Schulung CERN 2014 May

CERN, Geneva
ANSYS Workbench Advanced Training

October 28th- 31st 2013
Dr. Davide Valtorta

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CAE-Simulation Key to Success

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Table of Contents
Release 14.5
ANSYS Mechanical
Workbench Advanced Training
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Table of Contents Structural Nonlinearities

Introduction
1.
Nonlinear Overview
A. What is nonlinear behavior?
B. Types of nonlinearities
C. Nonlinear Solutions using linear solvers
D. General Nonlinear Issues
2.
3.
4.
5.
General Nonlinear Procedures

A.
Building a Nonlinear Model
B.
Analysis Settings
C.
Reviewing Nonlinear Results
Workshops 2A & 2B
Stabilization
A.
Background
B.
Nonlinear Stabilization
C.
Controlling Stabilization Force
D.
Stabilization Input
E.
Reviewing Results
F.
Workshops 5A
6.
Introduction to Contact
A.
Definitions
B.
Formulations
C.
Stiffness and Penetration
D.
Workshop 3A
E.
Pinball
F.
Symmetric vs Asymmetric
G.
Contact Results
H.
Workshop 3B
Nonlinear Diagnostics
A.
Solution Information
B.
Monitoring the Solution
C.
Newton-Raphson Residuals
D.
Example Cases
E.
Tips on Solving the Model
F.
Workshop 6A
7.
Nonlinear Transient Analysis

A.
Definition and Purpose
B.
Solution Techniques in Mechanical
C.
Nonlinearities in Transient Analyses
D.
Full Solution Method
E.
Modal Superposition Method
Metal Plasticity
A.
Overview
B.
Yield Criteria
C.
Hardening Rules
D.
Material Data Input
E.
Workshops 4A
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October 25, 2013
Table of Contents Advanced Nonlinearities

Advanced Contact Nonlinearities
Advanced Material Nonlinearities
A1.
Nonlinear Connections
A.
General review of Contact Technology
B.
Auto Detection Options
C.
Using the Contact Tool
D.
General review of Joint Technology
E.
Springs & Beams
F.
Spot Welds
G.
Connection Worksheet
B1.
Rate Dependent Material Behavior: Creep

A.
Background on Creep
B.
Definition of Terms
C.
General Creep Equation
D.
Available Creep Models
E.
Material Input
F.
Solution Procedure
G.
Review Creep Results
H.
Workshop
A2.
Contact Interface Treatment

A.
Rigid Body Motion
B.
Contact Surface Offset
C.
Contact Stabilization Damping
D.
MPC Interface Options
E.
Time Step Controls
F.
Friction
B2.
Hyperelasticity
A.
Background on Elastomers
B.
Introduction to Hyperelasticity Theory
C.
Available Models
D.
Mixed u-P Formulation
E.
Curve fitting procedure
F.
Analysis Settings
G.
Running the Solution
A3.
Accessing Advanced Contact Features via MAPDL

A.
Background on Contact Pair
B.
Contact Documentation
C.
MAPDL Command Syntax
D.
General Procedure
B3.
Element Technology
A.
Element Technology Options for Nonlinear Simulations
A4.
Bolt Pretension
A.
Overview of Bolts and Fasteners Modeling in ANSYS
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Table of Contents Using Command Objects

ANSYS Mechanical Advanced Using Command Objects
C1.
Introduction
A.
Using Command Objects: Motivation
B.
Examples
C2.
ANSYS
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
C3.
MAPDL Element Attributes

A.
Main Menu Structure
B.
Element Attibutes
C.
Element Types
D.
Material Properties
E.
Real Constants and Section Attributes
F.
Coordinate Systems
G.
Element Attributes from Mechanical
C4.
APDL Commands
A.
APDL Commands
B.
LOG File
C.
Parameters
D.
Control Logic
C5 .
Using APDL in Mechanical Part I
C6 .
Using APDL in Mechanical Part II
Mechanical APDL
Introduction to MAPDL
Launching Mechanical APDL
Mechanical APDL Files
Mechanical APDL GUI
Graphics
Existing MAPDL
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Introduction
14. 5 Release
ANSYS Mechanical
Introduction to Structural Nonlinearities
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Welcome!
Welcome to the Introduction to Structural Nonlinearities in ANSYS Mechanical
training course!
This training course covers basic procedures for performing structural
nonlinear analyses using the Mechanical Interface.
It is intended for users already familiar with the procedures for performing a
linear static analysis in the Mechanical environment.
Prerequisite is ANSYS-Mechanical Introduction-Part I
Advanced Nonlinear Materials and Advanced Contact are covered in separate
classes.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Course Materials
The Training Manual you have is an exact copy of the slides.
Workshop descriptions and instructions are included in the training manual.
Copies of the workshop files are available via download from customer portal
Several advanced training courses are available on specific topics. See the
training course schedule on the ANSYS homepage http://www.ansys.com/
under Services >Training...
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Course Objectives
Review Background on Nonlinearities
Types of Nonlinearities
Theory & Assumptions
Present General Set-up Procedures in Mechanical
Introduction Large Deflection
Introduction to Contact Technology
Introduction to Metal Plasticity
Convergence Diagnostics Tools
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Topics Covered
Main Chapters
1. Overview
2. General Procedures
3. Introduction to Contact
4. Introduction Metal Plasticity
5. Stabilization
6. Nonlinear Diagnostics
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October 25, 2013
Lecture 1
Overview
ANSYS Mechanical
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Chapter Overview
In this chapter, an overview of the basics of nonlinear finiteelement analysis (FEA) is presented:
A. What is Nonlinear Behavior?

B. Types of Nonlinearities
C. Nonlinear solution using linear solvers
D. Nonlinear FEA issues
The purpose is to give you an understanding of the fundamental nature of
nonlinear FEA.
The capabilities described in this section are generally applicable to Structural
licenses and above.
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A. What is nonlinear behavior?

Recall, in the 1600s, Robert Hooke discovered a simple linear relationship
between force (F) and displacement (u), known as Hookes Law:
F = Ku
The constant K represents structural stiffness.
A linear structure obeys this linear relationship.
A common example is a simple spring:
F
K
F
K
u
Linear structures are well-suited to finite-element analysis, which is

based on linear matrix algebra.
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... What is nonlinear behavior?

Significant classes of structures do not have a linear relationship between force
and displacement.
Because a plot of F versus u for such structures is not a straight line, such
structures are said to be nonlinear.
The stiffness is no longer a constant, but varies as you progress through the load path
KT (tangent stiffness) represents the tangent to the force deflection curve at a particular
point in the load path.
KT
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October 25, 2013
... What is nonlinear behavior?

A structure is nonlinear if the loading causes significant changes in stiffness.
Typical reasons for stiffness change are:
Strains beyond the elastic limit (plasticity)

Large deflections, such as a loaded fishing rod
Changing Status (Contact between two bodies, Element birth/death)
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October 25, 2013
B. Types of Nonlinearities
There are three main sources of nonlinearities:
Geometric nonlinearities: If a structure

experiences large deformations, its
changing geometric configuration can
cause nonlinear behavior.
Material nonlinearities: A nonlinear stress-strain

relationship, such as metal plasticity shown on
the right, is another source of nonlinearities.
Contact: A changing status nonlinearity, where

an abrupt change in stiffness may occur when
bodies come into or out of contact with each
other.
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Types of Nonlinearities
Of course, all three types of nonlinearities can be encountered in combination.
Mechanical can readily handle combined nonlinear effects.
Rubber Boot Seal

An example of nonlinear
geometry (large strain and
large deformation),
nonlinear material
(rubber), and changing
status nonlinearities
(contact).
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B. Nonlinear solution using linear solvers

How does Mechanical solve for a changing stiffness?
In a nonlinear analysis, the response cannot be predicted directly with a set of linear
equations.
However, a nonlinear structure can be analyzed using an iterative series of linear

approximations, with corrections.
Mechanical uses an iterative process called the Newton-Raphson Method. Each iteration
is known as an equilibrium iteration.
Load
F
3
A full Newton-Raphson iterative

analysis for one increment of load.
(Four iterations are shown.)
2
1
u
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Displacement
Nonlinear solution using linear solvers

The actual relationship between load and displacement (shown
with a blue dotted line) is not known beforehand.
Consequently, a series of linear approximations with corrections is performed.
This is a simplified explanation of the Newton-Raphson method (shown as
solid red lines)
In the Newton-Raphson Method, the total
Newton-Raphson Method
load Fa is applied in iteration 1. The result

Fa
is x1. From the displacements, the internal
4
3
forces F1 can be calculated. If Fa F1, then
2
the system is not in equilibrium. Hence,
F1
a new stiffness matrix (slope of dotted line) is
calculated based on the current conditions.
1
The difference of Fa - F1 is the out-of-balance
or residual forces. The residual forces must
be small enough for the solution to converge.
x
x1
This process is repeated until Fa = Fi. In this example, after iteration 4, the system achieves
equilibrium and the solution is said to be converged.
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Nonlinear solution using linear solvers

The difference between external and internal loads, {Fa} - {Fnr}, is called the
residual. It is a measure of the force imbalance in the structure.
The goal is to iterate until the residual becomes acceptably small; that is,
until the solution is converged.
When convergence is achieved, the solution is in equilibrium, within an
acceptable tolerance.
{
{Fa}
{Fnr}
Fa
Fnr
u
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... Nonlinear solution using linear solvers

The Newton-Raphson method:
Is not guaranteed to converge in all cases!
Will converge only if the starting configuration is inside the radius of
convergence.
Load
Load
Diverging!
Converged
ustart
Displacement
Starting outside the

radius of convergence
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ustartu
Displacement
Starting inside the radius

of convergence

Two techniques can help you obtain a converged solution:
F1
ustart
Apply load incrementally to move

the target closer to the start
ustart
Use convergence-enhancement
tools to enlarge the radius of
convergence
Mechanical combines both strategies to obtain convergence.

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As a general rule, sudden changes to any aspect of a system will cause
convergence difficulties.
With this in mind, it is useful to understand how loads are managed
Load steps differentiate changes in general loading.

In the Figure at the bottom right, Fa and Fb are loadsteps.
Substeps apply the loads in an incremental fashion

Because of the complex response, it
may be necessary to apply the load
incrementally. For example, Fa1 may be
near 50% of the Fa load. After the load
for Fa1 is converged, then the full Fa load
is applied. Fa has 2 substeps while Fb
has 3 substeps in this example
Fb
Fb2
Fb1
Fa
Fa1
xa
xb
Equilibrium iterations are the corrective

solutions to obtain a converged substep
In this example, the iterations between the dotted lines indicate equilibrium iterations.
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C. Nonlinear FEA Issues

Three main issues arise whenever you do a nonlinear finite element analysis:
Obtaining convergence
Balancing expense versus accuracy
Verification
It takes care and skill to

juggle these three
issues successfully!
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Nonlinear FEA Issues

Obtaining convergence
Usually your biggest challenge.
Solution must start within the radius of convergence.
The radius of convergence is unknown!

If solution converges, the start was within the radius.
If solution fails to converge, the start was outside the radius.
Trial-and-error is sometimes required.

Experience and training reduce your trial-and-error effort.
Difficult problems might require many load increments, and many iterations at
each load increment, to reach convergence.
When many iterations are required, the overall solution time increases.
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Balancing expense versus accuracy
All FEA involves a trade-off between expense (elapsed time, disk and memory
requirements) and accuracy.
More detail and a finer mesh generally lead to a more accurate solution, but
require more time and system resources.
Nonlinear analyses add an extra factor, the number of load increments, which
affects both accuracy and expense. More increments =improve the accuracy,
with increase the expense.
Other nonlinear parameters, such as contact stiffness (discussed later), can also
affect both accuracy and expense.
Use your own engineering judgment to determine how much accuracy you
need, how much expense you can afford.
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Verification
In a nonlinear analysis, as in any finite-element analysis, you must verify your
results.
Due to the increased complexity of nonlinear behavior, nonlinear results are
generally more difficult to verify.
Sensitivity studies (increasing mesh density, decreasing load increment, varying
other model parameters) become more expensive.
Stress
Mesh Density
Typical Sensitivity Study

Later chapters will provide modeling tips for different nonlinear situations.
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Lecture 2
General Procedures
ANSYS Mechanical
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Chapter Overview
In this chapter, general tools and procedures useful for achieving convergence and
post processing results are introduce. These tools are not specific to a particular
source of nonlinearity.
A. Building a Nonlinear Model
B. Obtaining a nonlinear solution
Step Controls
Solver Controls
Restart Controls
Nonlinear Controls
Output Controls
Analysis Data Management
C. Postprocessing Nonlinear Results
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October 25, 2013
A. Building a nonlinear model

What is different about building a nonlinear model vs. a linear model?
In some cases, there will be no difference!
A model undergoing mildly nonlinear behavior due to large deflection and stress
stiffening effects might need no modification with regards to geometry set up and
meshing.
In other cases, you must include special features:
Elements with special properties (such as contact elements)

Nonlinear Material data (such as plasticity and creep data)
Include geometric features (i.e. radius at sharp corners) to overcome singularities that
cause convergence trouble.
You might also need to give special attention to:

Mesh control considerations under large deflection
Element technology options under large deflection with nonlinear materials
Load and boundary condition limitations under large deflection
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... Building a nonlinear model

With regards to meshing, if large strains are expected, the shape checking option
may be changed to Aggressive
For large-deflection analyses, if elements undergo some change in shape, this may
reduce the fidelity of the solution.
Aggressive shape checking offers an improved element quality in anticipation of

excessive distortion in a large-strain analysis.
The default Standard shape checking is suitable
for linear analyses.
Depending on complexity of geometry, can
sometimes cause failures during mesh generation
Refer to Mechanical Intro, pt1 for ways to
detect and remedy mesh failures.
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October 25, 2013

For any structural element, DOF solution u is solved at nodes, stresses and
strains are calculated at integration points. They are derived from DOF.
For example, we can determine

strains from displacements via:
= B u
,
Where B is called the strain-displacement matrix
u
The image on the right shows a 4-node quad element with 2x2 integration,
integration points shown in red.
When we post-process results, stress/strain values at integration points are
extrapolated or copied to nodal locations
linear results are extrapolated, nonlinear results are copied
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October 25, 2013

With Element Control set to Manual, users can manually toggle between Full
and Reduced Integration Schemes
This option influences the number of integration points within an element.
Forcing a full integration order only applies to higher order elements, which have a
uniform reduced integration order by default.

It is sometimes helpful to force full integration when only one element exists across
the thickness of a part for improved accuracy.
Refer to the Element Technology Chapter of the Advanced Materials Course for a
detailed discussion of options.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

By default, Mechanical element technology will mesh geometry with higher
order elements (with midside nodes).
Users have the option to drop midside nodes

Kept midside nodes
(Quadratic shape function)
20-Node Hex
Dropped midside nodes

(Linear shape function)
8-Node Hex
In challenging large deflection, bending dominated problems with nearly or fully

compressible nonlinear materials, it can sometimes be advantageous to drop the
midside nodes and allow the code to implement enhanced strain formulations
automatically
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It is important to note the orientation of loads and its effect on the structure
in large-deflection analyses:
Direction Before
Deflection
Load
Acceleration
(constant direction)
Force, Moment,
Bolt Load
(constant direction)
Pressure
(always normal to
surface)
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October 25, 2013
Direction After
Deflection
B. Obtaining a nonlinear solution

What is different about obtaining a nonlinear solution?
Linear static requires only one pass
through the matrix equation solver

K
F = Ku
Nonlinear performs a new solution

F
with every iteration
Ki
Fi = Kiui
2
1
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... Obtaining a nonlinear solution

What is different about obtaining a nonlinear solution?
Analysis Settings has many options that need to be
considered for a nonlinear run.
Step Control - Load steps, Substeps, Autotime stepping

Solver Control - Choosing the right Solver type
Restart Controls - resuming a solve
Nonlinear Controls - N-R convergence criteria
Output Controls - controlling what data is saved
Analysis Data Management deleting/keeping files
In the following slides, we consider each of these tools
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Step Controls
Auto Time Stepping calculates an optimum
time step at the end of each substep, based
on the response of the structure to the
applied loads.
- User specifies an initial number of substeps
along with a range (minimum and maximum).
Auto Time Stepping has the effect of

adjusting the load increment (up and down)
throughout the solution.
Load
- Smaller increments when convergence is

difficult, larger increments when convergence is
easy.
Time
tstart
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tmin
tmax

Step Controls (contd)
Recall that breaking the load into
increments improves convergence by
bringing the start point within the radius
of convergence.
F
If Mechanical has trouble converging, the

auto time stepping algorithm will bisect
the solution.
- Bisection returns to the last successfully
converged substep and applies the load in a
smaller increment (thereby using more
substeps within the specified range).
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F1
ustart

Step Controls (contd)
For Auto Time Stepping = Program Controlled (Default), Mechanical will
automatically set specifications depending on the nature of the nonlinearity
in the model.
- User should always verify that these values are adequate by checking the Solution
Information folder at the beginning of the run and watching for bisections.
- Discussed in more detail in Chapter 6 Nonlinear Diagnostics
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Solver Controls
Solver Type offers two options, Direct and
Iterative.
- This is a reference to the way the code builds the
stiffness matrix for each Newton-Raphson
equilibrium iteration.
- Direct (Sparse) solver is more robust and is
recommended for challenging nonlinear models
and with noncontinuum elements (shells and
beams).
- Iterative (PCG) solver is more efficient (in terms of
run time) and is recommended for large bulk solid
models dominated by linear elastic behavior.
- The default Program Controlled will automatically
select a solver based on the problem currently in
session.
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Solver Controls (contd)
By setting Large Deflection = ON, in the
Solver Control branch of Analysis Settings:
- Adjustments are made to the stiffness matrix
over multiple iterations to account for changes
such as large deflection, large rotation and large
strain during the course of the analysis.
- Stress stiffening and spin softening effects are
included.
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Workshop 2A Large Deflection

Please refer to your Workshop Supplement for instructions on:
W2A- Small Deflection Vs. Large Deflection Analysis
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Restart Controls facilitate
Pausing or stopping a run to review results
in progress.
Changing analysis settings to correct an
unconverged solution.
Modifying existing Loads.
Extending a solution that has already
completed.
- For example, to allow system transients to
progress further into time.
Adding post processing command object(s)

after the model has been fully solved.
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Restart Controls (contd)
With Generate Restart Points set to Program
Controlled
Restart points are automatically created by
Mechanical depending on the analysis type.
- This setting typically creates one restart point at the
last successful solve point for a nonlinear analysis.
- You can manually interrupt a solution and preserve
any restart points that may have been produced
from a converged iteration by clicking the Interrupt
Solution button on the Solution Status window.
- Note: A stand-alone linear analysis will not
produce any restart points with the program
controlled option. It has to be explicitly turned on
using the manual setting (next slide). However, if
the analysis is linked to a follow on modal
analysis, it will generate restart points by default.
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Restart Controls (Contd)
With Generate Restart Points set to Manual
Load Step: Specifies at what load steps to create restart
points (Last or All).
Substep: Specifies how often the restart points are
created within a load step.
- Last: Create a restart point for the last substep of
each load step only.
- All: Creates restart points for all substeps of each
load step.
- Specified: Creates restart points for a user specified
number (N) of substeps per load step.
Where N is defined in Rate of Recurrence Field
- Equally Spaced: Creates specified number (N) of

restart points at equally spaced time intervals
within a load step.
Where N is defined in Rate of Recurrence Field
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Max Points to Save per Step
- Default is All (=999)
- When the maximum number has been saved for each
load step, the first file of that load step will be
overwritten for subsequent substeps.
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For example, to write 3 equally spaced restart files for each load step:
Load
r5
r6 (last
converged)
r4
r3
r2
r1
Time
LS1
Substeps
Restart
points
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LS2

Retain Files After Full Solve:
Restart files are automatically deleted if a full
solve completes successfully (default)
User has the option to keep restart files regardless
by setting this field to YES.
Restart files are always retained for an

incomplete solve due to a convergence failure or
if solution run is manually interrupted.
Under Analysis Data Management, setting Future
Analysis to Prestressed analysis also forces the
restart files to be retained.
Similarly, setting Delete Unneeded Files to No
implies that restart files are to be retained.
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At the completion of the run, users can specify the restart point for the
subsequent run.
If default restart controls were taken, restart will only be available for the
last successfully converged substep
Restart specifications:
Restart Type = Manual

Restart Point = Load Step 1, Substep 6
Once the restart specifications have been set and the analysis control
settings and/or existing loads have been adjusted as needed, execute a
solve to begin the solution restart
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Below is a summary of loads supported for restarts
Loads must already exist in the Project Tree from the start of the analysis
Adding a new load into the project tree will nullify the restart
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Nonlinear Controls
Tolerances on Convergence are calculated
automatically. They are used during the NewtonRaphson process to dictate when a model is
Converged or balanced
The default convergence criterion works very well
for most engineering applications.
For special situations, users can override these
defaults to Tighten or loosen the convergence
tolerance.
A tighter tolerance gives better accuracy, but can
make convergence more challenging
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Nonlinear Controls (Contd)
In addition to force balance, a moment balance
will also be included if rotational degrees of
freedom (DOF) are present in the model (i.e. when
beam and/or shell elements are present for
example).
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Nonlinear Controls (contd)
Balance checks on displacement and/or rotational
DOF values can also be added as a supplement to
force/moment balances.
- When Joints are present in a model, these

additional constraints will be added
automatically.
- When nonlinear contact is present, these
supplemental checks can sometimes be overly
restrictive and can cause unnecessary
divergence. User can remove as necessary.
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The Force Convergence graph displays a plot of the force criterion and residual
forces (force convergence) vs iteration.
When the residual is less than the criterion, the solution is converged.
Residual
Criteria
Similar plots are available for

moment convergence and for
displacement and rotational DOF
convergence when applicable.
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Each converged substep is
highlighed on this Force
Convergence Graph with a
vertical green dotted line.
Each converged loadstep is
highlighed with a blue
dotted line.
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If you add any convergence criteria, the program
deletes all the default criteria!
For example, if you override program control by
adding a displacement convergence check, the force
convergence check will be deleted.
Make sure you reestablish the force convergence check.
After redefining convergence criteria, you should

always confirm the specifications reported in the
Solution Information branch to ensure intended
balance checks are active.
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Because displacement-based
checking is a relative measure of
convergence, it should only be
used as a supplement to forcebased convergence.
Force-based convergence provides
an absolute measure of
convergence, as it is a measure of
equilibrium between the internal
and external forces.
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Big
g Residual
Why must you re-establish a force

convergence criterion?
Relying on displacement
convergence alone can in some
cases lead to erroneous results.

The Minimum reference value (MINREF) is a safety feature that prevents
your solution from trying to converge to a zero tolerance.
If free-body (unconstrained) systems or mechanisms have no external forces,
the criterion (eR * ||{F}||2) will be zero. If the criterion is zero, the solution will
never converge!
In such cases, the program redefines the criterion to be
(eR * MINREF). Where eR is the convergence tolerance value.
The default value that WB-Mechanical uses for MINREF depends on the physics
of the problem.
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Line Search is an additional tool intended to enhance convergence behavior.
When active, line search multiplies the displacement increment by a
program-calculated scale factor between 0 and 1, whenever a stiffening
response is detected, typical in a contact application.
- By default, the program turns Line Search ON when contact elements are present.
You can override the default to turn it on or off explicitly.
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Convergence criteria guidelines:
Default convergence criteria work well most of the time.
- You should rarely need to change the criteria.
To tighten or loosen a criterion, dont change the default reference value,

but instead change the tolerance factor by one or two orders of magnitude.
Do not use a loose criterion to eliminate convergence difficulties.
- This simply allows the solution to converge to an incorrect result!
Tightening the criterion requires more equilibrium iterations.

Review any MINREF warning messages during solution. Make sure the
minimum reference value used makes sense for the problem being solved.
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Stabilization is a nonlinear control intended to
deal with structural instability (buckling and/or
localized yielding).
- Analogous to adding artificial dampers or dashpot
elements at strategic locations.
Refer to Chapter 5 for detailed discussion.
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C. Reviewing nonlinear results

What is different about reviewing nonlinear results?
The procedure for reviewing nonlinear results is similar to that of a linear
problem. The difference is that there is usually more information to process
multiple results sets

more information per result set (i.e. contact status, pressure, penetration, inelastic
strains due to plasticity and or creep,...etc).
A nonlinear analyses produces a response history
Animated response history

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Response history graph
... Reviewing nonlinear results

In large deformation problems, one usually should view the
deformation with Actual scaling from the Result toolbar
Any of the structural results may be requested, such as Equivalent
Stress, shown below
Model shown is from a sample Unigraphics assembly.

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If contact is defined, a contact tool can be used to postprocess contact
related results (pressure, penetration, frictional stress, status,..etc)
We can explore this tool in greater detail in Chapter 3
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If nonlinear material is defined, various stress and strain
components can be requested.
We will explore this in greater detail in Chapter 4.
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In Output Controls of Analysis Settings
Branch, there are options for controlling
the availability of results.
Some of these options are off by default to
control results file size
In particular
Contact Miscellaneous should be set to YES
if contact based force reactions are desired
(default=No).
General Miscellaneous should be set to YES
to access element miscellaneous records
via SMISC/NMISC expressions for user
defined results (default=No).
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Workshop 2B Restart Control

W2B- Restart Control
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Lecture 3
Introduction to Contact
ANSYS Mechanical
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Chapter Overview
An introduction to solid body contact will be presented in this Lecture:
It is assumed that the user has already covered lecture 2 on General

Procedures.
The Specific topics introduced are:

A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
2
Basic concept of contact

Contact Formulations
Detection Methods
Trim Contact
Penetration and Slip Tolerances
Contact Stiffness
Workshop 3A
Pinball Region
Symmetric vs. Asymmetric
Body Types in Contact
Postprocessing Contact Results
Workshop 3B
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A. Basic Concepts
Contact:
When two separate surfaces touch each other such that they become
mutually tangent, they are said to be in contact.
In the common physical sense, surfaces that are in contact have these
characteristics:
They do not interpenetrate.

