers P1, P2, are
connected in parallel across the design voltage V, then total power consumed
P = P1 + P2 + .
1 1 1
In series: = + + ...
P P1 P2

3.

Fuse wire: In a fuse wire, the change in its temperature for the constant current i is given
i 2
by = 2 3 . For the given material of fuse wire i2 r3.
2 r C

4.

Chemical effect of direct current:

i) Faradays I law: The amount of substance deposited or liberated on any electrode is proportional to
the charge flows in the electrolyte solution. Thus m = zq = z it, where z is called electrochemical
equivalent.
ii) Faradays II law: If same amount of charge flows in two different electrolyte solutions, then the
ratio of amounts of substances deposited is proportional to their chemical equivalent. Thus
m1 W1
=
.
m 2 W2
W
= F (1F = 96500 c / eq) .
Z

5.

Faraday constant:

6.

Seebeck effect: The conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy is known as Seebeck effect.
bt 2
The emf across the junctions of two different metals is given by = at +
, where a and b are
2
Seebecks constants.

7.

Neutral temperature: It is constant for any thermocouple. Neutral temperature

t +t
a
t n = c i also t n =
2
b

The maximum value of will occur at tn, which is max =

8.

9.

a2
.
b

Law of intermediate metal: For thermocouples made of A, B ; B, C and A, C

AB + BC = AC
Law of intermediate temperature: For any thermocouple [ AB ]t3 + [ AB ]t 2 = [ AB ]t 2
t

10. Thermoelectric power of Seebeck coefficient: S =

11. Peltier coefficient: =

d
= a + bt
dt

H
d
=T .
Q
dt

12. Thomson coefficient: =

H
dS
= T .
Qt
dt