They can transmit compressive normal forces and tangential friction forces.
They often do not transmit tensile normal forces.
Surfaces are free to separate and move away from each other.
Contact is a changing-status nonlinearity. That is, the stiffness of the

system depends on the contact status, whether parts are touching or
separated.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
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... Basic Concepts

Types of contact behaviors available:
Bonded: No penetration, no separation and no sliding between faces or
edges.
No Separation: Similar to bonded, except frictionless sliding can occur
along contacting faces.
Frictionless: No penetration allowed, but surfaces are free to slide and
separate without resistance.
Rough: Similar to the frictionless setting except no sliding allowed.
Frictional: Allows sliding with resistance proportional to user defined
coefficient of friction, with freedom to separate without resistance.
The implementation of these behaviors will be presented in detail in
following slides of this lecture and the next.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
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... Basic Concepts

How compatibility is enforced in a contact region:
Physical contacting bodies do not interpenetrate.
Therefore, the program must establish a
relationship between the two surfaces to prevent
them from passing through each other in the
analysis.
When the program prevents interpenetration, we say

that it enforces contact compatibility.
Mechanical offers several different contact formulations

to enforce compatibility at the contact interface.
Target
Contact
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
Penetration occurs when contact

compatibility is not enforced.
October 25, 2013
B. Contact Formulations
Pure Penalty or Augmented Lagrange:
Both are penalty-based formulations
Fn
Fnormal = k normalx penetration

xp
Here, for a finite contact force Fnormal, there is a concept of contact stiffness
knormal. The higher the contact stiffness, the lower the penetration xpenetration, as
shown in the figure.
Ideally, for an infinite knormal, one would get zero penetration. This is not
numerically possible with penalty-based methods, but as long as xpenetration is small
or negligible, the solution results will be accurate.
Augmented Lagrange is default for all flexible body contact
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... Contact Formulations

The main difference between Pure Penalty and Augmented Lagrange
methods is that the latter augments the contact force (pressure)
calculations:
Pure Penalty:
Augmented Lagrange:
Fnormal = k normal x penetration
Fnormal = k normalx penetration +
Because of the extra term , the augmented Lagrange method is less

sensitive to the magnitude of the contact stiffness knormal.
Augmented Lagrange is the default formulation used for Program Controlled
option
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The aforementioned options relate contact in the normal direction. If
friction or rough/bonded contact is defined, a similar situation exists in the
tangential direction.
Similar to the impenetrability condition, in the tangential direction, the two bodies
should not slide relative to each other if they are sticking
Pure penalty formulation is always used in the tangential direction

Tangential contact stiffness and sliding distance are the analogous parameters:
If sticking:
Ftangential = ktangentialxsliding
where xsliding ideally is zero for sticking, although some slip is allowed in the penaltybased method.
Unlike the Normal Contact Stiffness, the Tangential Contact Stiffness cannot directly
be changed by the user.
A more detailed discussion of Frictional contact is presented in the Advanced

Contact Course
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Normal Lagrange Formulation:
Adds an extra degree of freedom (contact pressure) to satisfy contact
compatibility. Consequently, instead of resolving contact force as contact
stiffness and penetration, contact force (contact
pressure) is solved for explicitly as an extra DOF.
Fnormal = DOF
Enforces zero/nearly-zero penetration with pressure DOF
Does not require a normal contact stiffness (zero elastic slip)
Requires Direct Solver, which can be more computationally expensive
Only applies to forces in directions Normal to contact surface
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Chattering is an issue which often occurs with Normal Lagrange method
If no penetration is allowed (left), then the contact status is either open or closed (a
step function). This can sometimes make convergence more difficult because
contact points may oscillate between open/closed status. This is called chattering
If some slight penetration is allowed (right), it can make it easier to converge since
contact is no longer a step change.
Contact Status
Contact Status
Open
Penetration
Gap
Closed
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Penetration
Closed
Normal Lagrange Method
10
Open
October 25, 2013
Gap
Penetration
Penalty-Based Method

Multi-Point Contraint (MPC) Formulation:
Internally adds constraint equations to tie the displacements between contacting
surfaces
This approach is not penalty-based or Lagrange multiplier-based. It is a direct,

efficient way of relating surfaces of contact regions which are bonded.
Large-deformation effects also are supported with MPC-based bonded contact
Applies specifically to Bonded and No Separation Types of contact
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To illustrate MPC, consider the connection between a shell edge and a solid
face. The constraint equation that would transfer action between ROTZ at
node 2 and UY at nodes 1 and 3 has this form:
0 = UY3 - UY1 - 10*ROTZ2
SHELL Element
SOLID element
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C. Detection Method
Detection Method allows you to choose the location of
contact detection used in the analysis in order to obtain
a good convergence.
Pure Penalty and Augmented Lagrange Formulations use

Gauss point detection by default. This results in more
detection points (10 in this example on left) and is generally
considered more accurate then nodal detection.
Normal Lagrange and MPC Formulation use Nodal- Normal

to Target by default. This results in fewer detection points
(6 in the example on right)
Options are applicable to 3D face-face and 2D edge-edge

contact
Gauss Point Detection

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Nodal Detection
... Detection Method

It is sometimes necessary to force a Nodal detection method:
Should only be used for corner or edge contact
Normal from Contact or Normal to Target dictates the direction of forces to be

applied at the interface. This usually requires extra calculations to determine
correct Normal direction. Hence, gauss detection is preferred whenever possible.
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... Detection Method

Nodal-Projection Normal from Contact:
Enforces a contact constraint on an overlapping
region of the contact and target surfaces. The
contact penetration/gap is computed over the
overlapping region in an average sense.
It provides more accurate contact tractions and
stresses of underlying elements compared with other
settings.
Results are less sensitive to the designation of the
contact and target surface.
It satisfies moment equilibrium when an offset exists
between contact and target surfaces with friction.
Contact forces do not jump when contact nodes slide
off the edge of target surfaces.
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D. Trim Contact
Trim Contact automatically reduces the number
of contact elements generated within each
pair, thereby speeding up processer time.
Program Controlled will typically turn Trim
Contact ON. However, no trimming is done for
manually created pairs and/or when Large
Deflection is turned ON.
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Trim Contact
Trim Tolerance:
Defines the upper bounding box
dimension used for the trimming
operation.
For automatic contacts, this
property displays the value that
was used for contact detection
and it is a read-only field.
For manual contacts, user can
enter any value greater than zero.
Trim Tolerance
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E. Penetration and Slip Tolerances

Penetration Tolerance:
Contact compatibility is satisfied in normal
direction if normal penetration (Xp) is within
allowable tolerance (TOLN )
.
Can be defined as a Factor (of underlying
element depth )or as a Value.
Default =0.1*element depth (surf-surf)
Only exposed for Aug Lagrange
Formulation.
F
xp
Augmented Lagrange:
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Fnormal = k normalx penetration +
... Penetration and Slip Tolerances

Elastic Slip Tolerance:
Contact compatibility is satisfied in
tangential direction if Elastic Slip (ELSI) is
within allowable tolerance (SLTO).
Defined as a Factor of average
underlying element length or as a
value
Applies to bonded, rough and
frictional contact behaviors to
enforce compatibility in tangential
direction.
Only exposed when applicable.
Default SLTO=1% of average element
length
Ftangential
ELSI
Ftangential = ktangential ELSI

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F. Contact Stiffness
Normal Stiffness is actually a multiplier or factor
(FKN) on the code calculated stiffness explained
earlier.
- FKN=10 by default for bonded and no-separation
behaviors
- FKN=1.0 by default for all other behaviors
- For bending-dominated situations, if convergence
difficulties are encountered, a smaller value
(FKN =0.01 - 0.1) may be helpful.
- Only applies to Penalty based formulations (Pure
Penalty or Augmented Lagrange)
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... Contact Stiffness

The normal stiffness can also be automatically
adjusted during the solution to enhance
convergence. If difficulties arise, the stiffness
will be reduced automatically.
By default, Update Stiffness will occur at the end
of each equilibrium iteration.
The Each Iteration, Aggressive option allows for
a broader range of adjustment.
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The Normal Contact Stiffness knormal is the most important parameter affecting
both accuracy and convergence behavior.
A large value of stiffness gives better accuracy, but the problem may become more
difficult to convergence.
If the contact stiffness is too large, the model may oscillate, with contacting surfaces
bouncing off of each other
Fcontact
Iteration n
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Iteration n+1
Iteration n+2

Example showing effect of contact stiffness:
Formulation
Augmented Lagrage
Augmented Lagrage
Augmented Lagrage
Augmented Lagrage
Normal Lagrange
Normal Stiffness
0.01
0.1
1
10
-
Max Deform
2.84E-03
2.80E-03
2.80E-03
2.80E-03
2.80E-03
Max Eqv Stress

1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
As is apparent from the above

table, the lower the contact
stiffness factor, the higher the
penetration. However, it also
often makes the solution
faster/easier to converge
(fewer iterations)
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26.102
25.802
25.679
25.765
25.768
Max Contact Pressure

1%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0.979
1.228
1.568
1.599
1.535
36%
20%
2%
4%
0%
Max Penetration Iterations

2.70E-04
3.38E-05
4.32E-06
4.41E-07
3.17E-10
2
2
3
4
2
G. Workshop Contact Stiffness & Penetration

W3A-Contact Stiffness Study
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October 25, 2013
H. Pinball Region
The Pinball Region is a contact element parameter that differentiates
between far field open and near field open status. It can be thought of as a
spherical boundary surrounding each contact detection point
If a node on a Target surface is within this sphere, Mechanical considers it to be in
near contact and will monitor its relationship to the contact detection point more
closely (i.e., when and whether contact is established). Nodes on target surfaces
outside of this sphere will not be monitored as closely for that particular contact
detection point.
If Bonded Behavior is specified within a gap smaller than the Pinball Radius,
Mechanical will still treat that region as bonded
Pinball radius
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... Pinball Region

There are several uses for the Pinball Region:
Provides computational efficiency in contact calculations, by differentiating
near and far open contact when searching for which possible elements
can contact each other in a given Contact Region.
Determines the amount of allowable gap for bonded contact. If MPC
Formulation is active, it also affects how many nodes will be included in the
MPC equations.
Determines the depth at which initial penetration will be resolved if present
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Pinball Region
There are three options for controlling the size of the Pinball Region
for each contact detection point.
Program Controlled - (default) The pinball region will be
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calculated by the program based on underlying element

type and size.
Auto Detection Value - The pinball region will be equal to
the Tolerance Value as set on the Global Contact
Settings.
Ensures that contact pairs created through the
automatic contact detection have a Pinball Radius that
envelops gap between target and contact.
Recommended option for cases where the automatic
contact detection region is larger than the program
controlled pinball value. In such cases, some contact
pairs that were detected automatically may not be
initially closed at start of solution.
Radius - User manually specifies a value for the pinball
region.
Pinball Region
Auto Detection Value or a user defined Pinball Radius will appear as a
sphere on the Contact Region for easy verification.
By specifying a Pinball
Radius, one can visually
confirm whether or not a
gap will be ignored in
Bonded Behavior.
The Pinball Region can
also be important in
initial interference
problems or largedeformation problems.
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I. Symmetric/Asymmetric Behavior
Internally, the designation of Contact and Target surfaces can be very
important
In Mechanical, under each Contact Region, the Contact and Target surfaces are
shown. The normals of the Contact surfaces are displayed in red while those of the
Target surfaces are shown in blue.
The Contact and Target
surfaces designate which
two pairs of surfaces
can come into contact
with one another.
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Symmetric/Asymmetric Behavior
The concept of Symmetric vs Asymmetric Behavior
only applies to penalty based methods
Asymmetric Behavior
- Only the contact surfaces are constrained from penetrating the target surfaces.
- Internally, contact elements are meshed onto the red surface and corresponding
target elements are meshed onto the blue surface, constituting one contact pair.
Symmetric Behavior.
- The contact surfaces are constrained from penetrating the target surfaces and the
target surfaces are constrained from penetrating the contact surfaces.
- Internally, the program uses two contact pairs with contact and target elements
residing on both red and blue surfaces.
Auto-Asymmetric (Default behavior with Program controlled option)

- The program evaluates the contact region and chooses which surface should be
meshed with contact elements and which should be meshed with target elements.
- Internally, this may or may not result in one contact pair, but the contact elements
may end up on the blue surface and target elements on the red surface.
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For Asymmetric Behavior, the nodes of the Contact surface cannot penetrate
the Target surface. This is a very important rule to remember. Consider the
following:
- On the left, the top red mesh is the mesh on the Contact side. The nodes cannot
penetrate the Target surface, so contact is established correctly
- On the right, the bottom red mesh is the Contact surface whereas the top is the
Target. Because the nodes of the Contact cannot penetrate the Target, too much
actual penetration occurs.
Contact Surface
Target Surface
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Target Surface
Contact Surface
For Asymmetric Behavior, the integration point detection may allow some
penetration at edges because of the location of contact detection points.
The figure on the bottom illustrates this case:
Contact Surface
The target can penetrate
the contact surface.
Target Surface
On the other hand, there are more contact detection points if integration
points are used, so each contact detection method has its pros and cons.
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The following guidelines can be beneficial for proper selection of contact
surfaces for Asymmetric behavior:
If a convex surface comes into contact with a flat or concave surface, the flat or
concave surface should be the Target surface.
If one surface has a coarse mesh and the other a fine mesh, the surface with the
coarse mesh should be the Target surface.
If one surface is stiffer than the other, the stiffer surface should be the Target
surface.
If one surface is higher order and the other is lower order, the lower order surface
should be the Target surface.
If one surface is larger than the other, the larger surface should be the Target
surface.
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Symmetric/Asymmetric
Only Pure Penalty and Augmented Lagrange formulations actually support
Symmetric Behavior.
Normal Lagrange and MPC require Asymmetric Behavior.
- Because of the nature of the equations, Symmetric Behavior would be
overconstraining the model mathematically, so Auto-Asymmetric Behavior is used
even when Symmetric Behavior is selected.
It is always good for the user to follow the general rules of thumb in
selecting Contact and Target surfaces noted on the previous slide for any
situation below where Asymmetric Behavior is used.
Specified Option
Symmetric Behavior
Behavior
Internally Asymmetric Behavior
Auto-Asymmetric Behavior
Used
Review ing Symmetric Behavior
Results
Asymmetric Behavior
Notes
Symmetric Behavior
Asymmetric Behavior
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Pure Penalty
Augmented Lagrange
Normal Lagrange
Symmetric
Symmetric
Auto-Asymmetric
Asymmetric
Asymmetric
Asymmetric
Auto-Asymmetric
Auto-Asymmetric
Auto-Asymmetric
Results on Both
Results on Both
Results on Either
Results on Contact
Results on Contact
Results on Contact
Results on Either
Results on Either
Results on Either
Easier to set up
Easier to set up
Let program designate
Efficiency and control Efficiency and control
User has control
Let program designate Let program designate Let program designate
MPC
Auto-Asymmetric
Asymmetric
Auto-Asymmetric
Results on Either
Results on Contact
Results on Either
User has control
Symmetric/Asymmetric
Symmetric Behavior:
Easier to set up
More computationally expensive.
Interpreting data such as actual contact pressure can be more difficult
Results are reported on both sets of surfaces
Asymmetric Behavior:
Mechanical can automatically perform this designation (Auto-Asymmetric) or

User can designate the appropriate surface(s) for contact and target manually .
35
Selection of inappropriate Contact vs.Target may affect results.

Reviewing results is easy and straightforward. All data is on the contact side.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
J. Body Types in Contact

Mechanical offers a rich library of Connection Technology Options to simulate
many different behaviors between faces and edges of solid and surface bodies
(meshed with shell elements).
Solid Face to Solid Face
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Surface Body Face to Surface body

(or Solid body ) Face
Surface Body Edge to Surface Body

(or Solid) Face
... Body Types in Contact

When modeling contact between surface body faces, it is important to recognize
that a surface body has a surface area, but no volume.
The thickness of a surface body is assigned by the user as a property in the Details
window associated with the surface body
When generating general frictionless or frictional contact involving surface bodies,

It is necessary to identify which side (top or bottom) of the surface body is involved in
the contact relationship. Failure to do this might result in contact not being recognized.
It is also necessary to recognize that contact occurs at the midplane of the surface body,
by default. Shell thickness effect can be switched if necessary.
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Mechanical supports contact relationships with
rigid bodies.
- Rigid to Rigid
- Rigid to Flexible
- Useful for improved efficiency when certain rigid
bodies in the model are considerably stiffer then
other flexible bodies
Contact between
two rigid bodies
Contact between one

rigid and one flex body
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Rigid-to-Rigid contact features
- Program Controlled setting for Formulation is Penalty Method
- Program Controlled setting Behavior is under-defined
User must always set this to asymmetric manually
- Contact related results are only available on the side defined as Contact
Rigid-to-Flexible contact features

- Program Controlled setting for Formulation is Augmented Lagrange
- Program Controlled setting for Behavior is asymmetric
- User must always define contact surface on flexible body and target surface
on rigid body.
- Contact related results are only available on the side defined as Contact
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K. Contact results
For Symmetric Behavior, results are reported for both Contact and
Target surfaces.
For any resulting Asymmetric Behavior, results are only available on
Contact surfaces.
When viewing the Contact Tool
worksheet, the user may select
Contact or Target surfaces to
review results.
For Auto-Asymmetric Behavior,
the results may be reported on
either the Contact or Target
For Asymmetric Behavior, zero
results are reported for Target
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... Contact results

For example, consider the case below of Normal Lagrange Formulation with
Symmetric Behavior specified.
- This results in auto-asymmetric behavior. Since it is automatic, WB-Mechanical
may reverse the Contact and Target specification.
When reviewing Contact Tool results, one can see that the Contact side
reports no (zero) results while the Target side reports true Contact Pressure.
Contact Surface
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Target Surface
... Contact results

In another situation, Augmented Lagrange Formulation with Symmetric
Behavior is used
- This results in true symmetric behavior, so both set of surfaces are constrained
from penetrating each other
However, results are reported on both Contact and Target surfaces. This
means that the true contact pressure is an average of both results.
Contact Surface
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Target Surface
L. Workshop Symmetric vs Asymmetric

W3B Symmetric vs Asymmetric
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Lecture 4
Rate Independent Plasticity
ANSYS Mechanical
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Chapter Overview
The following will be covered in this Chapter:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
Background Elasticity/Plasticity
Yield Criteria
Hardening Rules
Material Data Input
Analysis Settings
Reviewing Results
Workshop
The capabilities described in this section are generally applicable to ANSYS

Structural licenses and above.
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A. Metal Plasticity Overview

Review of Elasticity:
Before proceeding to a discussion on plasticity, it may be useful to review
elasticity of metals.
In elastic response, if the induced stresses are below the materials yield
strength, the material can fully recover its original shape upon unloading.
From a standpoint of metals, this behavior is due to the stretching but not
breaking of chemical bonds between atoms. Because elasticity is due to
this stretching of atomic bonds, it is fully recoverable. Moreover, these
elastic strains tend to be small.
Elastic behavior of metals is most commonly described by the stress-strain

relationship of Hookes Law:
= E
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... Metal Plasticity Overview

What is plasticity?
When a ductile material experiences stresses beyond the elastic limit, it will
yield, acquiring large permanent deformations.
Plasticity refers to the material response beyond yield.

Plastic response is important for metal forming operations.
Plasticity is also important as an energy-absorbing mechanism for structures
in service.
Materials that fail with little plastic deformation are said to be brittle.
Ductile response is safer in many respects than is brittle response.
This Lecture will review some basics of plasticity by defining certain
terminology.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
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Plastic deformation results from slip between planes of atoms due to shear
stresses (deviatoric stresses). This dislocation motion is essentially atoms in
the crystal structure rearranging themselves to have new neighbors
Results in unrecoverable strains or permanent deformation after load is

removed.
Slipping does not generally result in any volumetric strains (condition of

incompressibility), unlike elasticity
Yield Strength y
Unloading
Elastic
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Plastic

Rate-Independent Plasticity:
If the material response is not dependent on the rate of loading or
deformation, the material is said to be rate-independent.
Most metals exhibit rate-independent behavior at low temperatures (< 1/4 or 1/3
melting temperature) and low strain rates.
Engineering vs. True Stress-Strain:

While engineering stress-strain can be used for small-strain analyses, true
stress-strain must be used for plasticity, as they are more representative
measures of the state of the material.
Stress
True
Engineering
Strain
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Engineering vs. True Stress-Strain (contd):
If presented with engineering stress-strain data, one can convert these values
to true stress-strain with the following approximations:
Up until twice the strain at which yielding occurs:
= eng
= eng
Up until the point at which necking occurs:
= eng (1 + eng ) = ln (1 + eng )

Note that, only for stress conversion, the following is assumed:
Material is incompressible (acceptable approximation for large strains)
Stress distribution across cross-section of specimen is assumed to be uniform.
Beyond necking:
There is no conversion equation relating engineering to true stress-strain at necking.
The instantaneous cross-section must be measured.
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B. Yield Criterion
Yield Criterion:
The yield criteria is used to relate multiaxial stress state with the uniaxial case.
Tensile testing on specimens provide uniaxial data, which can easily be

plotted on one-dimensional stress-strain curves, such as those presented
earlier in this section.
The actual structure usually exhibits multiaxial stress state. The yield criterion
provides a scalar invariant measure of the stress state of the material which
can be compared with the uniaxial case.
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... Yield Criterion

In general, a stress state can be separated into two components.
Hydrostatic stress - generates volume change.

Deviatoric stress - generates angular distortion.
1 - p
=
3
2
Stress State
(Where: 1 = 2
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= 3)
October 25, 2013
+
p
Hydrostatic stress (p) causing

volume change only
2 - p
3 - p
Deviatoric stress causing

angular distortion only
Yield Criterion
The von Mises yield criterion predicts that yielding will occur whenever the
distortion energy in a unit volume equals the distortion energy in the same
volume when uniaxially stressed to the yield strength.
From this theory, a scalar invariant (von Mises equivalent stress) is derived
as:
1
( 1 2 )2 +
e =
2
( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2 ]
When von Mises equivalent stress exceeds the uniaxial material yield
strength, general yielding will occur.
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... Yield Criterion

If plotted in 3D principal stress space, the von Mises yield surface is a cylinder.
The cylinder is aligned with the
axis 1=
2=
3.
Note that if the stress state is

inside the cylinder, no yielding
occurs. This means that if the
material is under hydrostatic
pressure (
1=
2=
3), no amount
of hydrostatic pressure will
cause yielding.
Another way to view this is that
stresses which deviate from
the axis (
1=
2=
3) contribute
to the von Mises stress
calculation.
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1 =2 =3
Yield Criterion
At the edge of the cylinder (circle), yielding will occur.
No stress state can exist outside of the cylinder.
Instead, hardening rules will describe how the cylinder changes with
respect to yielding.
Plastic
Elastic
2
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Principal Stress Space
October 25, 2013
Uniaxial Stress-Strain
C. Hardening Rules
The hardening rule describes how the yield surface changes (size,
center,shape) as the result of plastic deformation.
The hardening rule determines when the material will yield again if the
loading is continued or reversed.
This is in contrast to elastic-perfectly-plastic materials which exhibit no
hardening -- i.e., the yield surface remains fixed.
Plastic
Yield Surface after Loading
Elastic
Initial Yield Surface
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Hardening Rules
There are two basic hardening rules to prescribe the modification of the yield
surface:
Kinematic hardening.
Subsequent Yield
Surface
The yield surface remains constant

in size and translates in the
direction of yielding.
Initial Yield
Surface
Isotropic hardening.
The yield surface expands
uniformly in all directions with
plastic flow.
Subsequent Yield
Surface
Initial Yield
Surface
1
Most metals exhibit kinematic hardening behavior for small strain cyclic
loading.
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Kinematic Hardening
The stress-strain behavior for linear kinematic hardening is illustrated below:
3
Subsequent
Yield Surface
'
y
Initial Yield
Surface
2y
Subsequent yield in compression is decreased by the amount that the yield

stress in tension increased, so that a 2y difference between the yields is
always maintained. (This is known as the Bauschinger effect.)
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Kinematic Hardening
An initially isotropic material is no longer isotropic after it yields and
experiences kinematic hardening.
For very large strain simulations, the linear kinematic hardening model can
become inappropriate because of the Bauschinger effect.
Kinematic hardening is generally used for small strain, cyclic loading

applications.
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Isotropic Hardening
Isotropic hardening states that the yield surface expands uniformly during
plastic flow. The term isotropic refers to the uniform dilatation of the
yield surface and is different from an isotropic yield criterion (i.e.,
material orientation).
Subsequent
Yield Surface
'
y
Initial Yield
Surface
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2'
2
Isotropic Hardening
Plotting the stress-strain curve enables an understanding of what occurs
during a loading and reverse loading cycle:
Note that the subsequent yield

in compression is equal to the
highest stress attained during
the tensile phase.
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Isotropic hardening is often

used for large strain or
proportional loading
simulations. It is usually not
applicable for cyclic loading.
D. Material Data Input

Curve shapes
Two different type of stress-strain curve representations are possible:
Bilinear
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Multilinear
... Material Data Input

Linear elastic material properties must be supplied
The same requirements exist for linear static structural analyses, namely
that Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio must be defined as a minimum.
Metal plasticity is available as a nonlinear material model.
Note that only ANSYS Professional NLS licenses and above support nonlinear
material laws.
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There are two ways to introduce metal plasticity:
From the project schematic, highlight the

Engineering Data branch, double click or RMB
and click on Edit
From the Mechanical GUI, within the Details

Window of the body to be modified, highlight
the current material assignment and RMB to
choose one of three options:
- New Material
- Import
- Edit
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This opens the Engineering Data dialogue box for adding and editing various
material properties related to the active project(s).
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From the Toolbox, open the plasticity folder:
Highlight the metal plasticity model of interests (in the example below, Bilinear Isotropic
is selected)
RMB on the material model and click on Include Property
The Bilinear Isotropic Hardening model

will then appear in the Properties Dialogue box.
The yellow blank boxes are now available for user

to define yield strength and tangent modulus.
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After defining the yield strength and tangent modulus, the data will
automatically be plotted graphically for inspection:
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Bilinear isotropic or kinematic hardening models also support temperature
dependent properties via Tabular input.
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In a similar procedure, multilinear isotropic or kinematic hardening models can
also be defined and verified:
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E. Analysis Settings for Metal Plasticity

Ensure that the substep size is adequate to
capture the path dependent response
accurately with minimal bisections.
Solver will trigger a bisection automatically for
plastic strains exceeding 15% in a substep
Refer to CUTCONTROL command doc.
Large Deflection = ON is recommended
For large models with long run times and
potential convergence trouble, consider
setting up a Restart Control strategy in the
event that adjustment to time step range or
convergence criteria is necessary
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F. Reviewing Results
Reviewing results in a metal plasticity model is similar to a linear elastic run with
the exception that there is now a path dependent plastic strain to consider.
Review multiple results sets along the path
Examine the nonlinear force deflection curve to better understand how the plastic strain
is influencing the overall nonlinearity of the structure.
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Summary of Plasticity in Mechanical

Metal plasticity deals with elastic and inelastic (permanent) deformation.
Inelastic or plastic deformation occurs when the stress is higher than the
yield strength. There will always be some recoverable strain (elastic strain)
upon unloading.
A stress-strain curve is based on scalar data, usually from a uniaxial test. A
system may undergo a multiaxial stress state, so WB-Mechanical uses the
Mises yield criterion to relate a multiaxial stress state with scalar test data.
In this situation, true stress vs. strain data should be supplied.
After yielding occurs, the yield point may increase due to strain hardening.
This changes the yield surface, and the way in which it evolves in
Mechanical is determined by Isotropic or Kinematic hardening assumption.
The stress-strain curve can be represented by a bilinear or multilinear curve.
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G. Workshop Metal Plasticity

W4A-Metal Plasticity
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Lecture 5
Nonlinear Stabilization
ANSYS Mechanical
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Chapter Overview
This Lecture will present the use of Nonlinear Stabilization to solve global and
local nonlinear buckling problems
It is assumed that the user has already covered Lecture 2

The Specific topics introduced are:
A. Background on unstable structures
B. Understanding Nonlinear Stabilization
C. Controlling the Stabilization Force
D. Stabilization Input
E. Reviewing Results
F. Workshop
The capabilities described in this Chapter are generally applicable to ANSYS

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A. Background on Unstable Structures

Many structures require an evaluation of their structural stability. Thin
columns, compression members, and vacuum tanks are all examples of
structures where stability considerations are important.
The instability could be global (such as a snap-through) or local (such as yielding
or buckling at a concentrated load or support).
Instability problems usually pose convergence difficulties and therefore require

the application of special nonlinear techniques.
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... Background on Unstable Structures

At the onset of instability (buckling) a structure will have a very large change in
displacement {
u} under essentially no change in the load (beyond a small load
perturbation).
F
Stable
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Unstable
B. Understanding Nonlinear Stabilization

Nonlinear stabilization can be understood as adding an artificial damper or
dashpot element at each structural element node
The solver calculates a damping force (fd) proportional to the relative pseudo
velocity of the two nodes of the artificial dashpot element.
The pseudo velocity is calculated as a displacement increment divided by the time
increment of the substep
fd
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... Understanding Nonlinear Stabilization

With this dashpot model in view:
Any DOF that tends to be unstable has a large displacement increment causing
a large damping (stabilization) force; this force, in turn, reduces the
displacements at the DOF so that stabilization is achieved.
For the DOFs that are stable, the dashpot elements have little effect on the
results because the displacements and the stabilization forces are small relative
to the physical forces.
The coefficient used to calculate the stabilization force is also referred to as the
damping factor.
Although it has the same physical meaning and unit as physical damping, it is
purely numerical in nonlinear stabilization.
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C. Controlling the Stabilization Force

There are two methods available in Mechanical for controlling the stabilization
force
Energy
Damping factor calculated automatically
Factor can vary from element to element.
Best suited for local instability (i.e. plasticity)
Damping
User defines a damping factor directly.
Same factor used for all applicable elements.
Recommended when user has a specific damping
factor in mind.
For challenging nonlinear problems, it is sometimes helpful to employ both methods,

starting first with the Energy method and switching to the Damping method in a
subsequent restart
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... Controlling the Stabilization Force

Energy Method
Energy Dissipation Ratio
Ratio of the work done by stabilization forces to the
element potential energy.
Should be large enough to circumvent the
divergence, but small enough to avoid excessive
stiffness. (Typically between 0 and 1.0)
It is a good practice to examine the energies after the solution has completed
because the energy dissipation ratio of the solution could be greater than the
ratio initially specified.
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D. Stabilization Input
Regardless of which method is employed,
user has general options for how to apply
the stabilization force
Constant Option: Maintains the damping
factor as an unchanged constant during each
substep of a load step.
Reduced Option: Reduces the damping factor
linearly to zero at the end of a load step.
Although the constant option works well in most cases, convergence

difficulties may occur if stabilization is suddenly deactivated in a
subsequent load step. This can have the effect of a step change in loading.
In such a case, use the reduced option.
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... Stabilization Input

There are also three activation options for
controlling stabilization for the first substep
- NO: Stabilization is not activated (Default)
- ON NONCONVERGENCE: Activate Stabilization only
when min time increment is reached and the analysis
has still not converged
- YES: Activate Stabilization regardless of time
increment for first substep.
In most well posed problems, no stabilization is necessary at first substep

because the structure is initially stable, assuming the time increment is
reasonable.
Stabilization is designed to overcome physical instabilities (i.e. properly
constrained models that fail due to buckling and/or localized material
yielding). It will not resolve numerical instabilities associated with ill
conditioned matrices (poorly constrained structures).
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... Stabilization Input

In addition, user can receive feedback on
magnitude of Stabilization Forces relative to the
overall imbalance forces
- When the L2-norm of the stabilization force exceeds
the L2-norm of the internal force multiplied by the
stabilization force coefficient, the Solver issues a
message displaying both the stabilization force norm
and the internal force norm. Refer to Section
15.13.2 of Theory Manual for detailed description of
L2-norm calculations.
- Default is 0.2 (=20%)
- The message is intended to alert user to the
presence of an excessive stabilization force in the
run.
- User can choose to tighten or loosen this tolerance
depending on the application
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E. Reviewing Results
When Stabilization has been activated, it is always a good practice to determine
the extent of its influence on results accuracy
One way to do this is to post process the Strain Energy of the system and compare it
to the Stabilization Energy created by the artificial damping introduced to bring
about convergence
As a general rule, the stabilization energy should be small (<<10% of strain energy) in
comparison
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... Reviewing Results

It is also helpful to examine the reaction forces and moments to gain an
understanding of how much Stabilization forces are introducing fictitious loads
into model
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Summary
Many structures require an evaluation of their structural stability.
Instability problems usually pose convergence difficulties and therefore
require the application of special nonlinear techniques.
Nonlinear stabilization can be understood as adding an artificial damper or
dashpot element at each structural element node
There are two methods available in WB-Mechanical for controlling the
stabilization force, Energy and Damping.
When Stabilization has been activated, it is always a good practice to
determine the extent of its influence on results accuracy by postprocessing
the stabilization energy and comparing with strain energy as well as
examining the force and moment reactions.
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... Workshop
W5A- PostBuckling with Stabilization
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Lecture 6
Nonlinear Diagnostics
ANSYS Mechanical
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Lecture Overview
Since some nonlinear structural analyses can be challenging to solve,
understanding how to diagnose non-convergence problems is critical in
obtaining answers.
The following will be covered in this section:
A. Solver Output
B. Monitoring the Solution
C. Newton-Raphson Residuals
D. Example Cases
E. Tips
F. Workshops

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A. Solution Information
In Lecture 2, the Solution Information branch was introduced
Recall that with the Solution Information branch, the detailed Solver Output
can be reviewed, and convergence graphs, such as the Force Convergence
behavior, can be plotted.
Text Output
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Graphical Output
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... Solution Information

A Messages Window located directly below the Solution Information
Worksheet offers a summary listing of some general warnings and errors.
RMB on any message to:
Go to Object (Highlights Project Tree Object relevant to the message)
Show Full Message in separate expanded window
Copy message (to separate text file)
Delete message from list
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The Solver Output can provide detailed text output about the solution. It is
useful to become familiar with how to read this file.
- The beginning of the Solver Output simply shows the ANSYS license used (in this case,
ANSYS Multiphysics) and the version number.
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Scrolling down from the top, the user directory where solver files will be stored
is recorded along with a record of solver units
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Scrolling down further until a series
of asterisks are encountered, the
reading of the finite element data
by the solver can be seen.
This listing is useful, as will be
shown later, because it not only
provides information on how many
parts are in the model, but the
Contact Region ID numbers are
listed here
It is instructive to note that while Contact Regions can be given any name in
Mechanical, the ANSYS solver treats each Contact Region with a unique number (ID).
For debugging purposes, it is useful to find out which Contact Region has which ID
number. For example, in the above snippet, Contact Region Teeth 3 is referenced
by contact ID 9 and 10.
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Solver Output also records the element technology being activated based on the element
order chosen (midside nodes) and the material association. See Advanced nonlinear
materials course for details on Element Technology.
Elastic material or
metal plasticity with
higher order elements
2D plane stress/strain
lower order elements
Default URI
Enhanced Strain
2D plane strain
elastic material with
Simplified Enhanced Strain
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When the equation solution is
initiated, the section of the output

will be shown as on the right
The useful things to review here
are the equation solver used
(if left at Program Chosen or
manually specified), whether
large deflection effects are on or
off, whether nonlinear material
effects are considered (if plasticity
is present), and the number of
substeps used.
The review of this section of the Solver Output is not critical, but it indicates when
the matrices are being solved and what the solution options specified in WBMechanical were.
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Details of contact elements are
then printed next.

Here, various options related to
contact elements, including the
contact Normal Stiffness and
Pinball Radius will be listed
Any NOTE or WARNING messages
printed in this section are useful to
review.
For example, initial penetration or
gaps (in active unit length) will be
shown in this area
Recall previously that the Contact
Region name and the contact set ID
are listed. From that example, we
know that the above contact set 9 is
part of Teeth 3 region.
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As the nonlinear solution progresses, the equilibrium iteration information is shown
at the bottom (sample below)

Note that for each equilibrium iteration, the residual forces (FORCE CONVERGENCE
VALUE) must be lower than the CRITERION
Ideally, the residual or out-of-balance forces should be zero for a system to be in
equilibrium. However, because of machine precision and practical concerns, WBMechanical determines a value small enough to result in negligible error. This
value is the CRITERION, and the FORCE CONVERGENCE VALUE must be smaller
than the CRITERION for the substep to be converged.
In the example below, after 3 equilibrium iterations, the residual forces are lower
than the criterion, so the solution is converged.
Informative messages (such as convergence or bisection) are noted with >>> and
<<< in the output.
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Warning and error messages will also be printed in the output
When contact status changes abruptly, this is just a warning indicating that the
12
contact elements enter or exit the pinball region drastically. This may be due to
parts sliding or separating drastically if the load is too high. WB-Mechanical may
automatically bisect the solution, if necessary.
Element distortion messages are usually severe problems due to excessive loading or
over-constraints. Bisection of the load is automatically performed, but sometimes
corrective measures may need to be taken to fix the problem.
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Lastly, after the solution has
completed, the very end of the
Solver Output provides some
statistics on the analysis run.
The percentage of solver time
used for contact vs. other
elements can be determined here,
including equation solver time.
The very end shows the total Elapsed time.

If elapsed time is much larger than CPU time (such as 2x) for a single processor,
then that shows that much of the computational time may have been affected
by slow disk I/O.
If dual processors are used, the CPU time will not be as accurate, as it is the sum
of the time used by both processors.
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Becoming familiar with the contents and structure of the Solver Output can be
very useful in understanding the finite element solution
Users can review the Solver Output during solution to find detailed
information of the current equilibrium iteration
The Solver Output can be reviewed after solution to determine reasons for
non-convergence (if the solution had failed), to obtain information on solver

performance, and find out specifics of contact element settings
Detailed warnings or error messages (marked with ***), if present, will also
be printed in the Solver Output. Also, during solution, review of the substep
status (denoted with >>>) will show the reasons for bisection, if any.
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B. Monitoring the Solution

While solving a nonlinear model, because many iterations may be needed, it is
useful to see what the nonlinear solution trends are
If the solution seems to be behaving unexpectedly, the user can stop the analysis and
investigate the problem rather than wait until the solution is complete. This helps to
save time.
Monitoring the solution also helps the user gain an understanding into the response
of the system
There are two ways in which users can monitor the solution in WB-Mechanical:
Solution Information branch to provide equation solver behavior

Results Tracker to provide response of system during the solution
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... Monitoring the Solution

The most useful way to evaluate the solution convergence behavior is to view the
Force Convergence graph:
As shown in the previous section, the Force Convergence graph is available from
the Solution Information branch
Recall that, in the Newton-Raphson
method, force equilibrium is sought. If
the out-of-balance (residual) forces is
below the force criterion, the substep is
assumed to be converged.
During solution, one can review the
Force Convergence graph to monitor the
progress.
The top Force Convergence graph shows
that a bisection occurred. This means
that a smaller load increment needed to
be applied.
The bottom TIME graph represents the
fraction of total load. Although Time has
no significance in a static analysis, it is
used as a counter where Time=1.0 is the
final solution. If the Time is currently 0.2,
that means that 20% of the load is being
applied.
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One common item is when the force convergence starts to plateau during
solution
This usually indicates either that (a) a smaller increment of the load should be
17
applied or (b) contact Normal Stiffness may be too high.

WB-Mechanical will take care of
case (a) by bisecting the
solution
If the reason is related to
case (b), either bisection
or manually lowering the
contact Normal Stiffness
will help.
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Besides monitoring the out-of-balance forces, a Results
Tracker is available from the Solution Information branch
The Results Tracker enables users to monitor deformation at a

vertex and/or contact region information during the solution.
For Results Tracker > Deformation, select a vertex of interest

and specify whether x, y, or z deformation is to be monitored.
For Results Tracker > Contact, a pull-down menu enables
users to select a contact region. Then, the quantity to track

(such as number of contacting elements) can be displayed.
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After the Results Tracker items are requested and solution initiated, users may
track the deformation or contact results during the course of the solution.
In this example, the number of
contacting elements is monitored
for a particular contact region. As
is apparent in the graph on right,
between Time=1.4 and 1.7, the
number of contacting elements
jumps from zero to 29. Since
Time is a placeholder in a
nonlinear static analysis, this
means that, after the first load step
(Time=1.0), between 40% and 70%
of the load, contact is established.
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Several items (of a similar type) may also be selected and reviewed at once
during solution
In this case, the penetration of eight Contact
Regions is shown
One can review whether maximum penetration is
too great if so, the solution can prematurely be
stopped, and the Normal Stiffness of the
appropriate Contact Region increased since the
user knows which Contact Region has too much
penetration.
Also, from this, if the user expects the Contact
Region Radial to come into contact, but that is
not reflected while monitoring, the user will also
know what results to review after solution is
complete.
In this example, Contact Regions Teeth 1-4 are
in contact by the second substep. Teeth 7
doesnt seem to come into contact until the
fourth substep. This shows the user during
solution what Contact Regions are engaging and
when.
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C. Newton-Raphson Residuals
So far, obtaining detailed solver information and monitoring the solution have
been discussed. In the event that non-convergence is encountered, the
Newton-Raphson Residuals are very useful in locating possible problem areas
If the solution does not converge because of force equilibrium, this will be reflected
in the Solver Output and Force Convergence graph. The Force Convergence
(residuals) will be greater than the Force Criterion.
In this situation of non-convergence, the Newton-Raphson Residuals (if requested)
will show which areas had high force residuals. This usually helps to pinpoint what
locations prevented force equilibrium, usually either because of the Load and
Supports at that location or because of Contact Region settings.
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In the Solution Information details view, enter the number of equilibrium
iterations to retrieve Newton-Raphson Residuals. For example, if 4 is
entered, the residual forces from the last four iterations will be returned if
the solution is aborted or does not converge.
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After solution is stopped or fails to converge, residuals will be available
under the Solution Information branch, as shown below.
If a solution fails to converge or is

aborted by the user, the requested
number of residuals will be available.
By looking at the residuals, one can
example at which locations out-ofbalance forces are high. This helps
users identify possible problematic
locations, so that corrective action
may be taken.
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Another example is shown below. The force residuals are high (not in equilibrium),
and the Newton-Raphson Residuals allow the user to see what areas may
contribute to the high out-of-balance forces
In this case, the ring of high residual forces is part of a contact region, so the
user knows where to examine
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D. Example Cases
In the present section, some different scenarios will be briefly covered.
Reviewing Solver Output, monitoring the solution, and performing nonlinear
diagnostics will be discussed for the different cases
It is impractical to cover all of the different causes for non-convergence.
Instead, some common problems users encounter will be discussed.
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... Example Cases

A common error message that may appear is internal solution magnitude limit
was exceeded. Essentially, this means that rigid-body motion is encountered.
Insufficient constraints, either with Supports or Contact Regions, may allow for parts
to fly off into space
The Solver Output may also provide the rigid-body direction
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... Example Cases

To check what parts are undergoing rigid-body motion, one can perform a
free vibration analysis and look for near-zero frequency modes. This can be
computationally expensive.
Another method is to look at contact pairs to see which ones are initially
open. Recall that the first part of the Solver Output relates contact ID with
Contact Region name.
In this example, contact offset block-2 To contact offset
bolt-1 contact region (set #10 and 11) has an initial gap.
One can check the model to see whether or not the gap
should be there and if it may be causing the rigid-body
motion because of lack of initial contact being established.
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... Example Cases

Sometimes, contact Normal Stiffness may be too high and contribute to nonconvergence
A threaded fastener solves the first substep until 20% of the load, but then
diverges.
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... Example Cases

By looking at the Newton-Raphson residuals, it seems that force balance could not
be achieved at areas of Contact Regions. The mesh also looks very coarse
By lowering the contact Normal Stiffness and refining the mesh near regions of
contact, the problem can be solved
Unconverged Newton-Raphson Residuals
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Converged Solution after Adjustments
... Example Cases

The error message solver engine was unable to converge on a solution for
the nonlinear problem as constrained can be due to several factors,
although it is often a good idea to double-check the model setup if this
message is encountered.
In this model, Pretension Bolt Loads are

present, so there are two load steps.
The first load step (preload) converged
without problems. The second load step,
however, had problems where not even one
substep converged.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
... Example Cases

By examining the Results Tracker and Solver Output, one can determine the
cause of nonconergence:
During the first load step, only one Contact Region is holding the parts
together, as shown in the Results Tracker on left.
From the Solver Output on right, the Contact Region holding the parts
together has lost contact. This indicates that, most likely, the Loads
applied have made the parts lose contact.
Things to check:
Were other Contact Regions
supposed to be in initial contact?
Was load magnitude incorrectly
applied? Were any other sources
of constraint omitted?
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
E. Tips on Solving the Model

As shown in the previous section, the following combination of steps help to
pinpoint possible sources of non-convergence:
Look at Force Convergence graph to see how solution is behaving

Check Solver Output for contact information (are Contact Regions initially in
contact? What is the initial gap/penetration, if any?) and any warnings or errors
during solution.
Use Results Tracker to monitor contact information or deformation at vertex. Is the

model behaving as expected?
If non-convergence occurs, check Newton-Raphson Residuals to find locations of
high residuals, which reflect possible problem areas. Are there Loads or Supports
applied in those problem areas, or are the areas part of a Contact Region? Doublecheck model setup.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
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If those steps still dont provide enough information on what the problem is,
there are other things that can be done:
If plasticity is present and excessive element distortion occurs, try running the model
without plasticity first to determine if the material model is the cause of the
problem.
If the problem can be isolated to the plasticity material, check the plasticity
definition. Does it become perfectly plastic? If so, can a plastic hinge
(mechanism) form? Is it possible that elements have such little stiffness that they
can distort too much?
For contact problems, duplicate the branch and run the model with Bonded Type
contact first to see if the problem can be isolated to the contact definition.
If it is contact causing problems and force residuals are too high, change all
contact to Pure Penalty and enter a low Normal Stiffness (0.01 to 0.1). Try solving
the model then there may be excessive penetration, but if results are obtained,
the user can get a sense of how the parts are interacting with contact.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

If Normal Lagrange Formulation is used for contact, check chattering status.
Chattering information is printed during solution as well as at the end if

non-convergence is met the user can also request Contact Chattering in
the Results Tracker. If there is too much chattering, one can switch to
Augmented Lagrange method or use a command object to adjust
chattering controls (FTOLN) for Normal Lagrange as necessary contact to
fit the application.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
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Summary
Mechanical provides many tools in helping users to monitor nonlinear
analyses as well as diagnose any problems.
Oftentimes, it may be better to start simple and add complexity as you go, so that
sources of problems can be isolated more readily. Adding lots of complexity to the
first analysis can result in wasted time down the road.
Do not randomly change settings. Use recommended settings first, then change
contact or solver settings only if there is clear reason to do so, as illustrated in the
Solver Output, Results Tracker, or Newton-Raphson Residuals.
Although Contact Regions are automatically created, always verify all
Contact/Target surfaces and contact settings to ensure that Contact Regions are
defined as expected. Review the detailed contact output in the Solver Output to
verify the initial contact status of Contact Regions and what value of the penetration
or gap is, if present.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
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F. Workshops
W6A - Diagnostics Tools for Contact
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Lecture 7
Nonlinear Transient Analysis
14.5 Release
ANSYS Mechanical
Worbench Advanced
1
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
1. Definition and Purpose

Transient dynamic analysis is a technique used to determine the dynamic
response of a structure under the action of any general time-dependent
loads.
also known as time-history analysis or transient structural analysis
can include inertia and/or damping effects
can include nonlinear effects
Typically more involved than a static analysis
generally requires more computer resources and more "engineering"
time
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5

Hints for a preliminary work to understand the physics of the problem:
Simplify: Analyze a simpler model first to provide good insight into the
behavior at minimal cost.
Nonlinearities: If nonlinearities exist, first assess their affect using a static
analysis
It may be possible to eliminate nonlinearities in the dynamic analysis.
Modal Analysis: assess dynamics behavior using modal analysis to

determine the natural frequencies and mode shapes.
natural frequencies are also useful for calculating the correct integration time
step.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
u
F
Fstiffness
applied
inertia
6F7
8 6damping
78 64
74
8 67
8
[M ]{u&&}+ [C ]{u&}+ [K (u )]{u} = {F (t )}
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5

Finertia
Fdamping
Fstiffness
Fapplied
678 678 6474

8 678
[M ]{u&&}+ [C ]{u&}+ [K (u )]{u} = {F (t )}
t = t n t n 1
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
{u&n +1} = {u&n }+ [(1 ){u&&n }+ {u&&n +1}]t

{un +1} = {un }+ {u&n }t + [(0.5 ){u&&n }+ {u&&n +1}]t 2
(a0 [M ] + a1 [C ] + [K ]) {un+1} = {F a }+ [M ](a0 {un }+ a2 {u&n }+ a3 {u&&n })
+ [C ](a1 {un } + a4 {u& n } + a5 {u&&n })
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5

In ANSYS Mechanical, the newmark parameters
, and are calculated using:
=
1
(1 + )2 , = 1 +
4
2
is a numerical damping value (amplitude decay

factor).
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
2. Solution Techniques in Mechanical

Technique
The Full
Method
x
The ModeSuperposition
Method x
x
x
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
Relatively simple to set-up

Uses full matrices [K, M, and C].
Allows all types of nonlinearities.
Calculates displacements and stresses in a single pass.
Accepts most load types (e.g., nodal forces, non-zero displacements,
element loads, tabular boundary condition, etc.)
Allows effective use of solid-model loads.
Typically computationally more expensive than the mode-superposition
method
Faster and less expensive than full method
Allows damping as a function of frequency
Time step must remain constant (i.e., automatic time stepping is not
allowed).
The only nonlinearity allowed is simple node-to-node contact (gap
condition).
Does not accept imposed (nonzero) displacements.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Transient Analysis
Full Method
14.5 Release
ANSYS Mechanical
Linear and Nonlinear Dynamics
9
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Full Method
Allows all types of nonlinearities.
Accepts most load types (e.g., nodal forces, non-zero
displacements, element loads, tabular boundary condition, etc.)
Uses full matrices [K, M, and C]
The mesh should be fine enough to resolve the highest mode of
interest.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
10
Release 14.5
3. Nonlinearities in Transient Analysis

F
Linear analysis:
Force and displacement are linearly related.

structural stiffness (K) is constant
u
Nonlinear analysis:
KT
Force and displacement are not linearly related

stiffness KT is not constant
it changes through the load path.
Newton-Raphson method is used to solve nonlinear

analysis
u
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Nonlinearities in Transient Analysis

Three sources of structural nonlinearity:
1. Changing status:
Contact pair either in or out of contact status,
tension-only cable is either slack or taut, frictional
contact, etc.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5

2. Geometric nonlinearities:
Changing geometric configuration (large deformation)
causes structure to respond nonlinearly (classic fishing
pole behavior)
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October 25, 2013
13
Release 14.5

3. Material nonlinearities:
Nonlinear stress-strain relationships (metal
plasticity, creep, hyperelasticity, etc.)
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October 25, 2013
14
Release 14.5
Available Contact Types

All five contact types are allowed:
Contact Type
Bonded
No Separation
Frictionless
Rough
Frictional
Iterations
1
1
Multiple
Multiple
Multiple
Normal Behavior (Separation) Tangential Behavior (Sliding)

No Gaps
No Sliding
No Gaps
Sliding Allowed
Gaps Allowed
Sliding Allowed
Gaps Allowed
No Sliding
Gaps Allowed
Sliding Allowed
Bonded and No Separation contact are linear and require only 1

iteration.
Frictionless, Rough and Frictional contact are nonlinear and require
multiple iterations.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Available Contact Types

Interface Treatment
Nonlinear contact types allow an interface treatment option:
Adjusted to Touch: ANSYS closes any gap to a just touching position.

Add Offset: input zero or non-zero value for initial adjustment.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
4. Newton-Raphson Technique
In a nonlinear analysis, relationship between load and displacement
cannot be determined with a single solution based on initial stiffness.
Newton-Raphson method uses a series of linear approximations with

corrections
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
4. Newton-Raphson Technique
Total external load Fa is applied in iteration 1 and
displacements (x1) are calculated

Using x1, internal forces F1 at iteration 1 are
calculated.
If Fa F1, the system is not in equilibrium.
Difference of between applied external and
calculated internal forces (Fa - F1) are the out-ofbalance or residual forces.
If residual forces are within an acceptable tolerance,
the solution is converged
If residual forces are outside an acceptable tolerance,
the solution is not converged, so a new stiffness
matrix is assembled and the process is repeated
In this example, the system achieves convergence
after iteration 4.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
... Load Steps and Substeps

Each solution point is defined in terms of a unique monotonically increasing
time and a unique load step and substep combination
Load steps are typically used to differentiate changes in general loading.

Fa and Fb are loadsteps
Substeps are typically used to increment loading within load steps

Because of the complex response, it desirable to
incrementally apply the load.
For example, Fa1 may be near 50% of the Fa load.
Fb
After Fa1 is converged, full Fa load is applied.
Fb2
Fa has 2 substeps while Fb has 3 substeps in this

example
Fb1
Fa
Fa1
ua
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
ub
... Equilibrium Iterations

In a nonlinear solution, equilibrium iterations are corrective solutions needed
for convergence using the Newton-Raphson method
equilibrium iterations occur at the same time point (and same load step and
substep)
In this example, the iterations between the dotted lines indicate equilibrium
iterations.
Fb
Fb2
Fb1
Fa
Fa1
ua
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
20
ub
Release 14.5
5. Analysis Settings in Full Transient Analysis

In a full transient analysis, the control
options are set under Analysis Settings
Step Controls
Solver Controls
Restart Controls
Nonlinear Controls
Output Controls
Damping Controls
Analysis Data Management
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
5.1 Time Step Size

Integration time step t: time increment between
successive time points.
It is one of the most important parameters in a
transient structural analysis
It must be small enough to:
correctly describe the time-varying loads
capture the dynamic response
Running a preliminary modal analysis is suggested.

Time step size controls the accuracy and
convergence behavior of nonlinear systems
(Newton-Raphson method)
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Automatic Time Stepping

By default, transient structural analysis uses automatic time-stepping.
Proper selection of the initial, minimum, and maximum time steps is

important.
Auto Time Stepping automatically adjusts the time step size (hence the load
increment) throughout the solution.
Smaller increments when convergence is difficult, larger increments when

convergence is easy.
Transient structural analysis uses implicit time integration (time step is

usually large).
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5

It is recommended to use automatic timestepping (default):
The maximum time step can be chosen based on
accuracy concerns.
The minimum time step is input to prevent
Mechanical from solving indefinitely.
(1/100 or 1/1000 of the initial time step)
A general suggestion for selection of the initial
time step is to use the following equation:
tinitial =
Load
1
20 f response
fresponse is the frequency of the highest mode of

interest (obtained from Modal Analysis)
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
24
Time
tinitial tmin
tmax
Release 14.5

For Auto Time Stepping = Program Controlled (Default), Mechanical will
automatically set specifications depending on the nature of the nonlinearity
in the model.
- User should always verify that these values are adequate by checking the Solution
Information folder at the beginning of the run and watching for bisections.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Time Integration
In ANSYS Mechanical, the newmark parameters , and
are calculated using:
=
1
(1 + )2 , = 1 +
4
2
where is a numerical damping value (amplitude decay

factor).
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Time Integration
Time Integration: indicates whether a solution
step should include transient effects (e.g.,
structural inertia).
Transient effects can be turned off to set up the
Initial Conditions for a transient analysis.
- On: Default for transient analyses.
- Off: Do not include structural inertia or thermal
capacitance in solving this step.
Note: with Time Integration Off, Mechanical

does not compute velocity results. Therefore,
damping forces, which are derived from velocity
will equal zero.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
5.2 Solver Controls Solver Type

Solver Type: a reference to the way ANSYS builds
the stiffness matrix for each Newton-Raphson
equilibrium iteration:
- Direct (Sparse):
- more robust
- recommended for challenging nonlinear models
with non-continuum elements (shells and beams).
- Iterative (PCG):
- more efficient,
- recommended for large bulk solid models
dominated by linear elastic behavior.
- The default Program Controlled: automatically

selects a solver based on the problem.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Weak springs
Weak Springs: to prevent numerical instability,
while not having an effect on real world
engineering loads.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Large deflection
Large Deflection: If set to ON
- Stiffness matrix is adjusted over multiple
iterations to account for changes such as
- large deflection
- large rotation
- large strain.
- Stress stiffening effect is included.

- Spin softening effect is included.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
5.3 Nonlinear Control

Convergence Criteria
Tolerances on Convergence are calculated
automatically.
Tolerances are used during the Newton-Raphson
process to dictate when a model is Converged or
balanced
The default convergence criterion works very well for
most engineering applications.
For special situations, users can override these
defaults to tighten or loosen the convergence
tolerance.
A tighter tolerance gives better accuracy, but can
make convergence more challenging
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Convergence Criteria
A moment balance is included if

rotational degrees of freedom are
present.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Line Search
It can be useful for enhancing convergence.
When active, line search multiplies the displacement increment by a
program-calculated scale factor between 0 and 1, whenever a stiffening
response is detected.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Line Search
You might consider setting Line Search on in the following cases:
If the structure is force-loaded.
If the structure is "flimsy" structure which exhibits increasing stiffness (such
as a fishing pole).
If the convergence pattern is oscillatory.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Stabilization
Nonlinear stabilization technique can help
achieve convergence.
Adds artificial dampers to all of the DOFs in the
system.
Keys for controlling nonlinear stabilization:
Off - Deactivate stabilization (Default).
Constant - The energy dissipation ratio or damping
factor remains constant during the load step.
Reduce - The energy dissipation ratio or damping
factor is reduced linearly to zero at the end of the
load step from the specified or calculated value.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
5.4 Damping Control

[C ] = [M ] + [K ]
Damping Ratio
i =
i
+
2i
2
Alpha and Beta damping are used to define
Rayleigh damping constants and .

[C] is calculated using and to multiply the
mass matrix [M] and stiffness matrix [K].
They can be input via:
[1] directly as global damping value (Details

section of Analysis Settings).
[2] material-dependent damping value (MassMatrix Damping Multiplier, and k-Matrix
Damping Multiplier)
2
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Release 14.5
Numerical Damping
Also referred to as amplitude decay factor ()

Controls numerical noise produced by the higher frequencies of a structure
A default value of 0.1 is used for Transient Structural analysi
A default value of 0.005 is used for Transient Structural analysis using a linked
Modal analysis system).
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
6. Initial Conditions
2
Initial conditions
conditions at Time = 0
The default initial condition is that the

structure is at rest, that is, both initial
displacement and initial velocity are zero.
Initial velocity can be scoped to one or more
1
3
parts of the structure.
The remaining parts of the structure which

are not part of the scoping will retain the
at rest initial condition.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Initial conditions using steps

Initial conditions can also be specified using
two steps:
1. Initial Displacement = 0, Initial Velocity 0
Initial displacement of 0.005 mm
The first step end time = 0.001 sec.
Initial velocity of (0.005/0.001) = 5 mm/sec.
Deactivate the specified displacement load in
the second step so that the part is free to
move with the specified initial velocity.
Make sure that time integration effects are

turned on for the second step.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Initial conditions using steps

2. Initial Displacement 0, Initial Velocity 0
Initial velocity of 0.5 mm/sec.
The first step end time =
(0.1/0.5) = 0.2 sec.
3. Initial Displacement 0, Initial Velocity = 0

Note the step application
of the displacement.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
7. Loads and Supports

All inertial and structural loads, and all
structural supports are allowed.
Joint Loads are used to kinematically drive
joints.
Magnitude could be:
Constant,
Tabular (time Varying), or
Function
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Joint Loads
Joints define the allowed motion (kinematic
constraint)
on
surface(s).
Various types of joints can be defined for
flexible or rigid bodies
Absolute DOF are specified.
A Joint Load object is used to apply a kinematic
driving condition to a single DOF on a Joint
object.
For translation DOF
displacement, velocity, acceleration, or force is
applied.
For rotation DOF

rotation, angular velocity, angular acceleration, or
moment is applied.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Transient Analysis
Mode Superposition Method
14.5 Release
ANSYS Mechanical
43
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Faster and less expensive than full method
Allows damping as a function of frequency
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
8. Mode Superposition Method

Mode superposition method use the natural frequencies
and mode shapes from the modal analysis to characterize
the transient dynamic response of a structure.
It scales the mode shapes obtained from a modal analysis

and sums them to calculate the dynamic response.
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Release 14.5

Example:
y1
y2
Here, the sum of mode shape 1 and mode shape 2 approximates the final
response. Since mode shapes are relative, the coefficients y1 and y2 are
required.
Mode shapes (eigenvectors) are also known as generalized coordinates, and
in this case, coefficients y1 and y2 are the DOF.
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5

The equations of motion are copied below (linear only):
[M ]{u&&}+ [C ]{u&}+ [K ]{u} = {F (t )}

Instead of using nodal coordinates, generalized coordinates will be used.
Assume that the deformation {u} can be constructed from a linear
combination of mode shapes fi:
n
{u} = yi {i } n is the number of modes

i =1
From this, the equations of motion can be written in generalized coordinates

as the following (with some additional substitutions not shown here for
brevity):
&y&i + 2i i y& i + i2 yi = f i
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5

The modal equations of motion are repeated below:
&y&i + 2i i y& i + i2 yi = f i
Advantages of this approach:
If a model consists of m DOF, instead of solving m equations, the modal equations only solve
n DOF, where n represents the number of modes calculated in the modal analysis
If 200 modes are extracted for a 1 million DOF model, instead of solving 1 million
equations for the dynamic analysis, a user only solves for 200 DOF!
Because of the reduced number of DOF, the solution is very fast
Points to remember:
Linear combination means that only linear behavior is allowed
Time step is fixed use same guidelines as before.
The results are based on a truncated set of modes.
A 1 million DOF model has 1 million modes, but one typically solves for a fewer number of
modes. This means that a large enough number of modes is required to obtain good
accuracy.
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Release 14.5

Setup a mode-sup transient analysis in the schematic by linking a modal system to a
transient structural system at the solution level.
Notice in the transient branch, the modal analysis result

becomes an initial condition.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
9. Analysis Settings for Mode-Sup

Under Analysis Settings in mode-sup transient
dynamics, there are many control options that
need to be considered:
Step Controls
Time step must remain constant (i.e., automatic time
stepping is not allowed).
Auto time stepping is turned off

Substeps or time step value is defined and is applicable
to all the load steps
The time integration is turned on by default.
Damping Control
The damping matrix is not explicitly computed, but

rather the damping is defined directly in terms of a
damping ratio d.
The damping ratio id for mode i is the combination of:
id = g +
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
+ i
2i 2
50
Release 14.5
10. Restriction in Mode-sup Transient

Time step must remain constant (i.e., automatic time stepping is not
allowed).
The only nonlinearity allowed is simple node-to-node contact (gap
condition).
Does not accept imposed (nonzero) displacements.
All contact will behave as bonded or no separation in a modal analysis:
If a gap is present:
Nonlinear contacts will be free (no contact).
Bonded and no separation contact will depend on the pinball size.
Contact Type
Bonded
No Separation
Rough
Frictionless
Frictional
2011 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Initially Touching
Bonded
No Separation
Bonded
No Separation
Bonded
Modal Analysis
Inside Pinball Region
Bonded
No Separation
Free
Free
Free
51
Outside Pinball Region

Free
Free
Free
Free
Free
Release 14.5
11. Pre-stress MSUP Transient Analysis

1. Pre-Stress MSUP Transient Analysis.
You can now perform a Mode Superposition Transient Structural
analysis that is linked to a pre-stressed Modal analysis.
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Release 14.5
Pre-stress MSUP Transient Analysis

Pre-Stress MSUP Transient Analysis.
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Release 14.5
Pre-stress MSUP Transient Analysis

2. Output Controls (Analysis Settings>Output Control> Nodal forces)
Calculate Reactions on Constrained Nodes.
Only constrained nodes are used in the calculation of reaction forces and
moments.
The result file size and processing time are reduced.
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Release 14.5
11. Pre-stress MSUP Transient Analysis

3. Include Residual Vector (Analysis Settings>Options>Include Residual Vector)
It allows including residual vectors for MSUP Harmonic and Transient Structural
Analyses.
In MSUP analysis, the dynamic response will be approximate when the applied
loading excites the higher frequency modes of a structure.
The residual vector method employs additional modal transformation vectors in
addition to the eigenvectors in the modal transformation .
This feature accounts for high frequency
dynamic responses with fewer eigen-modes.
The default setting is Off (RESVEC,off)
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Release 14.5
Lecture A1
Nonlinear Connections
14. 5 Release
ANSYS Mechanical
Advanced Connections
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Chapter Overview
The following will be covered in this Lecture:
A. General review of Contact Technology
B. Auto Detection Options
C. Using the Contact Tool
D. General review of Joint Technology
E. Springs & Beams
F. Spot Welds
G. Connection Worksheet
It is assumed that students have completed Introduction to Structural Nonlinearities
course prior to this lecture.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
A. General Review of Contact Technology

Mechanical offers a rich library of Connection Technology Options to simulate
many different behaviors between faces and edges of solid and surface bodies
(meshed with shell elements).
Solid Face to Solid Face
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Surface Body Face to Surface body

(or Solid body ) Face
Surface Body Edge to Surface Body

(or Solid) Face
... General Review of Contact Technology

Mechanical supports contact relationships with
rigid bodies.
- Rigid to Rigid
- Rigid to Flexible
- Useful for improved efficiency when certain rigid
bodies in the model are considerably stiffer then
other flexible bodies
Contact between
two rigid bodies
Contact between one

rigid and one flex body
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Contact:
When two separate surfaces touch each other such that they become
mutually tangent, they are said to be in contact.
In the common physical sense, surfaces that are in contact have these
characteristics:
They do not interpenetrate.

They can transmit compressive normal forces and tangential friction forces.
They often do not transmit tensile normal forces.
Surfaces are free to separate and move away from each other.
Contact is a changing-status nonlinearity. That is, the stiffness of the

system depends on the contact status, whether parts are touching or
separated.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Types of contact behaviors available:
Bonded: No penetration, no separation and no sliding between faces or
edges.
No Separation: Similar to bonded, except frictionless sliding can occur
along contacting faces.
Frictionless: No penetration allowed, but surfaces are free to slide and
separate without resistance.
Rough: Similar to the frictionless setting except no sliding allowed.
Frictional: Allows sliding with resistance proportional to user defined
coefficient of friction, with freedom to separate without resistance.
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How compatibility is enforced in a contact region:
Physical contacting bodies do not interpenetrate. Therefore, the program
must establish a relationship between the two surfaces to prevent them
from passing through each other in the analysis.
When the program prevents interpenetration, we say that it enforces

contact compatibility.
Mechanical offers several different contact formulations to enforce

compatibility at the contact interface.
Target
Contact
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Penetration occurs when contact

compatibility is not enforced.
October 25, 2013

Contact Formulations available in Mechanical were already presented in
detail in the Basic Structural Nonlinear Course and are summarized below:
Formulation
Normal
Normal
Tangential Stiffness
Augmented Lagrange
Pure Penalty
MPC
Normal Lagrange
Augmented Lagrange
Penalty
MPC
Lagrange Multiplier
Penalty
Penalty
MPC
Penalty
Yes
Yes
-
Tangential
Stiffness
Type
Yes 1
Yes 1
Yes 1
Any
Any
Bonded,No Separation
Any
Tangential stiffness is not directly input by user
The Normal Lagrange method is so named because Lagrange multiplier

formulation is used in the Normal direction while penalty-based method is
used in the tangential direction.
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The table below summarizes some pros (+) and cons (-) with different contact
formulations:
Pure Penalty
Augmented Lagrange
Good convergence
+ behavior (few
equilibrium iterations)
Sensitive to selection of
- normal contact stiffness
+
+
+
+
Contact penetration is
present and
uncontrolled
Useful for any type of
contact behavior
Either Iterative or Direct
Solvers can be used
Symmetric or
asymmetric contact
available
Contact detection at
integration points
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+
+
+
+
May require additional

equilibrium iterations if
penetration is too large
Less sensitive to
selection of normal
contact stiffness
Contact penetration is
present but controlled to
some degree
contact behavior
Solvers can be used
Symmetric or
asymmetric contact
available
integration points
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Normal Lagrange
May require additional
- equilibrium iterations if
chattering is present
No normal contact
+ stiffness is required
MPC
Good convergence
+ behavior (few
equilibrium iterations)
No normal contact
+ stiffness is required
Usually, penetration is
+ near-zero

contact behavior
Only Direct Solver can
be used
Asymmetric contact
only
Only Bonded & No

Separation behaviors
+
Solvers can be used
Asymmetric contact
only
nodes
nodes
No penetration

Formulation default is Augmented Lagrange for
all flex body contact behaviors.
Detection Method default is:
- at gauss points for surface contact
- at nodal points, normal to target for edge contact
Normal Stiffness is actually a multiplier or factor

(FKN) on the code calculated stiffness explained
earlier.
- FKN=10 by default for bonded and no-separation
behaviors
- FKN=1.0 by default for all other behaviors
- For bending-dominated situations, if convergence
difficulties are encountered, a smaller value
(FKN =0.01 - 0.1) may be helpful.
- Only applies to Penalty based formulations (Pure
Penalty or Augmented Lagrange)
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B. Auto Contact Detection Options

By default, when an assembly is imported or updated from a CAD system, contact
is automatically detected and contact regions are assigned for face/face
conditions.
The switch to activate auto detection can be controlled in two ways:
From Utility Menu=>Tool =>Options Dialogue
Box under the Mechanical Connections
Settings for auto detection upon attaching
geometry
By highlighting Connections branch in

the Project tree for auto detection upon
model refreshing.
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... Auto Contact Detection Options

The auto detection parameters can be controlled globally (from Tools Options
Dialogue Box) or locally (from the details windows associated with individual
contact folders)
Global control of all connections
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Local control of grouped

connections

Although the default settings are sufficient for most contact problems, these
additional controls broaden the range of capabilities
Tolerance Type, Tolerance Value, and Tolerance

Slider: Bodies in an assembly that were created
in a CAD system may not have been placed
precisely, resulting in small overlaps or gaps
along the contact regions between bodies. You
can account for any imprecision by specifying
contact detection tolerance (applicable to
automatic contact detection only).
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To tighten the contact detection between bodies, move the Tolerance Slider bar
closer to +100. To loosen the contact detection, move the Tolerance Slider bar
closer to -100.
A tighter tolerance means that the bodies have to be within a smaller region (of either
gap or overlap) to be considered in contact; a loose tolerance will have the opposite
effect.
Contact detection tolerance can also be adjusted using an exact distance by

changing the Tolerance Type to Value and entering a specific distance in the
Tolerance Value field.
A circle appears around the current cursor location as shown here.

Graphical
Illustration of
user defined
tolerance value
for contact
detection
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Existing
gap
between
CAD parts

Types of Contact Detection available between solid and surface bodies:
Face/Face: contact between faces of different bodies

Face/Edge: contact between faces and edges of different bodies
Edge/Edge: contact between edges of different bodies
Face/Edge and Edge/Edge contact only applies to solid and surface bodies.
Contact relationships involving line bodies are not supported.

For Face/Edge detection, faces are always designated as targets and edges are
always designated as contacts.
You can select any combination of contacts to be detected during Create Automatic
Connections. You can also set default preferences for these contact filter options.
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Priority: For very large models the number of contact regions can sometimes
become overwhelming and redundant, especially when multiple types of
contact are allowed.
209 parts
450 symmetric contact pairs
1.15million DOFs
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Priority (contd)
Face Overrides gives Face/Face contact precedence over both Face/Edge
and Edge/Edge contact. Face Overrides also gives Face/Edge contact
precedence over Edge/Edge contact.
- In general, when Face Overrides priority is set with Face/Edge and Edge/Edge
contact, no Edge/Edge contact pairs will be detected.
Edge Overrides gives Edge/Edge contact precedence over both Face/Edge

and Face/Face contact. Edge Overrides also gives Face/Edge contact
precedence over Face/Face contact.
- In general, when Edge Overrides priority is set with Face/Edge and Face/Face
contact, no Face/Face contact pairs will be detected.
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Group By: Setting Group By equal to Bodies (default) or to Parts means
that contact faces and edges that lie on the same bodies or same parts will be
grouped into a single region.
Automatically generated pairs may have multiple selections on

the source side, or on the target side, or on both sides. Using one
of these options can minimize the number of contact regions
created.
Any regions generated will have only one entity scoped to its
source and target (that is, one face or one edge).
Choosing None avoids excessive contact search times in the

ANSYS solver if there are a large number of source/target faces
in a single region.
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Search Across: Enables automatic contact detection through the following
options:
Bodies (default): Only between bodies.

Parts: Only between bodies of different parts, that is, not
between bodies within the same multibody part.
For a body within a multibody part that does not touch
another body, you must manually insert a Connections
object to connect the bodies.
Anywhere: Detects any self-contact.
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C. Contact Tool
The Contact Tool is an object that allows you to
examine assembly contact:
Before loading to verify initial Information (Status, gap,

penetration, pinball,..etc)
Insert under a Connections branch
As part of the final solution to verify final information

and the transfer of loads (forces and moments) across
the various contact regions.
Insert under a Solution branch object
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... Contact Tool Initial Information

Initial contact information can be scoped to evaluate all regions or
specific regions of interest on both contact and/or target sides.
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Information such as status, number of elements contacting, penetration,
pinball, etc for each region can be very useful for verification and
troubleshooting
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Geometric Gap and Geometric Penetration are the physical gap and
penetration that exists at a contact region between solid bodies

Gap and Penetration are derived values resulting
from Add Offset adjustments or between surface bodies
The N/A designation appears in the following locations and situations:

All result columns when the contact pair is inactive (row is gray, or Inactive
appears under the Status column).
The Geometric Gap column for Frictionless, Rough, or Frictional contact
Types and an Interface Treatment set to Add Offset.
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D. General Review of Joint Technology

Joint Technology can sometimes offer an attractive alternative to
conventional contact pairs.
Uses Constraint Equations to tie two or more entities (vertices, edges, surfaces)
together (body-to-body) or one or more entities to ground (body-to-ground)
Can simulate many different connection relationships:
-
Fixed
Revolute
Cylindrical
Translational
Slot
Universal
Spherical
Planar
Bushing
General
Point on Curve
Options available under Connections Branch

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... General Review of Joint Technology

Fixed Joint
- Constrained degrees of freedom: All
Similar to bonded contact
Revolute Joint
- Constrained degrees of freedom: UX,UY,UZ,ROTX & ROTY
ROTZ is free
- Helpful for simulating a hinge relationship
Cylindrical Joint
- Constrained degrees of freedom (UX,UY, ROTX & ROTY)
UZ and ROTZ are free
- Helpful for simulating a cylindrical coupling
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Translational
- Constrained degrees of freedom: UX,UZ, ROTX,ROTY,ROTZ
UY free
Slot Joint
- Constrained degrees of freedom: UY, UZ
UX, ROTX,ROTY and ROTZ are free
Universal Joint
- Constrained degrees of freedom: UX,UY,UZ,ROTY
ROTY and ROTZ are free
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Spherical Joint
- Constrained degrees of freedom: UX,UY,UZ
ROTX,ROTY,ROTZ are free
Planar Joint
- Constrained degrees of freedom: UZ ROTX, ROTY
UX, UY and ROTZ are free
General Joint
- Constrained degrees of freedom: Fix all, Free X, Free Y, Free Z and Free All
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Bushing Joint:
Intended to simulate imperfect joint relationships
6 DOFs, three translations and three rotational
A nonlinear stiffness relationship can be defined for
each DOF.
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Point on Curve Joint:
Constraint Degrees of Freedom: UY, UZ, ROTX, ROTY and ROTZ
- X Axis is always tangent to the reference curve

- Z axis is always normal to the orientation surface of the joint
You can scope a point on a curve joint to a single curve or multiple reference
curves
Mobile coordinate system has to be scoped to a vertex
Joint coordinate system has to be positioned and oriented such that:
- The origin is on the curve
- X axis is tangent to curve
- Z axis is the outer normal to the curface
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Scoping of geometry entities to a Joint is similar to
the scoping method used to define a conventional
contact pair, except that instead of contact and
target surfaces we have a Reference surface and
a Mobile surface.
Coordinate systems define the location of the joint.
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A reference coordinate system applies to bodyto ground or body-to-body. When a joint is

added, an associated coordinate system is
automatically generated at a location based on
your face selection.
To support the relative motion between the

parts of a joint, a mobile coordinate system is
also automatically defined.
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Behavior Options:
Rigid (Default) The geometry will not deform,

maintains the initial shape, similar to the
MAPDL constraint defined by the CERIG
command.
Deformable - The geometry is free to deform,

similar to the MAPDL constraint defined by the
RBE3 command.
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Pinball Region for Joints:
Defines where the joint attaches to face(s) if the default location is not
desirable. By default, the entire face is tied to the joint element. This may
not be desirable, warranting the input of a Pinball Region setting, for the
following reasons:
- If the scoping is to a topology with a large number of nodes, this can lead to an
inefficient solution in terms of memory and speed.
- Overlap between the joint scoped faces and other displacement type boundary
conditions can lead to over constraint and thus solver failures.
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Joints can be created automatically for fixed and
revolute types.
From the Details view of the Connection Group
object, choose Joint from the Connection Type drop
down menu.
Select bodies based on the Scoping Method
(default =All Bodies).
Configure the types of joints (fixed and/or
revolute)
Choose Create Automatic Connections from the
context menu (right mouse click) for the Connection
Group.
Appropriate joint types are created and appear in
the tree as objects under the Joints folder.
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E. Spring and Beam Options

In addition to Contact and Joint connections, there are also convenient options
within the Connection branch for tying entities together (Body-Body) or to
ground (Body-Ground) using spring and beam elements
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... Spring and Beam Options

From the Connections branch, a spring element with user specified properties
can be inserted between two scoped entities as shown.
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... Spring and Beam Options

Alternatively, a beam with circular cross section can be inserted between two
scoped entities as shown.
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F. Spot Welds
The Spot Weld Option is intended to connect discrete vertices together using a
spiderweb of rigid beam elements
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G. Connection Worksheet
The Connections Worksheet is helpful for review and diagnostics of large
assemblies with multiple contacts, joints and mesh connections .
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Provides a convenient summary listing and tabular matrix of all the

connections existing between entities
Toggle buttons give users control to filter out unwanted data

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... Connection Worksheet

Generate button creates the connection data requested.
This produces any one or all of the following data sets:

Contact Information: Displays summary table of the properties for each
contact.
Joint DOF Checker: Checks the total number of free degrees of freedom
and displays the free DOF, based on the number of unsuppressed parts,
fixed constraints, and translation joints.
Joint Information: Displays the name, type, scope, and status of all joints.
Mesh Connection: Information Displays information about the mesh
connections (springs, beams, spot welds).
Connection Matrix : Displays a matrix that represents the connections
between bodies in the geometry.
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Contact Information Displays the properties for each contact. You can turn
the displayed properties on and off using the right-click menu.
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Joint DOF Checker Checks the total number of free degrees of freedom and
displays the free DOF, based on the number of unsuppressed parts, fixed
constraints, and translation joints.
If this number is less than 1, the model may be overconstrained, and you
should check the model closely and remove any redundant joint constraints.
You can use a Redundancy Analysis (discussed later) to detect redundant
joint constraints.
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Joint Information Displays the name, type, scope, and status of all joints in
the model.
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Connection Matrix represents the connections between bodies in the
geometry. Connections are color-coded by type (as shown in the legend)
- Limited to assemblies with maximum of 200 parts
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A Redundancy Analysis can also be performed from the Connection Branch
to evaluate all the connections in an assembly for overconstrained DOFs and
enable user to eliminate such redundancy.
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H. Workshop Connection Worksheet

W1A Connection Worksheet
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Lecture A2
Contact Interface Treatments
ANSYS Mechanical
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Chapter Overview
In this Lecture, we will discuss tools available for adjusting the Interface
between contact and target surfaces to simulate more advanced relationships
A. Rigid Body Motion
B. Contact Surface Offset
C. Workshop 2A - Interference Fit
D. Contact Stabilization Damping
E. Workshop 2B - Contact Stabilization
F. MPC Interface Options
G. Time Step Controls
H. Friction
I. Workshop 2C -Friction
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A. Rigid Body Motion

Rigid body motion can occur in the beginning of a static analysis due to the
fact that an initial contact condition is not well established.
Fn
Contact
Target
The finite element method cannot reconcile rigid-body motion in a static

structural analysis.
- If an initial gap is present and a force based loading is applied, initial
contact may not be established, and one part may fly away relative to
another part.
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... Rigid Body Motion

Fn
Contact
Pinball Radius
Target
For linear contact (bonded or no separation)behavior, a large enough

Pinball Radius may allow any gap between Contact and Target surfaces to
be ignored.
For nonlinear contact (frictional or frictionless) behavior, an initial gap is not
automatically ignored.
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B. Contact Surface Offset

To alleviate situations where a negligible gap exists between contact and
target surfaces, there are two options available under Interface Treatment to
internally offset the Contact surfaces by a specified amount.
On the left is the original model (mesh). The top red mesh is the body associated
with the Contact surfaces
The Contact surface can be mathematically offset by a certain amount, as shown on

the right in light green. This adjustment will allow for initial contact to be
established.
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... Contact Surface Offset

Important notes on Contact Offset Feature:
This is a mathematical adjustment only. Nodes and elements are not altered.
The position of the contact surface is interpreted as being offset by specified
amount.
It has the effect of a change in geometry at the contact interface since a
rigid region will exist between the actual mesh and the offset contact
surface.
It is intended for applications where this adjustment is small enough to
have a negligible effect on overall results.
It has proven to be a useful tool to establish initial contact in static analyses
without having to modify the CAD geometry.
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In the Details view, the user can select Adjust to Touch or Add Offset
Adjusted to Touch - Mechanical determines what contact offset amount is

needed to close the gap and establish initial contact. Note that the contact
status must be near field open (size of the Pinball Region must envelop the
gap) for this to work. If all contact elements are far-field open, no adjustment
will be made.
Add Offset allows the user to specify a

positive or negative distance to offset
the contact surface. A positive value will
tend to close a gap while a negative value
will tend to open a gap.
This can also be used to model initial interference
fits without modifying the geometry. Model
the geometry in just-touching position and
change the positive distance value to the
interference value.
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Add Offset, Ramped Effects - Applies the interference gradually over
several substeps within a load step.
This option is useful to enhance convergence for challenging interference

problems.
Add Offset, No Ramping - Applies the interference all at once in first

substep.
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C. Workshop
Please Refer to your Workshop Supplement
W2A: Interference Fit
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D. Contact Stabilization Damping

What about applications where the gap is no longer negligible (its too large to
be ignored).
- For such situations, Contact Stabilization Damping can be used to introduce a
viscous damping traction proportional to but opposite to the relative pseudo
velocities between the two surfaces along contact normal and/or tangential
directions.
Fn
Ft
Contact
Pd1,d2
Target
Pdn
Where:
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Pdn = d n u&n
Pd 1 = d t u&1
Pd 2 = d t u& 2
d n = damping coefficient in normal direction

d t = damping coefficient in tangential direction
u& = pseudo velocity
October 25, 2013
... Contact Stabilization Damping

The damping coefficients are calculated as a function of the opening gap and
pinball as follows:
FDMN * ( PINB U n ) / PINB If U n U pinb

dn =
If U n 0 or U n gt U pinb
FDMN * FDMT * ( PINB U n ) / PINB If U n U pinb
dt =
If U n 0 or U n gt U pinb
Where:
FDMN = scaling factor in normal direction (default =1.0)

FDMT = scaling factor in tangential direction (default = 0.001)
PINB = Pinball radius
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... Contact Stabilization Damping

Contact stabilization is inactive by default.
As an exception, it will be activated automatically if ALL of the following
conditions are met:
Gauss point or surface projection based detection.
AND the entire contact pair is in near field open status.
AND a geometric penetration is detected at any contact nodal point, despite the
initially open status.
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Stabilization Damping Factor is applied in the
contact normal direction and it is valid only for
nonlinear contact (frictionless, rough and
frictional contacts).
If this factor is 0 (default), the damping is
activated under the conditions mentioned
previously and only in the first load step
If its value is greater than 0, the damping is
activated for all load steps.
Additional controls are available via KEYOPT(15)
in a command object.
Tangential damping factor is not directly exposed
in Mechanical, but can be manually defined via
RMODIF in a command object.
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Note that the Energy introduced into the model by Contact Stabilization
Damping is artificial.
It can alleviate convergence problems, but it can also affect solution
accuracy if the applied stabilization energy generated by the damping forces
are too large
In most cases, the program automatically activates and deactivates contact
stabilization damping and estimates reasonable damping forces.
However, it is a good practice to check the stabilization energy and reaction forces.
The contact stabilization energy can be post processed via the ETABLE
command using the AENE label in a command object. This should be
compared to element potential energy via SENE label on ETABLE.
For example:
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ETABLE,AE,AENE
!save artificial energies associated with stabilization
ETABLE,SE,SENE
!save strain energies to element table
SSUM
!sum all element energies for comparison
PRETAB,AE,SE
!print element table values
October 25, 2013

Example: Consider a fixed pin interfacing with a hole in plate with initial radial
clearance and under a force based load
Stabilization captures localized stress distribution more accurately then Adjust to Touch
Conventional Adjust to Touch
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Contact Stabilization can be more challenging to converge as compared to
adjust-to-touch option. Note also, it introduces some artificial energy
into the model.
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Example: Consider a hyperelastic seal against a hard surface
Mathematical adjustment to close

gap causes rigid region to exist
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No Gap
E. Workshops
Please refer to your Workshop Supplement
W2B: Contact Stabilization
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F. MPC Interface Options

With MPC Formulation, there are different Constraint Types
available to address unique challenges that can arise when using
CEs (constraint equations) to connect entities together.
- Target Normal, Couple U to ROT (default in WB-Mechanical) is
sufficient for most applications
- Note, the typical MPC equation listed below establishes a relationship
between the rotational DOF of node 6212 on one surface body edge
with displacement DOFs on adjacent surface
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... MPC Interface Options

- Target Normal, Uncouple U to ROT creates CEs that separate the
rotational and displacement DOFs into separate equations to improve
results for special applications to remove artificial stiffness at the
connection.
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For example, consider the case of two
surface body edges connected together
with MPCs
- The default, Target Normal, Couple U to ROT, creates too many
constraints, causing an artificial stiffness at the connection and
resulting in a discontinuity of stress and strain distribution that should
not be there
- Target Normal, Uncouple U to ROT produces expected results
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MPCs created with Default based on beam

element normal direction
Inside Pinball, Couple U to ROT option

properly creates CEs using nodes around
entire perimeter of shell edge, regardless of
beam element normal direction
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Beam Normal Direction
- This option is especially helpful for unique

applications of connecting a line body edge
with a shell or solid face or edge
Beam
eam Normal
No
Direction
Inside Pinball, Couple U to ROT allows

contact detection regardless of element
normal direction
Shell elements
Shell elements
G. Time Step Controls

Time Step Controls offers an additional layer of convergence enhancement that
allows bisections and adjustments to time step size based on changes in contact
behavior.
This choice is displayed only for nonlinear contact:

Frictionless
Rough
Frictional
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Time Step Controls

By default, changes in contact behavior do not influence automatic time
stepping.
Appropriate for most analyses

Bisections triggered by contact status change might be an unnecessary detriment to
overall run time efficiency.
In the example below, there is no benefit to reducing the time step because of
the contact status change (from closed to open). Yet, auto time stepping for
other criteria often still is desirable.
Step 2
Step 1
Status = Closed
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Status = Closed
Status = Open-near field
Time Step Controls

Automatic Bisection - Contact behavior is reviewed at the end of each
substep to determine whether excessive penetration or drastic changes in
contact status have occurred. If so, the current substep is re-evaluated
using a bisected time increment (reduced by half).
In the example below, automatic bisection might enhance convergence
when a localized contact status change results in a dramatic change in the
stiffness response of the overall structure.
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Use auto time

step for contact
status change in
this region only.
Time Step Controls

Predict for Impact - Same as the Automatic Bisection option except that
this option also predicts the minimal time increment needed to detect
future changes in contact status.
Recommended if impact is anticipated.

Substep 1
Substep 2
Contact
missed due
to coarse
time step
Substep 3
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Time step is
auto decreased
to capture the
contact status
change
Time Step Controls

Use Impact Constraints: - A Newmark method is used to achieve a more
accurate energy balance at the contact interface.
Helpful for high impact transient dynamic problems where inertia effects are
important.
Applicable to situations where the energy created from a local contact

penetration at time of impact exceeds the total potential energy of the original
system at time zero.
Can be more efficient then the Predict for Impact option presented on previous
slide.
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H. Frictional Contact Options

In general, the tangential or sliding behavior of two contacting bodies may be
frictionless or involve friction.
Frictionless behavior allows the bodies to slide relative to one another without any
resistance.
When friction is included, shear forces can develop between the two bodies.
Frictional contact may be used with small-deflection or large-deflection
analyses
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Frictional Contact Options

Friction is accounted for with Coulombs Law:
Ftangential Fnormal
Where: =coefficient of static friction
Once the tangential force Ftangential exceeds the above value, sliding will occur
Fn
Ft
Fn
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Frictional Contact Options

For frictional contact, a friction coefficient must be input
A Friction Coefficient of 0.0 results in
30
the same behavior as frictionless

contact
The default contact formulation
is Augmented Lagrange
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October 25, 2013
Reviewing Friction Related Results

If frictional contact is present, additional contact output is available
Contact Frictional Stress and Contact Sliding Distance can be reviewed to get a better
understanding of frictional effects
For Contact Status, Sticking vs. Sliding results differentiate which contacting areas are
moving
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I. Workshop Contact with Friction

W2C-Contact with Friction
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Lecture A3
Accessing Advanced Contact Features via MAPDL
ANSYS Mechanical
Advanced Contact & Fasteners
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Chapter Overview
Mechanical already exposes a rich library of options to meet the many
challenges associated with simulating contact behavior.
However, there are still some contact applications requiring more advanced
features not directly exposed in the Mechanical GUI.
For example, consider the following cases:
Orthotropic or dynamic friction coefficient that varies as a function of relative velocity

over a large displacement.
Friction where the underlying material shear strength is the weak link that dictates
status change from sticking to sliding.
Surface cohesion (limited frictional resistance with zero normal force).

Cohesive Zone Modeling (bonded contact with a limit).
Fluid Pressure Penetration (Surface pressure based on contact status)
and more
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Chapter Overview
This lecture presents how to access these advanced contact features not
directly available in the Mechanical GUI.
This is not intended to be a comprehensive presentation on all the advanced
feature details, but rather a presentation on the general set-up procedure for
using command objects successfully within contact regions in Mechanical.
The following topics will be covered:
A. Background on Contact Pair
B. Contact Documentation
C. MAPDL Command Syntax
D. General Procedure
E. Example Cases
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
A. Background on contact pair

Recall that Face-to-Face, and Edge-to-Face contact use the concept of a
contact pair, which is composed of target elements and contact elements
The contact elements overlie the underlying finite element model like a skin.
Face-to-Face populate the contact surface with Gauss points

Others use the node(s) on contact side directly (no gauss pts)
Separate element types define the target and contact surfaces.
The contact pair is identified through a shared real constant set.
Contact elements (REAL = N )

on the contact surface
Target elements (REAL = N )
on the target surface
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... Background on contact pair

All the parameters that control the contact pair behavior are identified as
either Key Option settings or as properties associated with the Real Constant
Set.
A Key Option is analogous to a switch that controls a particular element
behavior
Contact formulation, Type (bonded, frictionless, frictional), Interface Treatment,

Normal stiffness updating schemes,etc, are examples of Key Option settings
A Real Constant Set is a list of properties of a particular contact pair that

influences behavior and/or convergence
Normal contact stiffness value, contact surface offset value, pinball radius
value,etc, are examples of Real Constant properties
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B. Contact Documentation
The Element Reference Manual (available on-line) contains a comprehensive list of
all Key Options and Real Constants available for each contact element type.
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... Contact Documentation

Each Key Option and Real Constant listed in the Elements Manual also has a link to
different sections of the Contact Technology Guide containing a comprehensive
description of its use.
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C. MAPDL Command Syntax

The commands most commonly used to implement advanced contact
technology features are:
KEYOPT for setting key options

RMODIF to modify a real constant value
MP, MPDATA for defining friction coefficients
TB and TBDATA for cohesive zone modeling parameters
Refer to Command Manual Documentation for details
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... MAPDL Command Syntax

The syntax for the KEYOPT command is as follows:
KEYOPT, ITYPE, KNUM, VALUE
Where ITYPE is the Element type number

KNUM is the number of the KEYOPT
VALUE is the value of this KEYOPT
For example, setting CONTA174 element KEYOPT(12)=3, will enable
bonded contact behavior, in which the target and contact surfaces only
become bonded once contact is established, and they remain bonded for
the remainder of the analysis.
This behavior can be activated for a contact element (with type number 5
as an example) using the following command:
KEYOPT,5,12,3
3 for bonded behavior
Key Option Number (for controlling contact behaviors)
Element Type Number
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... MAPDL Command Syntax

The syntax for the RMODIF command is as follows:
RMODIF, NSET, STLOC, V1,,,,
Where NSET is the Real Constant Set number

STLOC is Starting location in table for modifying data.
VALUE is the new value assigned to constant in location STLOC.
For example, if real constant set #5 represents a frictional contact pair, a maximum
limit on allowable shear stress at the contact interface can be defined with
RMODIF,5,9,TAUMAX
Value for allowable shear stresss
Location for max shear stress
From CONTA174 docu:
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Real Set Number
D. Procedure
To introduce advanced contact features not
directly available in Mechanical GUI, start by
inserting a command object beneath a contact
region
The expectation is that these commands apply to

that specific contact region only.
For convenience, Mechanical automatically parameterizes the attributes (element

type number, real set number, material id number) for that particular contact
region for use in commands.
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... Procedure
Hence, there is usually no need to look up the actual type and real set numbers
to execute a command. Simply use the parameter names directly.
Below is an example command line added to a frictional contact region to
define a limit on the max allowable shear stress (TAUMAX) at the contact
interface
Optional notes can be added to the right of ! for further clarification.
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... Procedure
If you are unfamiliar with the element type being used for a particular contact
region and you need to research the documentation for proper key option or real
constant table references, it is possible to extract this information from the Solver
output (Solution Information).
For example:
From Contact tool:

From Solver Output:
Element Type for

docu research
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... Procedure
If this is a new run and there is no Solver Output, add a command object to the
Environment branch to execute a partial solve with the following commands:
Refer to Command Manual Documentation for additional information on PSOLVE

and /EOF
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... Procedure
There are also a number of contact results not directly available in a Mechanical
Tool that can be extracted via a Command Object strategically placed in the
Solution Branch.
Refer to Contact Element Documentation as well as commands manual documentation

on ETABLE, ESOL, PRESOL, and PRNSOL,,, commands
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E. Example Case -TAUMAX

Consider the case of a large deflection extrusion process that involves gross
deformation of the work piece as it is extruded thru the tooling.
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... Example Case - TAUMAX

With conventional frictional contact, the model fails to converge because the
contact status locks up in a closed and sticking mode as the frictional resistance
load (
*N) becomes prohibitively large.
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... Example Case - TAUMAX

Adding a command object to the frictional contact region to define a limit on
frictional shear at the interface resolves the convergence issue and more
accurately represents the real world limit on the shear strength of the underlying
material at this location.
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Example Case TAUMAX

Full displacement results with TAUMAX limit included.
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Example Case Applying fluid pressure

Consider the case of a piston-cylinder assembly in which you want to apply a
fluid pressure to one side of the O-ring after the parts are all assembled and
access how far the fluid will penetrate across the seal interface.
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It is possible to simulate the assembly of these parts with conventional contact
and the load and BC options available in Mechanical. This was done in
previous Chapter (WS2C).
To apply the fluid pressure to open contact requires APDL in command objects
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The first command object simply preserves the contact element type number
associated with the O-ring surface to a permanent parameter name cid_1 to be
used later
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Two Named Selections are create to identify the total potential surface
(name=pressure) onto which pressure load will be applied along with a
reference starting point (name=start_pt)
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A command object is added to the Static Structural Environment:
To execute the necessary select logic on contact elements to receive the pressure load
To execute the SFE commands to apply a pressure load to the lower surface of the Oring after the parts are assembled (at load step 3)
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A command object can also be added to the Solution branch:
To visually confirm the correct application of the fluid pressure load in load step 3.
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LS 2: Before pressure
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LS 3: After Pressure

Verification of fluid pressure loads with MAPDL plots
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Workshops Accessing Advanced Contact

W3A: Fluid Pressure Penetration
W3B: TAUMAX
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Lecture A4 Bolt Pretension
ANSYS Mechanical
Advanced Contact & Fasteners
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Bolt Pretension
Whenever you model a bolted structure, it might be important to include the
pretension (or preload) in the bolt caused by the tightening of the bolt.
Stresses due
to specified
pretension in
bolt
Mechanical provides a convenient way to simulate bolt pretension

Automatically disconnects the nodes about midway thru shank of meshed bolt
body (3D solid and line bodies only)
Reconnects nodes with constraint equations
Uses constraint equations to define a mathematical offset with the expressed
purpose of generating the user defined preload.
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Bolt Pretension
Features of the pretension element:
A set of pretension elements is identified as a
section.
3-D line element that acts like a "hook" connecting
two halves of a bolt.
Nodes I, J are the end nodes, usually coincident.
Node K is the pretension node:
Location is arbitrary.
Has one DOF: UX.
Used to define the preload, as an FX force or UX
displacement.
Actual line of action is in pretension load
direction
Preload
direction
J
K
Node I
Pretension
section
Bolt solids or beams
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Bolt Pretension
Pretension Load Application
When a physical bolt is pretensioned:
Turning the nut reduces the unstretched grip length of the bolt, thereby
inducing pretension
When the desired pretension is achieved and the wrench is removed, the new
unstretched grip length becomes locked
Typical Mechanical pretension loading procedure represents this same

sequence
First, apply the specified pretension (usually a specified force) in one load step
Then, lock the pretension section displacement (lock the shortened grip
length) in a subsequent load step.

Once all bolts are pretensioned and locked, apply external loads in the final
load step
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
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Bolt Pretension
Pretension Load Application (contd)
Bolt pretension load can be applied to a cylindrical face, to a straight
edge of a line body, to a single body, or to multiple bodies.
Line of action of the bolt load applied to a cylindrical surface will be
along cylinder axis by default.
Line of action of bolt load applied to a line body is always parallel to
line.
If you apply the Bolt Pretension load to a body, you will need to have a
local Coordinate System object in the tree.
The application of the load will be at the origin and along the z-axis of
the local coordinate system.
You can place the coordinate system anywhere in the body and
reorient the z-axis.
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Bolt Pretension
The following options under the Define By setting in the
Details view.
Load: Applies a force as a preload. A Load field is displayed
where you enter the value of the load in force units.
Adjustment: Applies a length as a pre-adjustment (for
example, to model x number of threads). An Adjustment
field is displayed where you enter the value of the
adjustment in length units.
Lock: Fixes all displacements. You can set this state for any
step except the first step.
Open: Use this option to leave the Bolt Pretension load
open so that the load has no effect on the applied step,
effectively suppressing the load for the step.
Note that in order to avoid convergence issues from having
under-constrained conditions, a small load (0.01% of the
maximum load across the steps) will be applied. You can set this
state for any step.
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Bolt Pretension
If you try to apply a preload on the same face more than once, all definitions
except the first one are ignored.
Be sure that a sufficiently fine mesh exists on a face or body that contains Bolt
Pretension loads so that the mesh can be correctly partitioned along the axial
direction (that is, at least 2 elements long).
For simulating one Bolt Pretension through multiple split faces, you should
apply only one Bolt Pretension load to one of the split faces, as the Bolt
Pretension load will slice though the whole cylinder even though only part of
the cylinder is selected.
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Bolt Pretension
Care should be used when applying a Bolt Pretension load to a cylindrical face
that has bonded contact. There is a possibility that if you apply a Bolt
Pretension load to a cylinder that had a bonded contact region, the bonded
contact will block the ability of the Bolt Pretension to deform properly.
The Bolt Pretension load should be applied to cylindrical faces that contain
the model volume (that is, do not try to apply the Bolt Pretension load to a
hole).
Use caution when defining bolt loads by bodies and a coordinate system
because the entire body is sliced along the local XY plane (Z=0).
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Bolt Pretension
Body Scoping
Body scoping of a Bolt Pretension load can be to more than one body. In
this case all the scoped bodies will be cut.
There is still only a single Bolt Pretension load created but this feature
allows you to apply a bolt load to a bolt that has been cut into several
bodies. This feature is illustrated in the following figure.
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Bolt Pretension
Bolt Pretension Reactions
Use the Probe tool in Solution branch to confirm reaction in bolt
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Bolt Pretension
Visualizing Bolt Pretension Elements
The PRET179 elements used for bolt pretension are actually just constraint
equations. You can visualize these constraints on the FE model as follows:
Highlight the Solution Information Branch. In the Details Window, FE
Connection Visibility:
Activate Visibility =Yes
Display = All FE Connectors
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Bolt Pretension
The solver output will also list a summary of important pretension
specifications for each bolt pretension section that was created for
additional confirmation
Pretension Section ID
Pretension node number
Pretension direction
9 pretension
elements created
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Bolt Pretension via Joint Technology

For large deflection applications where the bolt
itself is going thru a large rotation, the CEs might
become invalid. In such cases consider using a bolt
pretension option available in Joint technology as
an alternate
Supports Large rotation based pretension and
pretorque loads
Supports locking in subsequent loadsteps
The preloaded Bolt needs to be sliced in
advance of analysis.
The two cut surfaces are connected by a
cylinder joint.
The pretension loading is applied via Joint load
(FJ,,FZ)
The loading can be locked via DJ,,UZ,%_FIX%
and DJ,,ROTZ,%FIX%
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Bolt Pretension via Joint Technology
Using conventional bolt

pretension, the stresses
appear with significant
bending with rotation
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Using cylindrical joint the

stress appear without
significant bending
F. Workshop Bolt Pretension Modeling

Please refer to your Workshop Supplement on
WS4A-bolt.wbpz
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Lecture B1
Rate Dependent Material Behavior: Creep
ANSYS Mechanical
Advanced Nonlinear Materials
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Chapter Overview
This chapter will address the wide range of implicit creep laws available in
Mechanical.
We will cover the following topics:
A. Background on Creep
B. Definition of Terms
C. General Creep Equation
D. Available Creep Models
E.
Material Input
F.
Solution Procedure
G. Review Creep Results

H. Workshop
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A. Background on Creep
In crystalline materials, such as metals, creep mechanism is linked to
diffusional flow of vacancies and dislocation movement.
Vacancies are point defects, and they tend to favor grain boundaries that are
normal, rather than parallel, to the applied stress. Vacancies tend to move from
regions of high to low concentrations. Diffusional flow can occur at low stresses but
usually require high temperatures.
Dislocations in grains are line defects. The movement of dislocations (climb, glide,
deviation) tend to be activated by high stresses, although it may also occur at
intermediate temperatures.
Grain boundary sliding is sometimes considered as a separate mechanism which also

contributes to creep deformation.
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... Background on Creep

Although a detailed discussion of material science is beyond the scope of this
seminar, it may suffice to say that the aforementioned physical mechanics
contribute to creep.
The dependency of creep deformation on stress, strain, time, and temperature
are generally modeled with a form similar to the following:
&cr = f1 ( ) f 2 ( ) f 3 (t ) f 4 (T )
The functions f1-4 are dependent on the creep law selected.
Associated creep constants are usually obtained through various tensile tests at
different rates and temperatures.
Assuming isotropic behavior, the von Mises equation is used to compute the effective
stress, and the equivalent strain is used in the creep strain rate equation (similar to
rate-independent plasticity).
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WB Mechanical uses the additive strain decomposition when calculating
elastic, plastic, and creep strain:
Additive decomposition
& = & el + & pl + & cr
Plastic strains (flow rule) are calculated in a similar fashion as described in the
lecture on plasticity. Creep strains are evaluated based on the creep strain
rate equations, specific forms of which will be discussed later.
The elastic, creep, and plastic strains are all evaluated on the (current) stress
state, but they are calculated independently (not based on each other).
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Creep, like plasticity, is an irreversible (inelastic) strain which is based on
deviatoric behavior. The material is assumed to be incompressible under
creep flow.
On the other hand, creep, unlike rate-independent plasticity, has no yield
surface at which inelastic strains occur.
Hence, creep does not require a higher stress value for more creep strain to occur.
Creep strains are assumed to develop at all non-zero stress values.
In engineering usage, creep is generally used to describe a thermally-activated

process with a low strain rate. Rate-independent plastic and implicit creep strains
are treated in a weakly coupled manner.
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B. Definition of Terms
Three stages of creep:
Under constant load, the uniaxial strain vs. time behavior of creep is shown below.
In the primary stage, the strain rate decreases with time. This tends to occur over a
short period. The secondary stage has a constant strain rate associated with it. In
the tertiary stage, the strain rate increases rapidly until failure (rupture).
Rupture
Primary
Secondary
Tertiary
t
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... Definition of Terms

Three stages of creep (contd):
The creep strain rate may be a function of stress, strain, temperature, and/or time.
For engineering analysis, the primary and secondary stages of creep are usually of
greatest interest.
Tertiary creep is usually associated with the onset of failure (necking, damage)
and is short-lived. Hence, tertiary creep is not modeled in Mechanical.
The strain rate associated with primary creep is usually much greater than those
associated with secondary creep.
However, the strain rate is decreasing in the primary stage whereas it is usually
nearly constant in the secondary stage (for the aforementioned uniaxial test case
at constant stress and temperature).
Also, primary creep tends to be of a shorter period than secondary creep.
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Creep
Under constant applied stress,

strain increases.
Stress Relaxation
Under constant applied strain,

stress decreases.
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Time-hardening
Assumes that the creep strain rate
depends only upon the time from

the beginning of the creep process.
In other words, the curve shifts
up/down. As stress changes from
1 to 2, the different creep rates
are calculated at points A to B.
&cr t n
t
c
Strain-hardening
Assumes that the creep rate depends

only on the existing strain of the
material. In other words, the curve
shifts left/right. As stress changes
from 1 to 2, the different creep strain
rates are calculated at points A to B.
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A
B
&cr n
t

Implicit creep
Implicit creep refers to the use of backward Euler integration for creep strains. This
method is numerically unconditionally stable. This means that it does not require as
small a time-step as the explicit creep method, so it is much faster overall.
&cr = f ( t + t , t + t , T t + t , L)
For implicit creep plus rate-independent plasticity, the plasticity correction and creep
correction done at the same time, not independently. Consequently, implicit creep is
generally more accurate than explicit creep, but it is still dependent on the time-step
size. A small enough time-step must be used to capture the path-dependent behavior
accurately.
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C. General Creep Equation

As noted earlier, the creep equations are usually of a rate form similar to the
one below:
&cr = f1 ( ) f 2 ( ) f 3 (t ) f 4 (T )
However, the type of material being analyzed determines the choice of a
specific creep equation. Some general characteristics will be discussed
presently. Specific models will be covered in the implicit creep sections.
The implicit creep equations are also covered in the Elements Manual, Ch. 2.5.
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... General Creep Equation

Primary creep usually exhibits either time- or strain-hardening.
Time-hardening is the inclusion of a time-dependent term:
&cr t m
Strain-hardening is the inclusion of a strain-dependent term:
&cr crn
Determination of which to use (strain- or time-hardening) is based upon material data
available. Strain-hardening tends to approximate primary creep of metals more
accurately although time-hardening tends to be more popular.
Secondary creep does not exhibit time- or strain-hardening. Creep strain rate is
usually constant for secondary stage.
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Temperature-dependency
Creep effects are thermally activated, and its temperature dependence is usually
expressed through the Arrhenius law:
&cr e
Q
RT
Where Q is the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant, and T is absolute
temperature.
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Stress dependency
Creep strain is also usually stress-dependent, especially with dislocation creep. The
steady-state creep behavior (secondary creep) is expressed in various ways.
Nortons law (a.k.a. power law):
&cr n
A common modification to the above is the exponential law:
&cr eC
The hyperbolic sine law is yet another common function used to describe secondary
(constant) creep rate:
&cr sinh ( A )
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Below is a summary of implicit creep laws available in
Mechanical which will be reviewed in the following section:
Creep Equation Description
Strain Hardening
Time Hardening
Generalized Exponential
Generalized Graham
Generalized Blackburn
Modified Time Hardening
Modified Strain Hardening
Generalized Garofalo (Hyperbolic sine)
Exponential Form
Norton
Time Hardening
Rational Polynomial
Generalized Time Hardening
User Creep
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Type
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Both
Both
Primary
D. Available Creep Models

1) Strain Hardening
Primary creep
2) Modified Strain Hardening

Primary creep
&cr = C1 C2 C3 e C4 /T
C
&cr = C1 C2 [(C3 + 1) ] 3
1
(C3 +1) C4 /T
These two creep laws contain Nortons law as well as a strain-hardening

term. Since the constant C3 is usually negative, these laws are able to
model primary creep where the creep strain rate decreases as e increases.
They can also capture some secondary creep effects since, as e increases,
the creep strain rate can become nearly constant. Note that these laws
also contain the Arrhenius equation.
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... Available Creep Models

3) Time Hardening
Primary creep
&cr = C1 C2 t C3 e C4 /T
r
4) Generalized Time Hardening

Primary Creep
&cr = ft e
C6
f = C1 + C2 2 + C3 3
r = C4 + C5
5) Modified Time Hardening

Primary creep
C1 C2 t C3 +1e C4 /T
cr =
(C3 + 1)
The above three creep laws include the Arrhenius equation and Nortons law, as well as
a time-hardening term. The exponential term for t is usually between -0.5 and -1.0 to
model the decreasing creep strain rate for primary creep. Hence, this model may also
approximate a significant part of secondary creep where creep strain rate is constant.
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6) Generalized Blackburn
Primary creep
&cr = C1eC2 1 e rt + C6 eC7 t
7) Generalized Graham
Primary creep
&cr = C1 C2 t C3 + C4t C5 + C6t C7 e C8 /T
8) Generalized Exponential
Primary creep
r = C3
C4
C5
&cr = C1 C2 re rt
r = C5 C3 e C4 /T
These are some variants of time-hardening creep laws (see previous slide for
discussion on time-hardening creep). Note that Generalized Blackburn uses
exponential law instead of Nortons law and, like Generalized Exponential, it
includes an exponential form for the time-hardening term.
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9) Time Hardening
Primary + Secondary
C1 C2 t C3 +1e C4 /T
cr =
+ C5 C6 teC7 /T
(C3 + 1)
10) Rational Polynomial

Primary + Secondary
&cr = C1
c
t
cpt
c =
+ &mt
1 + pt
c = C7 &mC8 C9
&m = C210C3 C4
p = C10&mC11 C12
Both of these time-hardening laws can be used to model primary and secondary
creep effects directly. If one takes the time derivative of Time Hardening one may
notice that it is both time-hardening and Nortons law. The Rational Polynomial
form is commonly used for steels in the nuclear industry.
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11) Generalized Garofalo
Secondary creep
&cr = C1 [sinh (C2 )] C3 e C4 /T
12) Exponential Form

Secondary creep
&cr = C1e /C 2 e C3 /T
13) Norton
Secondary creep
&cr = C1 C2 e C3 /T
These last three creep laws were previously discussed. Because they do not
include any time or strain dependence on creep strain rate, these are suitable to
model secondary creep range (i.e., constant creep strain rate).
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E. Material Data Input

From the Engineering Data Toolbox, open the Creep folder:
Highlight the creep model of interests (in the example below, modified time hardening
RMB on the material model and click on Include Property
The creep model will then appear in the
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Properties Dialogue box.

The yellow blank boxes are now available for user
to define the necessary coefficients.
As with all material properties, be sure to use consistent units
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Creep models also support temperature dependent properties via Tabular input.
Notes:
The fourth constant (C4) in the modified time
hardening model above is also related to
temperature via Arrhenius equation .
User has the option to define creep
temperature dependency by way of Arrhenius
equation with nonzero value for C4 or by
multiple sets of temperature dependent data
(as in this example) or both.
The Arrhenius function relies on an absolute
temperature scale. Temperature units are
automatically offset to absolute temperature
by solver (See TOFFST command
documentation).
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C1 C2 t C3 +1e C4 /T
cr =
(C3 + 1)
D. Analysis Settings for Creep

The Analysis Settings will be similar for most
nonlinear problems
Although time has importance in a creep problem,

the solution can be static or transient. This would
exclude or include inertial effects.
Ensure that the time step size is small enough to

capture the path dependent response adequately.
Large Deflection = ON is recommend

For large models with long run times and potential
convergence trouble, consider setting up a Restart
Control strategy in the event that adjustment to time
step range or convergence criteria is necessary
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Analysis Settings for Creep

The creep strain calculation can be turned on or off during an analysis.
This is useful to establish initial conditions. In this situation, a very small ending TIME
value (e.g., 1e-8) should be set, and creep effects turned off. Solve initial stress state
as 1st load step. Then, to turn creep effects ON and specify the real end time for load
step 2.
Load Step 1
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Load Step 2

Because creep is a path-dependent phenomenon, it is
important to ensure that the response is adequately
captured.
One measure of this which the solver uses is the Creep Strain
Ratio defined as:
Cs =
cr
et
Where cr is the equivalent creep strain increment and et is the

modified equivalent elastic strain (see Ch. 4.2/4.3 of the Theory
Manual for details).
Creep Limit Ratio is the maximum allowable limit to the Creep

Strain Ratio
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If, during a timestep, the solver calculates a Creep Strain Ratio larger than the
Creep Limit Ratio (default =1.0), then the solution is automatically bisected until
the creep limit is satisfied or the minimum time step is reached.
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Implicit creep is unconditionally stable. However, this does not mean that
implicit creep is unconditionally accurate.
Although WB-Mechanical sets this limit to 1.0 by default, a creep limit ratio of 0.1 to
10 (10-1000%) is generally recommended, depending on the magnitude of the
equivalent elastic strain developed and the level of accuracy required.
Also, one should be sure to specify a small enough initial, min, and max time step as
well.
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G. Reviewing Creep Results

In addition to reviewing elastic, thermal, and plastic strains, one can also review
creep strains.
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H. Workshop Exercise
Please refer to your Workshop Supplement:
Workshop 3A: Stress Relaxation
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Lecture B2
Hyperelasticity
ANSYS Mechanical
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Hyperelasticity Chapter Overview

A. Background on Elastomers
B. Introduction to Hyperelasticity Theory
C. Available Models
D. Mixed u-P Formulation
E. Curve fitting procedure
F. Analysis Settings
G. Running the Solution
H. Workshop

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A. Background on Elastomers
Elastomers are a class of polymers with the following
properties
Unextended chain
Elastomers involve natural and synthetic rubbers, which

are often amorphous and are comprised of long
molecular chains
The molecular chains are highly twisted, coiled, and randomly oriented
in an undeformed state
These chains become partially straightened and untwisted under a
tensile load
Extended chain
Schematic of single molecular chain.

In network, these chains are randomly
oriented and often have crosslinks.
Upon removal of the load, the chains revert back to their original
configuration
Rubber elasticity is due mainly to reduction in entropy

(i.e., reduction in the number of possible configuration of
chains).
This is unlike metals, for example, where elastic behavior is due to
stretching of molecular bonds (see Chapter 5).
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Example of Rubber boot, o-rings/seals
... Background on Elastomers

On a macroscopic level, rubber behavior exhibits certain characteristics
They can undergo large elastic (recoverable) deformations, anywhere on the order
of 100-700%. As noted previously, this is due to the untwisting of cross-linked
molecular chains.
There is little volume change under applied stress since the deformation is related
to straightening of chains. Hence, elastomers are nearly incompressible.
Their stress-strain relationship can

be highly nonlinear
Tension
Usually, in tension, the material

softens then stiffens again. On
the other hand, in compression,
the response becomes quite stiff.
Compression
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B. Introduction to Hyperelasticity Theory

There are some key assumptions related to the hyperelastic constitutive
models in ANSYS
Material response is isotropic, isothermal, and elastic

Thermal expansion is isotropic
Deformations are fully recoverable (conservative)
Material is fully or nearly incompressible

Idealization of true rubbery behavior, which is more complex
The constitutive hyperelastic models are defined through a strain energy
potential (or density) function
Unlike plasticity, stresses and strains in hyperelastic are not expressed directly via
modulus and poissons ratio.
Instead, total-stress vs. total-strain relationship is defined through a strain energy

potential (W), next slide.
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... Introduction to Hyperelasticity Theory

The strain energy potential is usually denoted as W
Strain energy potential can either be a direct function of principal stretch ratios
strain invariants Ii
W (1 , 2 , 3 )
or
W = W (I1 , I 2 , I 3 )
Through the strain energy function, the stresses and strains can be calculated.
dW
Sij =
dEij
Where Eij are components of the strain tensor
Refer to Section 4.7 of Theory manual for more rigorous mathematical discussion
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or

The stretch ratio (or simply stretch) is defined as
L Lo + u
=
=
= 1+ E
Lo
Lo
The above is an example of stretch ratio as defined for uniaxial tension of a
rubber specimen, where E is engineering strain.
There are three principal stretch ratios 1, 2, and 3 which will provide a measure
of the deformation.
These will also be used in defining the strain energy potential.
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The three strain invariants are commonly used to define the strain energy
density function.
I1 = 12 + 22 + 32
I 2 = 12 22 + 22 32 + 32 12
I 3 = 12 22 32
Because we assume that the material is isotropic, some forms of the strain
energy potential are expressed as a function of these scalar invariants.
In other words, strain invariants are measures of strain which are independent of
the coordinate system used to measure the strains, so that is related to our
assumption on isotropic material behavior.
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The volume ratio J can be defined as
V
J = 12 3 =
Vo
As shown above, J can be thought of as the ratio of deformed to undeformed
volume of the material.
In the case of thermal expansion, the thermal volumetric deformation is
J th = (1 + th )
The elastic volumetric deformation is related to the total and thermal

volumetric deformation by the following:
J total
J el = J =
J th
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Because of material incompressibility, we split the deviatoric (subscript d or
with bar) and volumetric (subscript b) terms of the strain energy function. As a
result, the volumetric term is a function of volume ratio J only.
W = Wd I1 , I 2 + Wb ( J )
W = Wd 1 , 2 , 3 + Wb ( J )
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C. Available Models
The polynomial form of the strain energy potential is based on the first and
second strain invariants. It is a phenomenological model of the form
N
)(
1
2k
W = cij I1 3 I 2 3 + ( J 1)
i + j =1
k =1 d k
i
where the initial bulk modulus and initial shear modulus are
o = 2(c10 + c01 )
2
o =
d1
cij and di are defined as material properties by user.
If unknown, these values can be derived from test data using curve
fitting routine (Discussed in next section).
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... Available Models

The Ogden form, another phenomenological model, is directly based on the
principal stretch ratios rather than the strain invariants:
N
i
1
2i
W = (1 + 2 + 3 3) + ( J 1)
i =1 i
i =1 d i
N
where the initial bulk and shear moduli are defined as
o =
i =1
o =
2
d1
i, i, and di are defined as material properties by user.

if unknown, these values can be derived from test data using curve fitting
routine.
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The Ogden compressible foam model is similar to the Ogden incompressible model:
i 3
N i
(
W = J (1 + 2 + 3 ) 3 +
J 1)
i =1 i i
i =1 i
N
where the initial bulk and shear moduli are

N
o =
i =1
1
3
o = i i + i
i =1
However, unlike the regular Ogden model, in the Ogden compressible foam
model, the volumetric and deviatoric terms are tightly coupled. Hence, this
model is meant to model highly compressible rubber behavior.
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The Blatz-Ko model is specifically for compressible polyurethane foam rubber
with the following form:
I2
W = + 2 I 3 5
2 I3
where is the shear modulus.
The bulk modulus is defined as 5/3.

This implies = 0.25.
Note that I2 and I3 are regular (not deviatoric)

second and third strain invariants.
This model was proposed by Blatz and Ko for

a 47% volume percent polyurethane foam-type
rubber.
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2(1 + )
=
3(1 2 )
2(1 + 0.25)
=
3(1 2 0.25)
5
=
3

The Blatz-Ko models are for compressible foam-type rubbers. The deviatoric
and volumetric terms of strain energy are tightly coupled.
For the nearly incompressible rubber models,
the volumetric term is often presented as one
of three forms, as shown on the right:
Recall that the term J is ratio of current to

original volume. Undeformed state is J=1.
For cases of Wb1, only d1 is usually considered (= Wb2).
Wb1 =
i =1
1
(J 1)2i
di
1
(J 1)2
d
2
1
J
-1
3
Wb =
lnJ
d 2
Wb2 =
The selections of Wb and the bulk modulus value (=2/d) do not tend to affect results
much unless the model is significantly stretched (leading to finite volume change) or
highly confined.
For the fully incompressible case with d=0, this volumetric term Wb is ignored
(J=1, volume preserved).
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The Arruda-Boyce form (a.k.a. eight-chain model) is a statistical mechanicsbased model. This means that the form was developed as a statistical
treatment of non-Gaussian chains emanating from the center of the element
to its corners (eight-chain network).
5
W =
i =1
Ci
2i 2
L
1
J
-1
i
i
I1 3 +
lnJ
d 2
where the constants Ci are defined as
1
1
11
19
519
C1 = , C2 = , C3 =
, C4 =
, C5 =
2
20
1050
7050
673750
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The Extended-Tube model is a physics-based polymer model which introduces
the physical consideration on the molecular scale into the formulation of the
strain-energy potential. The model considers the topological constraints as well
as the limited chain extensibility of network chains in the filled rubbers.
Where the initial shear modulus is given by G = Gc + Ge, and:

Ge = constraint contribution to modulus
Gc = crosslinked contribution to modulus
= extensibility parameter
= empirical parameter (0 1)
d1 = material incompressibility parameter
The model is equivalent to a two-term Ogden model if :

1=2; 2=-
; 1=Gc; 2=-2Ge/ and d=0
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There are several options for representing the strain energy potential.
They can be grouped into three basic categories.
Functions based on strain invariants
Functions based on stretch ratios
Polynomial
Ogden
Phenomenological Model
1st and 2nd Strain Invariants
Principal Stretches
Mooney-Rivlin
Yeoh
Neo-Hookean
1st Strain Invariant
2-term M-R
3-term Yeoh
Ogden-Foam
Incompressible (left) and compressible (right)

models based on principal stretches
Statistical-Mechanical based models
Neo-Hookean
Arruda-Boyce
Gent
Micromechanical Model
Micromechanical Model
Nearly-/fully-incompressible phenomenological
hyperelastic models based on strain invariants.
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Nearly-/fully-incompressible micromechanical
models based on 1st strain invariant

The number of material constants will differ, depending on the strain energy
function W chosen.
The choice will depend on:
Type of elastomer
Loading conditions (% Strain)
Material test data available.
In general, the best strain energy density function is the one that produces
the closest curve fit of stress vs. strain test data
In the most challenging applications, there might be only one function that is
appropriate.
Often two or more functions will produce same response.
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As an alternative to defining a strain energy potential form, there is also a
Response Function model which uses experimental data directly to determine
the constitutive response functions.
Note that the derivative expressions of the strain energy potentials are also
considered response functions.
Uniaxial
2 % 2/3 % 2 J% % 4/3 % 2
11 = %
J +
J IC IC
%
J I C
II
Equibiaxial
2 % 2/3 % 2 J% 2 % 4/3 % 2
11 = %
J 4 +
J IC IC
%
J I C
II
J% 2 % 4 J% 4
+ 8
% 4
%
2 % 2/3 % 2 J% 2 % 4/3 % 2
11 = %
J 2 +
J IC IC
%
J I C
II C
J% 2 % 4 J% 4
+ 4
% 2
%
Planar Tension
(Pure Shear)
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J% % 4 J% 2
+ 2
%
%

The response functions for the first and second deformation invariant are
determined from the experimental data from uniaxial tension, equibiaxial
tension, pure shear or combined uniaxial tension and compression experiments.
Additionally, for incompressible materials, uniaxial compression experiments
are equivalent to equibiaxial tension and can be used in place of equibiaxial
data to determine the response functions.
Combined uniaxial tension plus compression data cannot be combined with
other data sets (except pressure-volume), and gives only a material behavior
that depends on the first invariant response function.
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Advantages of using the Response Function approach:
Easier set-up as it does not require curve fitting. Just read in the test data and insert the
Response Function.
Test data
Response
Function
Disadvantages:
Only works for stress states that fall inside the range of available test data
Might be more expensive in terms of number of iterations to solve and CPU run time
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D. Mixed u-P Formulation

Recall, for hyperelasticity, the volume ratio (J) is defined as:
V
J=
Vo
Where V and Vo are the updated and original volumes of the element, respectively.
To maintain incompressible behavior, a volumetric compatibility constraint

must be satisfied.
For fully-incompressible hyperelastic materials, no volume change should occur.

With the use of J, the volume change can be quantified
For fully-incompressible case, J should be equal to 1. In other words, the final and
original volumes should be the same (no volume change)
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... Mixed u-P Formulation

The volumetric compatibility constraint is satisfied with a special formulation
called Mixed u-P. Mixed u-P is a reference to the fact that the code will
automatically add an internal hydrostatic pressure DOF (P) to enforce the
volumetric compatibiltiy condition in addition to displacement DOF (u).
Hence, the name Mixed u-P.
From the previous slide, the volume ratio J should be constant (J=1), for fully
incompressible materials:
J 1 = 0
This leads to the following volumetric compatibility equation:
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J 1
dV
J
Vtol
V

The Solution Information Branch will record when this condition is not satisified.
The default value of Vtol is 1e-5.

If the model fails to converge because the Mixed u-P volumetric compatability
condition cannot be met, it might be helpful to introduce a small amount of
incompressibilty by defining small nonzero values for the di parameter.
Recall that di is inversely proportional to the bulk modulus. By default, if no volumetric

test data is introduced into the curve fitter (next section), then the material is assumed
to be fully incompressible (di=zero).
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2
d 1

Alternatively, the tolerance (vtol) on volumetric compatibility constraint can be
loosened via Command Objects.
Manually activating Mixed u-P is necessary in order for

subsequent solc,,,vtol to be accepted
Caution: When you issue SOLC command, all control commands associated
with analysis settings (i.e. Autotime stepping and NSUBST for defining
substeps)set earlier in the interactive or input session are reset to their
original default values. You might need to add additional commands to
reestablish user preferences. Refer to documentation on SOLCONTROL
command Default States Table for details.
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For a fully incompressible problem, no unique solution may exist if all
boundary nodes have prescribed displacements.
This is due to the fact that hydrostatic pressure (internal DOF) is independent of
deformation. Hydrostatic pressure needs to be determined by a force/pressure
boundary condition. Without this, the hydrostatic pressure cannot be calculated
i.e., there is no unique solution.
For these situations, having at least one node without applied boundary condition
will remedy this situation.
Over-constrained models can also be overcome by mesh refinement, especially in

areas without displacement constraints.
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References
Some general references on rubber mechanics:
1. R.S. Rivlin, Large Elastic Deformations, Rheology: Theory & Applications - Vol. 1,
ed. F.R. Eirich, Academic Press, Inc., New York, 1956, Chapter 10.
2. R.S. Rivlin, The Elasticity of Rubber, Rubber Chemistry and Technology, 65, pp.
G51-G66, 1992.
3. O.H. Yeoh, Phenomenological Theory of Rubber Elasticity, Comprehensive Polymer
Science, ed. G. Allen, Elsevier, Oxford, 1996, Chapter 12.
4. L.R.G. Treloar, The Physics of Rubber Elasticity (2nd edition), Oxford University Press,
1958 (3rd edition is ~1975)
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E. Curve-Fitting
WB-Mechanical provides a curve-fitting tool to help translate experimental
data to Strain Energy Potential Function Coefficients for all of the available
hyperelastic models.
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Curve-Fitting
Test data typically comes from one or more of the following six tests:
Uniaxial Tension
Uniaxial Compression
Biaxial Tension (Circular or rectangular specimen)
Planar Shear
Simple Shear
Volumetric Test (Button specimen)
The test data is collected as engineering stress & strain. Engineering stress
and engineering strain are used for the curve fitting (recall that stretch ratio
=1+E).
The exception is volumetric data where true stress is required

This is different from curve-fitting for metal plasticity, where collected data is
converted to true stress and true strain.
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Curve-Fitting
The following lists the type of test data and format of text file:
Material Behavior
Fully
incompressible
Nearly
Incompressible or
Blatz-Ko
Compressible
Experimental Type
Uniaxial Test
Biaxial Test
Shear Test
Uniaxial Test
Biaxial Test
Shear Test
Volumetric Test
Uniaxial Test
Biaxial Test
Shear Test
Volumetric Test
Column 1
Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain
Volumetric Ratio (J)
Longitudinal Strain
Biaxial Strain
Shear Strain
Volumetric Ratio (J)
Column 2
Engineering Stress
Engineering Stress
Engineering Stress
Engineering Stress
Engineering Stress
Engineering Stress
True Stress
Engineering Stress
Engineering Stress
Engineering Stress
Hydrostatic pressure
Column 3
Lateral Direct Strain

Thickness Direct Strain
Thickness Direct Strain
Fully incompressible materials assume =0.50, so volumetric ratio is assumed to be a

constant one and is not used.
Although Blatz-Ko is a compressible material, since =0.25, the lateral/thickness

strains are known and are not needed.
For compressible Ogden foam model, the lateral/thickness strains are required since
the amount of compressibility is not known beforehand.
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Curve-Fitting
Assuming incompressibility (=0.50), the following modes of deformation are
identical:
1. Uniaxial Tension and Equibiaxial Compression
2. Uniaxial Compression and Equibiaxial Tension
3. Planar Tension and Planar Compression
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Curve-Fitting
Collected data may need to be adjusted to account for effects such as
hysteresis and stress-softening behavior.
A typical engineering stressstrain curve for a rubber
sample under cyclic loading is
shown on the right.
1.8
1.6
1.4
Note that hysteresis is present

(behavior in loading vs.
unloading is different). Stresssoftening effects (such as
Mullins effect) are also present.
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
A stabilized curve (loading

path) should then be shifted to
the origin (zero stress for zero
strain) and used for curvefitting procedures.
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0.4
0.2
0
-0.5
0.5
1.5
2.5
Curve-Fitting
Know your material well !!
It is very important to
understand all the factors
that can influence the
stress-strain relationship
Consider factors such as:
Method of manufacturing
Cure time
Load history (magnitude,
rate and sequence)
Environmental conditions
(temperature and humidity)
Designing a good test program that represents the application well is the most
important step toward generating useful FEA simulations of hyperelastic
materials.
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Curve-Fitting
From the Tool Box in the Engineering Data Cell:
RMB on test data (in this case, Uniaxial) and click on
Include Property to add this item to the Material
Property window
The test data line item will appear in the Properties
Window
Repeat for other modes of test data (Biaxial, Shear, and

Volumetric) if available
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Curve-Fitting
For compressible material data, lateral strain must also be included with the
shear and biaxial test data. The Lateral Strain column can be added by
setting Has Lateral Strain to Yes
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Curve-Fitting
For each set of data available:
Open the source file and copy (Ctrl-C) the strain
and stress columns of data
Paste (Ctrl-V) the data into the Table of
Properties window
Data must be engineering strain , engineering

stress.
A plot of the test data will automatically appear
after being read in.
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... Curve-Fitting
After all the test data has been read in, choose a hyperelastic strain energy
density function from the Engineering Data tool box to run the curve fit on.
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... Curve-Fitting
Note: It is important to read in the material test data BEFORE selecting a strain
energy density function. If the strain energy density function is selected before
reading in the data, the curve fitting tool will not be available.
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... Curve-Fitting
The next step is to RMB on Curve Fitting and execute Solve Curve Fit. This will
run a least squares curve fitting routine to find the best combination of coefficients
to echo back the test data for the selected strain energy density
Once curve fitting is complete, Workbench will

display a visual comparison of experimental and
fitted data
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Curve-Fitting
Normalized (default ) and absolute error can be used
for the least-squares fitting:
Eabsolute =
(
N
trial
i
iexperiment
i =1
Enormalized =
i =1
trial
i
iexperiment
experiment 2
i
As apparent from the above equation, normalized gives equal weight to all data
points whereas absolute gives greater weight to data points associated with
larger values.
In general, the normalized (default) option should be suitable for most situations.
If there are more points clustered about a certain strain range, that strain range will be
41
fit better with the normalized method.

If large-strain behavior is sought, use the absolute option since larger values will be
given more weight in this situation.
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Curve-Fitting
Also, depending on application, some test data can be suppressed to
achieve a better curve fit in one mode.
Below is a curve fit on Uniaxial data only

Biaxial and shear data have been suppressed
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F. Analysis Settings for Hyperelasticity

Hyperelasticity is conservative (pathindependent)
If the loading is proportional and the stress state

corresponds to one of the six typical stress paths,
the problem will converge easily (few substeps).
If the hyperelastic stress state and loading path

are complex, a small enough timestep should be
specified to aid convergence.
Large Deflection = ON is manditory

For large models with long run times and
potential convergence trouble, consider
setting up a Restart Control strategy in the
event that adjustment to time step range or
convergence criteria is necessary
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G. Running the Solution

During the solution, either physical or numerical instabilities may be experienced,
resulting in a negative or small pivot warnings.
Physical instabilities are usually due to local or global geometric instabilities, such as
buckling or wrinkling
Numerical instabilities are due to non-positive definite strain energy density function,
usually resulting from strains outside the expected range of interest. This stems from
insufficient experimental data when curve-fitting material constants.
As noted earlier, hyperelastic materials are defined through a strain energy

density function, which then defines the stress-strain relationship. To ensure
that these modes of deformation are realistic (i.e., numerically stable), the
Drucker Stability condition must be satisfied during solution.
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... Running the Solution

The Drucker Stability criterion is defined as the following:
d : d > 0
In other words, the tangent material stiffness matrix should always be positive
definite. To ensure this, the Solver does a preliminary check of the stretch ratio in
the range of 0.1 to 10.0 for the six typical stress paths.
0.1 10.0
The above condition is checked for uniaxial, equibiaxial, and planar cases, both in tension
and compression. (Compression means that the stretch < 1.0, tension is when the stretch
> 1.0)
This check is automatically done at the beginning of the solution phase
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If the material is stable for the given range of 0.1 to 10.0 for the six typical
stress paths, no message will be displayed. Otherwise, a warning message
will be printed in the initial solution phase, such as the one shown below:
*** WARNING ***
CP=
0.219
TIME= 12:50:52
Hyper-elastic material may become unstable, material number 1 at
temperature 0.
The nominal-strain limits where the material becomes unstable are:
UNIAXIAL TENSION
EQUIBIAXIAL COMPRESSION
PLANAR TENSION
PLANAR COMPRESSION
0.110E+01
-0.309E+00
0.118E+01
-0.540E+00
In the above case, uniaxial compression and equibiaxial tension were

satisfied; however, the other four cases were not, so the limits are printed in
the warning message.
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Please note that these checks performed at the beginning of the analysis are
used to help diagnose problems if the solution fails to converge.
A stability check is often an indication that there may be convergence difficulty in

that strain range.
A material failing the stability check does not necessarily mean that the solution is
invalid in that region.
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H. Workshop Hyperelastic Curve Fitting

W4A - Hyperelastic Curve Fitting
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Appendix B3
Element Technology
14. 5 Release
ANSYS Mechanical
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Overview
This lecture is intended to give users a better understanding of element
technology options used in their structural nonlinear simulations.
With the variety of technologies available in many elements, choosing the

best element formulation option to solve problems most efficiently can be
challenging.
Fortunately, Mechanical will automatically activate the best options based on

the analysis challenges present in the model with Element Control set to
Program Controlled in the Details of Geometry Window
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Overview
However, the analyst of nonlinear problems still has decisions to make. For
example, since large nonlinear models can be very challenging and
computationally expensive, it is sometimes advantageous to drop element
mid-side nodes.
Advantages to lower order elements:

Runtime Efficiency
Computational Stability
Disadvantage to lower order elements:
Shear Locking with conventional,
displacement based formulations in
bending dominated problems.
To address this challenge, WBMechanical automatically enhances the
lower order elements with a more robust
technology.
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... Overview
Solution Output records the element technology being activated based
on the element order chosen (midside nodes) and the material
association.
Elastic material or
Default URI
2D plane stress/strain
Enhanced Strain
2D plane strain
elastic material with
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Overview
In addition, material incompressibility can also present problems with
conventional formulations. In anticipation of this challenge, Mechanical
activates a special formulation called Mixed u-P.
Solution output reports when Mixed u-P is activated.
Solution output also reports its effects on convergence
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Overview
With Element Control set to Manual, the
program will keep the documented element
technology defaults regardless of the
application and record suggested
formulations in the Solver Output
- The exception to this is Mixed u-P which will
always be activated for fully incompressible
materials.
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Overview
The general recommendation is to accept the Program Controlled settings
when they are activated.
It is, however, important to understand these options:
What triggers these changes to element formulation?

What are the effects on convergence patterns and results?
With these questions in mind, the following topics will be covered:
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
7
Conventional Displacement Formulation

Shear and Volumetric Locking
Selective Reduced Integration (B-bar)
Uniform Reduced Integration (URI)
Enhanced Strain (ES)
Simplified Enhanced Strain (SES)
Summary
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A. Conventional Displ. Formulation

For any element, DOF solution u is solved at nodes
Stresses and strains are calculated at integration points.
They are derived from DOF.
,
For example, we can determine
strains from displacements via:
= B u
Where B is called the strain-displacement matrix
When we post-process results, stress/strain values at integration

points are extrapolated or copied to nodal locations
The image on the right shows a 4-node quad element with 2x2
integration, integration points shown in red.
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Conventional Displ. Formulation

Integration points for conventional displacement-based elements follow
Gauss quadrature rules and are the same order as the element. This is called
full integration.
Element Type Full Integration Order
4 Node Quad
2x2
8 Node Quad
3x3
8 Node Hex
2x2x2
1
20 Node Hex
3x3x3
1. Note that Mechanical uses a 14pt integration scheme, which is also considered full
integration
In other words, full integration means that the numerical integration rule is
accurate for all components of strain energy for geometrically undistorted
elements.
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... Conventional Displ. Formulation

Fully integrated, lower-order conventional displacement elements are
susceptible to shear and volumetric locking, so they are rarely, if ever, used.
Fully integrated, higher-order conventional displacement elements are also

prone to volumetric locking.
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B. Shear and Volumetric Locking

There are two problems with conventional displacement-based elements:
shear locking and volumetric locking:
Shear Locking results in bending behavior being too stiff (parasitic shear stresses).
This is a property of the geometry, when thin members are subject to bending.
Volumetric Locking results in overly stiff response. This is a property of the

material, when the Poissons ratio is near or equal to 0.5.
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... Shear Locking

Fully integrated lower order elements exhibit overstiffness in bending problems.
This formulation includes shear strains in bending which do not physically exist,
called parasitic shear.
Below are element shear strain plots in MAPDL. Both beams are identical in geometry,
material properties, boundary conditions and loading.
Higher Order Elements
produce correct results
Lower Order Elements with

conventional, fully integrated,
displacement based formulation in
bending produces shear locking
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... Shear Locking

Recall, for a beam in pure bending the shear strain is zero.
13
Correct Response:
Shear Locking:
Pure bending deformation for

a differential volume, plane
sections remain plane, top
and bottom edges become
arcs, xy = 0.
Fully integrated lower order

element deformation, top and
bottom edges remain straight,
right angles are not preserved,
xy is non zero.
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... Volumetric Locking

Volumetric locking occurs in fully integrated elements when the
material behavior is nearly or fully incompressible (Poissons ratio
approaches or equals 0.5).
The incompressibility can occur from a hyperelastic material or plastic

flow (discussed later).
Spurious pressure stresses develop in the element, which cause the

element to have an overstiffness for deformations that should not
cause any volume change.
Volumetric locking may also cause convergence problems.

Volumetric locking can occur for various stress states, including
plane strain, axisymmetric, and 3-D stress.
For plane stress problems, volumetric locking does not occur because
out-of-plane strains are used to satisfy incompressibility condition.
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... Example of Volumetric Locking

Contours of hydrostatic pressure results in conventional elements are shown
below (ANSYS Results Plot (NL,HPRES)).
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We can separate stress into volumetric (-p) and deviatoric (s) components:
= pI + s
1
1 - p
=
3
2
Stress State
(Where: 1 = 2
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= 3)
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+
p
Hydrostatic stress (p) causing

volume change only
2 - p
3 - p
Deviatoric stress (s) causing

angular distortion only

The hydrostatic pressure (p) is defined as the product of the bulk modulus (K)
and volumetric strain (vol):
p = K vol
1
= ( x + y + z )
3
E
K=
3(1 2 )
vol = x + y + z
(
1 2 )
(
=
E
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+ y + z )

From the equations on the previous slide, if Poissons ratio is near or equal to
0.5, we can see that:
Bulk modulus K will be very large or infinite

Volumetric strain vol will be near or equal to zero
This is called nearly or fully incompressible material behavior
Nearly or fully incompressible materials present numerical difficulties, and they
also exhibit overly stiff behavior.
This is most clearly seen in bulk deformation problems

From a computational standpoint, nearly incompressible and fully incompressible
problems are treated differently.
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... Example of Volumetric Locking

Example of Volumetric Locking:
Thick-Walled Cylinder with Conventional displacement based elements
As incompressibility
increases, volumetric locking
develops, resulting in
unacceptable error in the
displacement
%18 Error in
displacement calculation
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Element Control
The element technology is defined by a particular key option (KEYOPT):
KEYOPTS are switches, used to turn various element options on or off.

KEYOPTS have many applications. Controlling element technology is just one use.
For example, PLANE182 element uses KEYOPT(1) to define which technology is used and
KEYOPT(6) to control mixed u-P formulation
Refer to the Elements Reference Manual for more details on each of the 18x element
types and their respective key options.
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Element Control
The syntax for the KEYOPT command is as follows:
KEYOPT, ITYPE, KNUM, VALUE

Example, if element type#1 is PLANE182, enhanced strain can be activated with the
following command:
KEYOPT,1,1,2
Key Option Value (for enhanced strain)
Key Option Number (for element technology)
Element Type Number
Refer to the ANSYS Commands Manual for more details
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Formulations
The next few sections present details on each of the formulations
used in Mechanical 18X Structural elements
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
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Selective Reduced Integration (B-bar)

Uniform Reduced Integration (URI)
Enhanced Strain (ES)
Simplified Enhanced Strain (SES)
Solid-Shell Formulation
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C. The B-Bar Method

The B-bar method (a.k.a., selective reduced integration, constant dilatational
elements, constant pressure approach) uses an integration rule one order lower
for volumetric terms.
Recall that the stress state can be separated in hydrostatic (p) and deviatoric (s) terms.
= pI + s
p = K vol
s = 2Ge
= K vol I + 2Ge
In the above equation, vol is volumetric strain and e is deviatoric strain. K is the bulk
modulus and G is the shear modulus.
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... The B-Bar Method

Strains are related to displacements via the following:
B = B v + Bd
Bv
B dV
=
v
V
B = Bv + Bd
= B u
When evaluating B, however, we will use two different integration
orders for volumetric and deviatoric components.
Bv is evaluated with one integration point
(reduced integration)
On the other hand, Bd is evaluated with 2x2
integration points (full integration)
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... The B-Bar Method

As shown on the previous slide, the volumetric and deviatoric components of
B are not evaluated at the same order of integration. Only the volumetric
component Bv has reduced integration. That is why this method is called
selective reduced integration or constant pressure approach. It is also known
as the B-bar method because B is averaged on the volumetric term.
= B u
The fact that the volumetric term Bv has reduced integration allows it to be
softer since it is not fully integrated. This allows for solution of nearly
incompressible behavior and overcomes volumetric locking.
However, because the deviatoric term Bd remains the same, parasitic shear
strains still exist, so this formulation is still susceptible to shear locking.
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D. Uniform Reduced Integration

Uniform Reduced Integration (URI) uses an integration rule one order
lower than needed for numerically exact integration
Element Type
4 Node Quad
8 Node Quad
8 Node Hex
20 Node Hex
Full Integration
Order 1
2x2
3x3
2x2x2
3x3x3
Reduced Integration
Order
1x1
2x2
1x1x1
2x2x2
This is full integration as noted in literature, not necessarily related

to 18x elements implementation
This is similar to selective reduced integration, but both volumetric and deviatoric
terms have reduced integration.
This formulation leads to a more element flexibility which helps eliminate shear
and volumetric locking.
Reduced integration of volumetric terms allows solution of nearly incompressible problems.
Reduced integration of deviatoric terms prevents shear locking in bending problems.
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... Uniform Reduced Integration

Unfortunately, the reduced integration of deviatoric terms causes modes of
deformation which have zero strain energy, called zero energy or hourglass
modes. By themselves, these are uncontrollable modes of deformation which
lead to physically unrealistic behavior.
In the lower order element with one integration point shown below, two modes
of deformation are illustrated where the single integration point does not
capture any strain energy in the element.
By default, Mechanical, will not use the URI option in the lower order PLANE182
and SOLID185 elements.
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URI elements have many nice benefits:
Can be used in nearly incompressible problems to overcome volumetric locking

Can be used in bending problems without worrying about shear locking
No additional DOF are required, and, in fact, less CPU time is required for element
calculations. File sizes (e.g., *.esav) are reduced. This provides efficient solutions,
especially for nonlinear problems.
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On the other hand, a user needs to consider a few things when using URI:
Lower-order URI elements are susceptible to hourglassing, hence URI is not the set
automatically by Simulation.
Lower-order URI elements may be too flexible, especially in bending-dominated

problems, so a finer mesh may be required such that displacements are not overpredicted
Both lower- and higher-order URI elements have an integration rule which is one order
lower than full integration. This means stresses are evaluated at 1 point for lowerorder elements and 2x2 or 2x2x2 for higher-order elements. Hence, more elements
may be required to capture stress gradients.
URI cannot be used alone in fully incompressible analyses. For fully-incompressible

situation, URI can be used with Mixed u-P (discussed later)
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E. Enhanced Strain Formulation

Enhanced Strain Formulation adds internal degrees of freedom to lower-order
quad/hex elements. The displacement gradient tensor is modified with these
extra enhanced terms, hence the name Enhanced Strain.
Useful when shear or volumetric locking are encountered (e.g., bending dominated
problems or nearly incompressible material behavior).
There are two elements which can use Enhanced Strain, when in quad or hex
shape:
PLANE182 when KEYOPT(1)=2

SOLID185 when KEYOPT(2)=2
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... Enhanced Strain Formulation

This formulation is only applicable for lower-order elements in quad or hex
shape.
Element performs best when nearly rectangular; on the other hand, they do not
perform well when trapezoidal. This is a limitation of the Enhanced Strain

technology.
Higher-order elements do not suffer from shear locking.
Axial Mode: 1st Natural Frequency Ratio

Shape
PLANE182 PLANE183 SOLID185 SOLID187 SOLID186
Rectangular
1.004
1.001
1.005
1.000
1.002
Trapezoid (15)
1.004
1.001
1.005
1.000
1.002
Trapezoid (30)
1.004
1.001
1.005
1.000
1.002
Trapezoid (45)
1.005
1.001
1.006
1.000
1.002
Parallelogram (15)
1.004
1.001
1.005
1.000
1.002
Parallelogram (30)
1.004
1.001
1.005
1.000
1.002
Parallelogram (45)
1.004
1.001
1.005
1.000
1.002
Bending Mode: 1st Natural Frequency Ratio
Shape
PLANE182 PLANE183 SOLID185 SOLID187 SOLID186
Rectangular
1.010
0.999
1.010
1.004
0.999
1.567
1.000
1.596
1.005
1.000
Trapezoid (15)
Trapezoid (30)
1.973
1.003
2.009
1.008
1.003
2.207
1.012
2.245
1.020
1.012
Trapezoid (45)
Parallelogram (15)
1.040
0.999
1.042
1.005
0.999
Parallelogram (30)
1.091
0.999
1.097
1.009
0.999
Parallelogram (45)
1.119
0.999
1.126
1.020
0.999
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Example of Volumetric Locking in Thick-Walled Cylinder
32
Ri=3,Ro=9
SOLID185 with enhanced strain
SOLID45 with extra shape
Pure elastic material (E=1000)
Different Poissons ratios (nu=0.0, 0.25, 0.3, 0.49, 0.499,0.4999)
Linear analysis
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Example of Volumetric Locking in Thick-Walled Cylinder
Results from older Element 45
%18 Error in
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Results from Element 185
%1.6 Error in
F. Simplified Enhanced Strain

Simplified Enhanced Strain can be thought of as a subset of Enhanced Strain,
discussed earlier.
Has additional internal degrees of freedom for lower-order quad/hex elements to prevent
shear locking only. The extra internal DOF to treat volumetric locking are not present.
Although the internal DOF are meant to augment the shape functions to provide more
flexibility (as discussed in Section E), this also results in softening of the element, so
volumetric locking is also sometimes alleviated indirectly to some degree.
However, if material incompressibility is a concern, the user should not use Simplified
Enhanced Strain, as it does not address volumetric locking directly.
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... Simplified Enhanced Strain

There are two 18x elements which can use Simplified Enhanced Strain, when in
quad or hex form:
PLANE182 when KEYOPT(1)=3

SOLID185 when KEYOPT(2)=3
Similar to Enhanced Strain, Simplified Enhanced Strain terms will have little benefit in
bending if the element is distorted, especially if trapezoidal.
For 2D elements (PLANE182), 4 internal DOF are added whereas for 3D

(SOLID185), 9 internal DOF are present. These internal DOF are condensed out
at the element level.
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... Simplified Enhanced Strain

Simplified Enhanced Strain can be used in situations where shear locking may
be present, but volumetric locking is not an issue
It is a subset of Enhanced Strain, so it may be slightly more efficient in situations

where volumetric locking is not a concern
Simplified Enhanced Strain can be used with Mixed u-P formulation for nearly- or
fully-incompressible situations.
In these cases, there will be no difference in the use of Simplified Enhanced Strain or
regular Enhanced Strain in conjunction with Mixed u-P
As noted in Section E, Enhanced Strain does not use extra internal DOF for volumetric
terms if used in conjunction with Mixed u-P. Hence, Enhanced Strain and Simplified
Enhanced Strain will be the same if Mixed u-P formulation is also activated.
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G. Mixed u-P Formulation

Mixed u-P formulation is used to treat volumetric locking by solving
hydrostatic pressure (or volumetric strain) as an additional DOF.
Separate interpolation functions are used for displacement and hydrostatic

pressure (or volumetric strain) DOF.
There are three different Mixed u-P formulations that can be used for cases
of nearly or fully incompressible materials:
Nearly-incompressible elasto-plastic materials (Mixed u-P I)

Fully-incompressible hyperelastic materials (Mixed u-P II)
Nearly-incompressible hyperelastic materials (Mixed u-J)
Only Mixed u-P II is activated automatically in Mechanical when fully
incompressible hyperelastic materials are associated with non-plane stress
states. This section will focus on Mixed u-P II only.
Users can refer to the ANSYS MAPDL documentation for more details on the
formulations u-P I and u-J. These can be activated manually for the nearly
incompressible cases as necessary using a command object.
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When Mixed u-P is activated, hydrostatic pressure is treated as an independent
DOF which is solved for. The matrix equation is:
K uu
K
Pu
K uP u F
=
0 P 0
Note: Because the material is fully incompressible, [Kpp]=0,

Because the Lagrange Multipliers (internal DOF P) are kept in the assembled
stiffness matrix, direct solvers must be used with this formulation. Iterative
solvers such as PCG cannot handle the resulting ill-conditioned matrices.
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For hyperelasticity, the volume ratio (J) is defined as:
V
J=
Vo
where V and Vo are the updated and original volumes of the element,
respectively.
To maintain incompressible behavior, a volumetric compatibility constraint must

be satisfied
For fully-incompressible hyperelastic materials, no volume change should occur.

With the use of J, the volume change can be quantified
For fully-incompressible case, J should be equal to 1. In other words, the final and
original volumes should be the same (no volume change)
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The discussion on the previous slide emphasized the fact that the volume ratio J
should be constant (J=1), which is true for fully incompressible materials:
J 1 = 0
This leads to the following volumetric compatibility equation:
The default value of Vtol is 1e-5.

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J 1
dV
J
Vtol
V

The Solution Information Branch will record when the Mixed u-P volumetric
compatibility condition is not satisfied.
If the model fails to converge because the Mixed u-P volumetric compatability
condition cannot be met, it might be helpful to loosen this tolerance.
Note: Loosening this tolerance has the effect of allowing some small amount of
compressibility in the material. This should only be done as a last resort after other
solution convergence options (i.e. increasing the number of substeps) have been tried.
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Alternatively, the tolerance (vtol) on volumetric compatibility constraint can be
loosened via Command Objects.
Manually activating Mixed u-P is necessary in order for

subsequent solc,,,vtol to be accepted
Caution: When you issue SOLC command, all control commands associated
with analysis settings (i.e. Autotime stepping and NSUBST for defining
substeps)set earlier in the interactive or input session are reset to their
original default values. You might need to add additional commands to
reestablish user preferences. Refer to documentation on SOLCONTROL
command Default States Table for details.
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... Considerations for Mixed u-P

For a fully incompressible problem, no unique solution may exist if all
boundary nodes have prescribed displacements.
Due to the fact that hydrostatic pressure (internal DOF) is independent of
deformation. Hydrostatic pressure needs to be determined by a force/pressure
boundary condition. Without this, the hydrostatic pressure cannot be calculated
i.e., there is no unique solution.
Having at least one node without applied boundary condition will remedy this
situation.
When the number of pressure DOF (Np) is greater than the number of active
(unconstrained) displacement DOF (Nd), this is an over-constrained model,
which results in locking.
Ideally, the ratio of Nd/Np should be 2/1 for 2D problems or 3/1 for 3D problems.
Over-constrained models can be overcome by mesh refinement, especially in areas
without displacement constraints.
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... Considerations for Mixed u-P

Mechanical provides an extensive library of element technology using Mixed u-P
formulation for nearly and fully incompressible materials.
Mixed u-P, by itself, addresses the issue of volumetric locking

For fully-incompressible hyperelastic materials, WB-Mechanical must use the mixed u-P
formulation.
For nearly-incompressible elasto-plastic material, WB-Mechanical will not turn on mixed

u-P automatically.
Mixed u-P Formulation can be combined with B-bar, URI, Enhanced Strain, or Simplified
Enhanced Strain Formulations in nearly incompressible applications using command
objects.
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H. Solid-Shell Formulation
A special Solid-Shell Element is available to model thin
to moderately-thick shells in 3D form.
This is a 3D 8-node hex element with translational DOF

This element has 7 internal DOF, similar to Enhanced
Strain but decoupled in bending direction. Assumed
strain method also used for thickness-related
components.
These 7 internal DOF are condensed out at the element
level
This formulation is available in the SOLSH190 element

There are some situations where use of either shell or
regular solid elements may not be desirable (next
slide), so the Solid-Shell element (SOLSH190) provides
a good solution in these cases
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Considerations for Shells:
Considerations for Solids:
Nonlinear MPC required for connecting
The error in the kinematic approximation with
shells to solids for large-deflection
linear 3D solid elements becomes apparent in
analyses
bending dominant problems as thickness
Currently supported by 17x contact

elements with MPC bonded contact
DOF not continuous at interface since
nodes not shared
Limited application to thick shells
decreases
Higher-order 3D solid elements do not have
this problem
Current element technologies, such as

Enhanced Strain, are not sufficient to remedy
this numerical locking in linear 3D solid
elements when thickness/ length ratio is very
small
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SOLSH190 has 2x2x2 integration points
Unlike SHELL elements, SZ is not automatically zero. SOLSH190 has 3D stress state
(SZ can be non-zero)
SHELL181 has user-defined section integration points through-plane (section

definition) and either 1 or 2x2 integration points in-plane. SOLSH190 currently has
a fixed number of integration points. This is an important consideration for
nonlinear materials since more than one element through the thickness may be
required (see example below, 2 elements thru thickness)
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Example of Solid-Shell Element

Simple example of buckling of arch
shown on right
Comparison of SHELL181, SOLID185 (Simplified
Enhanced Strain), and SOLSH190
For thin structures, SOLSH190 matches

SHELL181
SOLID185 requires additional elements

along edge
For thick structures, SOLSH190

matches SOLID185
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3rd mode
elem/thick elem/edge
SHELL181
1
10
20
50
SOLID185
1
10
20
50
3
10
20
50
5
10
20
50
SOLSH190
1
10
20
50
3
10
20
50
5
10
20
50
thick
1.00E-03
3.7496
3.4509
3.3743
3533.8000
50.9320
3.7035
3534.0000
50.8300
3.6230
3533.8000
50.9040
3.6708
3.7232
3.4530
3.3751
3.6055
3.4384
3.3764
3.4980
3.4201
3.2714
1.00E-02
3750
3451
3374
39403
4096
3386
39403
4096
3386
39403
4096
3386
3722
3445
3373
3722
3445
3373
3722
3445
3373
1.00E-01
3.74E+06
3.44E+06
3.37E+06
4.31E+06
3.48E+06
3.38E+06
4.31E+06
3.48E+06
3.38E+06
4.31E+06
3.48E+06
3.37E+06
3.72E+06
3.44E+06
3.37E+06
3.72E+06
3.44E+06
3.37E+06
3.72E+06
3.44E+06
3.37E+06
1.00E+00
3.09E+09
2.89E+09
2.84E+09
3.55E+09
3.23E+09
3.14E+09
3.49E+09
3.18E+09
3.10E+09
3.45E+09
3.14E+09
3.07E+09
3.40E+09
3.17E+09
3.11E+09
3.37E+09
3.15E+09
3.09E+09
3.33E+09
3.12E+09
3.06E+09
2.00E+00
1.64E+10
1.57E+10
1.55E+10
2.23E+10
2.07E+10
2.04E+10
2.13E+10
1.99E+10
1.96E+10
2.04E+10
1.91E+10
1.88E+10
2.23E+10
2.07E+10
2.04E+10
2.13E+10
1.99E+10
1.96E+10
2.04E+10
1.91E+10
1.88E+10
Element Control
As stated earlier, the Solver Output reports the element technology being
activated based on the element order chosen by user and the material
association.
Elastic material or
Default URI
2D Plane Stress/Strain
Metal Plasticity with
Enhanced Strain
2D Plain Strain
Elastic material with
Fully incompressible
hyperelasticity with
higher or lower order
elements
B-Bar with Mixed u-P
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Element Control
Users do have the option to turn Element Control off, thereby:
Accepting the default technology

Receiving only suggestions in the Solution output with no changes.
The exception to this is Mixed u-P which must be turned on for fully incompressible
50
materials.
Refer also to ETCONTROL in Commands Manual
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

With Element Control set to Manual, users can also manually toggle between
Full and Reduced Integration Schemes
This option influences the number of integration points within an element.
Forcing a full integration order only applies to higher order elements, which have a
uniform reduced integration order by default.
It is sometimes helpful to force full integration when only one element exists across
the thickness of a part for improved accuracy.
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Element Control
Users can also override the default key option settings by executing the following
KEYOPT command within a command object under the part branch.
Recall: KEYOPT, ITYPE, KNUM, VALUE
Example, if element type#1 is PLANE182, enhanced strain can be activated with the
following command:
KEYOPT,1,1,2
Key Option Value (for enhanced strain)
Key Option Number (for element technology)
Element Type Number
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Summary
In summary, there are many different technologies for continuum elements
to alleviate shear and volumetric locking
Unfortunately, there is no silver bullet in circumventing mesh locking, but

Mechanical provides a wealth of element formulations, so that users can balance
accuracy, robustness, and efficiency in solving a wide range of nonlinear problems.
Lower-order elements can use B-Bar, URI, Enhanced Strain, or Simplified Enhanced
Strain. Moreover, Mixed u-P may be used in conjunction with any of these
formulations.
Higher-order elements usually use URI only (except for SOLID186, which can also
use full integration). Mixed u-P may be toggled on or off, depending on the
problem.
Mechanical will automatically set the best formulation option based on the material
properties and element order, although having an understanding of the pros and
cons of each formulation can be very helpful in interpreting Solution Output with
difficult problems.
The general recommendation is too accept these defaults

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References for Further Reading

Some useful references on numerical theory:
1. Non-Linear Finite Element Analysis of Solids and Structures Vol.1 and 2, M.A. Crisfield,
John Wiley & Sons, 1996 & 1997.
2. Nonlinear Continuum Mechanics for Finite Element Analysis, Bonet and Wood,
Cambridge University Press, 1997.
3. Introduction to the Mechanics of a Continuous Medium, Malvern, Prentice-Hall, 1969.
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Lecture C1
Introduction
ANSYS Mechanical Advanced

(Using Command Objects)
ANSYS, Inc. Proprietary
2009 ANSYS, Inc. All rights reserved.
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Introduction
A. Welcome!
Training Manual
Welcome to the ANSYS Mechanical Advanced (Using Command

Objects) training course!
This training class provides an overview of using Command Objects
in ANSYS Mechanical to access advanced solver functionality.
It is intended for users already familiar with ANSYS Mechanical:
The ANSYS Mechanical GUI and analysis procedure are not covered
here but in the ANSYS Mechanical Introduction course
Familiarity with ANSYS Mechanical APDL (ANSYS Parametric Design
Language) is helpful but not required.

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Introduction
Course Objectives
Training Manual
Objectives of this training course:

Learn how to use the Mechanical APDL interface to verify and
postprocess models
Gain an understanding of APDL command syntax, as well as APDL
parameters
Explore different ways in which Commands objects can be used to
access advanced pre- and post-processing functionality

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Introduction
Course Materials
Training Manual
The Training Manual you have is an exact copy of the slides.

Copies of the workshop files are available (upon request) from the
instructor.
Several advanced training courses are available on specific topics.
See the training course listing on the ANSYS homepage
http://www.ansys.com/ under Services > Training > Courses
http://www.ansys.com/services/ts-courses.asp

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Introduction
Required ANSYS Products (Licenses)
Training Manual
Only ANSYS Products that allow the use of Command objects inside
of ANSYS Mechanical are pertinent to this course:
ANSYS
ANSYS
ANSYS
ANSYS
Multiphysics
Mechanical
Structural
Professional
Please note that the following ANSYS Products cannot use Command
objects and are not applicable for this course:
ANSYS DesignSpace

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Introduction
B. Motivation for this Course
Training Manual
ANSYS Mechanical offers users unparalleled ease of use with

powerful nonlinear, dynamics, thermal, and magnetostatic analysis
capabilities.
Tight integration with many CAD systems and ANSYS DesignModeler,
including ability to update analysis based on changes in CAD geometry
Robust meshing algorithms and automatic contact detection
Using geometry-centric approach simplifies steps for analyst, and it
allows for complete automation of analysis procedure
Sample Autodesk Inventor Assembly

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Introduction
Motivation for this Course
Training Manual
However, there may be situations where users may wish to access

the underlying mesh and/or additional solver functionality, including
but not limited to the following:
Adding special elements, such as spring-damper bearing elements

Selection of special solvers or solution techniques
Interpolating results from a separate, different mesh
Composite beam, shell, or solid material definition
Rate-dependent or special nonlinear constitutive models
Acoustic or electromagnetic analyses
The use of Commands objects makes the above possible!

APDL (ANSYS Parametric Design Language) is a powerful scripting
language

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Introduction
Example Applications Nonlinear Materials
Training Manual
In addition to metal plasticity and hyperelasticity available in

Mechanical, the use of Commands objects allows users to include
creep, viscoelasticity, and other nonlinear constitutive models
Creep buckling analysis shown below, with equivalent creep strains on
the left and deformation vs. time on the right

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Introduction
Example Applications Advanced Techniques
Training Manual
Advanced analysis techniques, such as cyclic symmetry solution

method, are accessible with Commands objects
Only a sector (below left) is modeled, but results for the full 360 model
can be postprocessed
Submodeling, substructuring, use of general axisymmetric elements are
other methods that can be used with Commands objects

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Introduction
Example Applications - Composites
Training Manual
Composite or layered elements can also be defined in Mechanical

Reinforcement elements and other speciality elements can also be added
using Commands objects

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Introduction
Example Applications Other Physics
Training Manual
Acoustics and other physics may also be solved using a Mechanical

model and Commands objects
Coupled-field elements, including piezoelectric, piezoresistive, and
electrostatic-structural, can be solved

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Lecture C2
Mechanical APDL
Introduction

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ANSYS Mechanical APDL
A. Introduction to Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
ANSYS Mechanical uses ANSYS Mechanical APDL as the finite

element solver.
When a user clicks on the Solve icon in Mechanical, an input file is sent
to the Mechanical APDL solver. After the solution is complete, a result
file is created, which is read by Mechanical. This is conceptually shown
below.
By using Commands objects, additional instructions are given to the
Mechanical APDL solver to perform user-specified tasks.
Because the solver is Mechanical APDL, it is helpful to understand how
Mechanical APDL behaves, which will be the focus of this chapter.
Automatically Performed in the Background
Solver Input File

Result File

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Introduction to Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
Mechanical APDL can also be run interactively with its own GUI, as
shown below. As noted earlier, it is important to understand how
Mechanical APDL operates in order to take advantage of its solver
technology to its fullest extent.
ANSYS Mechanical APDL User Interface

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Introduction to Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
Details of using Command Objects in ANSYS Mechanical will be

covered in the later chapters.
This chapter will introduce the ANSYS Mechanical APDL graphical
user interface (GUI)
There are two main reasons why a user may wish to run the
Mechanical APDL GUI:
1. Visually inspect the model prior to solving to ensure that the users
Command Objects perform the required actions correctly
2. Postprocess the model in Mechanical APDL if special postprocessing
techniques are required that are not available in Mechanical

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B. Launching Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
If a user wishes to verify the model prior to solving, Mechanical APDL

can be launched through the Setup cell of a Mechanical solution
1. Under Toolbox: Component Systems, drag-and-drop the Mechanical
APDL icon onto the Setup branch of interest
or
1. Right-click on the Setup cell and select Transfer Data to New >
Mechanical APDL
2. Then, right-click on the Analysis cell and select Edit in Mechanical
APDL. The model will be loaded into Mechanical APDL.
Check the status icon on the

Project Schematic page. Rightclick on the Analysis cell in
the Mechanical APDL system
and select Update, if
necessary.

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Training Manual
For situations where a user would like to postprocess a model in

Mechanical APDL, the Solution cell should be referenced
1. Before solving the model, set Save ANSYS db: Yes under the Analysis
Settings branch
2. Solve the model in Mechanical
3. Under Toolbox: Component Systems, drag-and-drop the Mechanical
APDL icon onto the Solution branch of interest
or
3. Right-click on the Solution cell and select Transfer Data to New >
Mechanical APDL
4. Then, right-click on the Analysis cell and select Edit in Mechanical
APDL. Use File menu > Resume Jobname.db to read in the model
and begin postprocessing in Mechanical APDL

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Training Manual
Additional considerations:
A user should not transfer from a Geometry or Model cell, as only a
subset of the model will be transferred to Mechanical APDL:
To verify the model in Mechanical APDL, always transfer from the Setup cell
To postprocess in Mechanical APDL, always transfer fro the Solution cell
Transferring from a Geometry cell will only send the geometric entities
Transferring from a Model cell will only send the mesh (MESH200 elements)
Be sure that all cells are updated accordingly prior to transferring to

Mechanical APDL
The status of the cells up to and including the cell being transferred should
indicate it is up-to-date
If the upstream data is not up-to-date, right-clicking on the Analysis cell in
the Mechanical APDL system allows one to Refresh or Update all
downstream cells.
See the Help system, under Workbench > Getting Started in Workbench >
Getting Started in ANSYS Workbench > The ANSYS Workbench Interface >
Project Schematic > Systems and Cells > Understanding Cell States for more
details

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Further Information
Training Manual
There are other ways in which Mechanical APDL can interact with
other ANSYS Workbench components, although the discussion is
outside of the scope of this course.
Refer to the following section of the ANSYS Help for details:
Workbench > Getting Started in Workbench > Systems > Component Systems
> Mechanical APDL

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ANSYS Help System
Training Manual
The ANSYS Help System provides comprehensive details on all

aspects of ANSYS. One can access the Help System from either of
the following methods:
Windows: Start menu > Programs > ANSYS 12.0 > Help > ANSYS Help
From ANSYS: Utility menu > Help > Help Topics

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ANSYS Help System
Training Manual
All pertinent help information is grouped

under Mechanical APDL (formerly ANSYS),
as shown on the right
Guides give detailed procedural information,
such as the Thermal Analysis Guide for steadystate and transient heat transfer analyses,
including radiation
References are used to look up specific
information. For example, one can look up the
constitutive equations for nonlinear materials
in the Theory Reference.
The Verification Manual provides simple
examples comparing Mechanical APDL results
with known solutions, and Tutorials provides
step-by-step tutorials on using Mechanical
APDL for different physics.

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ANSYS Help System
Training Manual
The various Guides provide detailed information on analysis

procedures, including sample APDL commands or APDL templates:

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C. Mechanical APDL Files
Training Manual
Mechanical APDL reads and writes various files, so it is helpful to

understand some of the more important, commonly-used ones:
file.db: Mechanical APDL database, containing material properties,
loading, mesh. May also contain 1 result set if postprocessing.
This file is saved by Mechanical or by the user
file.rst, file.rth, file.rmg: Mechanical APDL result file, also used

by Mechanical. Contains multiple result sets for analyses in the time or
frequency domain
The file extension refers to the physics: .rst=structural, .rth=thermal,
.rmg=electromagnetic (coupled-field analyses use .rst)
This file is generated upon successful completion of a FE solution
file.log: Mechanical APDL log (journal) file, which records all actions
performed by the user, whether through commands or the GUI
This file is automatically generated and appended to
file.err: Mechanical APDL error log file, containing all warning and
error messages encountered during a session
This file is automatically generated and appended to

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Saving the Mechanical APDL Database
Training Manual
The Mechanical APDL database (file.db) is not

saved by default by Mechanical
It is good practice to save the Mechanical APDL
database for all models in which the user expects to
use Command objects
In the Details view of the Analysis Settings branch,
expand the Analysis Data Management section
Set Save ANSYS db to Yes
If additional solver files are to be kept, the user may also
set Delete Unneeded Files to No

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Resuming Databases
Training Manual
Opening a model (file.db) in Mechanical APDL is called the act of

resuming a database
From the Utility menu (uppermost menu), select
File > Resume Jobname.db to resume the
database file.db
APDL command is RESUME
The Jobname is the name of the files Mechanical

APDL creates. Unlike other software which may
saves a single file, Mechanical APDL deals with
many files. Hence, the jobname is the filename
common to all files for an analysis, where each
file has a different file extension.
The default jobname for models transferred from
Mechanical is file, so Resume Jobname.db
will open file.db, if present. (It does not literally
open a file called jobname.db.)
Use File > Resume from if the saved database
is not generated from Mechanical
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Reading Results
Training Manual
The data from a results file (file.rst, file.rth,

file.rmg) is read into memory for postprocessing:
From the Main menu (left-most menu), use General
Postproc > Read Results > By Pick to select a result to
review from the result file
APDL command is SET
The Mechanical APDL database should be resumed first

before reading a result
The associated result file is automatically selected
based on the current jobname (file), but a user may
choose a different result file using Main Menu >
General Postproc > Data & File Opts prior to using
Read Results
Once data is read into memory, the user may plot
contour or vector results, list quantities, or manipulate
the result data in Mechanical APDL

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Mechanical APDL File Generation
Training Manual
Generally speaking, all required Mechanical APDL files will be

generated by Mechanical.
Hence, at this point in time, the user should not worry about saving
data in Mechanical APDL files
Instead, what will be discussed later is the use of Command objects to
save all actions within the Mechanical system
Mechanical APDL will therefore be used to verify the model input as well
as for postprocessing only

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Further Information
Training Manual
There are other files that may be created by Mechanical APDL. For
more details, refer to the following section of the ANSYS Help:
Mechanical APDL (formerly ANSYS) > Basic Analysis Guide > Section
20.4.2 Files that ANSYS Writes

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D. Mechanical APDL GUI
Training Manual
The main components of the Mechanical APDL GUI are shown below:
Utility Menu
Command Prompt
ANSYS Toolbar
Standard Toolbar
Graphics Toolbar
Main Menu
Graphics Window
Output Window
Status Area
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Main Menu
Training Manual
Main Menu:
All analysis-specific actions are available from the
Main Menu, located on the left side of the GUI
Each submenu level is color-coded differently to make
differentiation of levels easy
For each item, the left-most icon indicates the type of
action that will be taken:
A + or - symbol indicates a submenu
An arrow indicates a picking action will be performed
A dialog box icon reflects data to be entered in a window
All actions performed in the Main Menu are recorded to

the file.log command log file. Each action is
associated with one or more APDL commands.
The status bar prompts the user for the necessary
input

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Utility Menu
Training Manual
Utility Menu:
Generally used for analysis-independent actions, such as changing graphics
settings, creating local coordinate systems, defining parameters, etc.
The right-most symbol indicates the type of action to be performed:
> indicates a submenu
indicates a dialog box
+ indicates a picking action

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Command Prompt
Training Manual
Command Prompt:
The Command Prompt allows users to type in APDL commands. A dynamic
prompt (blue) is a helpful reminder of the necessary arguments.
A history of previously-entered commands is available by selecting the leftmost button (circled below)
To access help for commands or an element, type HELP,command or
HELP,element to bring up the relevant help section (where command is the
APDL command name or element is the element library number)

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Output Window
Training Manual
Output Window:
In an interactive session, the
Output Window provides feedback
for all actions performed. It is the
same output as the Solution
Information branch in Mechanical.
The contents of the Output Window
are not saved to a file in an
interactive session; hence, the user
can make the DOS window buffer
large enough to store as much
information as required.
Do not close the Output Window.
By clicking on the x icon, one will
abruptly terminate the Mechanical
APDL session. Instead, minimize
the Output Window if it is not
needed.
(The Output Window is typically
grey text on black background but
has been reversed here for clarity.)
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Further Information
Training Manual
The other components of the GUI will be discussed in later slides, as

the need arises. Refer to the following section of the ANSYS Help for
complete information on the GUI layout:
Mechanical APDL (formerly ANSYS) > Operations Guide > Section 4.3
Layout of the GUI

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E. Graphics
Training Manual
Plotting the model is performed

under Utility menu > Plot
When dealing with models generated
in Mechanical, only nodes and
elements are transferred
The user may plot either nodes or
elements
Equivalent APDL commands are
NPLOT and EPLOT
The user can also plot both at once

with Multi-plots
APDL command is GPLOT
To refresh the screen, use Replot

APDL command is /REPLOT
The APDL commands listed above

may be typed in the Command
Prompt to execute that action
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Changing Graphics Display
Training Manual
Changing the graphics display,

saving image files, or creating
animations are all accessed under
the PlotCtrls menu
Differentiating elements by color is
under Numbering
Showing load and boundary
condition symbols or coordinate
systems is under Symbols
Animating results is under the
Animate submenu
Taking a snapshot of the image is
done under Hard Copy > To File

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Mechanical and Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
There are some differences between graphics behavior in Mechanical

and Mechanical APDL worth noting:
In Mechanical, the finite element (FE) mesh is only displayed when the
user selects the Mesh branch or when reviewing results with Edges >
Show Elements activated. On the other hand, in Mechanical APDL, the
mesh is always shown. The user decides to plot nodes and/or elements.
In Mechanical, the result of actions is usually shown immediately in the
Graphics window. In Mechanical APDL, the Output Window gives
immediate feedback of an action however, the Graphics Window may
need to be updated by using the Plot > Replot command.
Because scripts performing hundreds actions may be run in Mechanical APDL,
each command may not refresh the display for efficiency reasons

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Mouse Controls Graphics
Training Manual
By pressing down on the Ctrl key, the user can manipulate the model
in the Graphics window:
Ctrl + Left mouse button pans the model.
Ctrl + Middle mouse button zooms in/out (up-down movement of mouse)
or spins the model about the screen Z-axis (right-left movement of
mouse)
The wheel, if present, can be used to zoom in/out
Ctrl + Right mouse button rotates the model
The user may re-map these actions with the /UIS,BORD command
Ctrl

P Z R
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Mouse Controls Graphics
Training Manual
A single click with the Right mouse button on the Graphics window
brings up a context-sensitive pop-up menu
Click-drag with the Right mouse button on the Graphics window will
perform a box zoom

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Mouse Controls Picking
Training Manual
Some actions in Mechanical APDL require the

user to select items on the screen.
Actions that require the user to select entities
are designated by a + icon in the Utility menu
or by an arrow icon in the Main Menu
The picker menu will appear, as highlighted on
the right. The picker menu will display
information on the items selected
The status area will indicate what items need to
be picked
The mouse buttons are as follows:

Left mouse button to pick (or unpick)
Middle mouse button to Apply
Right mouse button to toggle between picking
or unpicking

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Training Manual
In Mechanical, the left mouse button is used to select or unselect

items. If an entity is selected, a left mouse button will unselect that
item and vice-versa.
In Mechanical APDL, the right mouse button will control whether
picking or unpicking is performed it is a toggle switch, and the
cursor will change to an up or down arrow for pick and unpick,
respectively. The left mouse button, if in pick mode, will only pick
items.
Apply
Pick
Toggle
Pick / Unpick
Cursor display:
Pick

Unpick
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Training Manual
When picking items, Mechanical APDL will highlight the entity whose
centroid is nearest to the location where the pick action occurred
Important Tip: In Mechanical APDL, click and hold down the left mouse
button. Drag the mouse on the screen until the desired entity is
highlighted. Then let go of the left mouse button to complete the picking
operation.
In Mechanical, the item directly underneath the cursor when the left mouse
button is clicked is highlighted. However, in Mechanical APDL, it is the
centroid of the element closest to the cursor that is selected.
Note that Selection Planes and Paint Select features in Mechanical are not
present in Mechanical APDL.
If a user uses the tip above, it becomes easy to select an item of interest. By
keeping the left mouse button pressed, the user can move the mouse around
until the correct entity is highlighted.

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[OK] and [Apply] Buttons
Training Manual
In the picker, as well as in dialog boxes, the user will typically be

presented with [OK], [Apply] and [Cancel] buttons
[OK] performs the action, then closes the picker or dialog box
[Apply] performs the action, yet keeps the picker/dialog box open
[Cancel] closes the picker/dialog box without doing anything

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Training Manual
A common mistake made by users is to click on [Apply], then click on

[OK]. In Mechanical APDL, this would perform the action twice!
If an action has been performed by clicking on [Apply], but the user wishes to
close the dialog box or picker, then select [Cancel]
Remember that both [OK] and [Apply] perform the action. The difference is
that the former closes the dialog box/picker whereas the latter leaves it open to
allow the user to perform that action again on other entities.
When in doubt, check the Output Window for feedback to see if the previous
action was executed
[Cancel] just closes the dialog box/picker; it does not undo the previous action

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Training Manual
In addition to the [OK], [Apply], and [Cancel] buttons, there is a [Help]

button for dialog boxes and pickers
The [Help] button will open the relevant section of the ANSYS Help for that
action
The Commands Reference provides information on the purpose of the
command, its arguments, and notes on the action
The APDL command name is presented in square brackets

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F. Exiting Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
To exit from Mechanical APDL, use Utility menu > File > Exit or
the x icon on the Utility menu
A dialog box will appear asking what data to save
Note that the x icon is for the Utility menu not the Output Window!

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Exiting Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
Usually, Mechanical APDL will be used to verify the FE mesh as well

as for postprocessing, so data may not need to be saved.
For users wishing to save the data, the Exit prompt below asks the
user what data to save in file.db.
Save Geom+Loads saves only input data in file.db (no results)
Save Geo+Ld+Solu saves input data and 1 result set (if available)
Save Everything saves input data, 1 result set, and any additional userdefined postprocessing data in file.db
Quit No Save exits Mechanical APDL, leaving file.db untouched
Note that the result file (e.g., file.rst) is not saved by the user but is
automatically created when the solution finishes successfully.

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Lecture C3
Element Attributes

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Mechanical APDL Element Attributes
Overview
Training Manual
Understanding element attributes in Mechanical APDL is important to

being able to access advanced element functionality.
Element attributes consist of four items:
Element Types
Material Properties
Real Constants or Section Properties
Element Coordinate Systems

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A. Main Menu Structure
Training Manual
The Main Menu allows users to perform

analysis-specific tasks:
The Main Menu is organized such that actions
users typically perform first are listed near the top,
so one usually works down the menu
One enters a processor to perform actions. There
are five general processors:
Preprocessor is used to define element attributes
The APDL command is /PREP7
Solution Processor allows a user to solve the model

The APDL command is /SOLU
General Postprocessor is used to look at contour or

vector plots of the model at a given solution
The APDL command is /POST1
Time-History Postprocessor is used to look at results

at a specific location throughout the time or
frequency domain
The APDL command is /POST26

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Processors
Training Manual
The Status bar indicates what processor a user has entered:
To exit a processor, click on the Finish command at the bottom of the

Main Menu (corresponding APDL command is FINISH). When a user has
not entered any processor, this is known as being in the Begin level.
It is important to keep in mind that a user must enter a processor, and
only certain commands are available in a given processor.
For example, a user should not expect to be able to postprocess a result while
in the Preprocessor. A user must enter the General Postprocessor, for
example, prior to plotting a result.
This is similar to the separation of tasks in different branches of the Outline
Tree in the Mechanical application. One cannot specify mesh controls while
highlighting the Geometry branch, for example.

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B. Element Attributes
Training Manual
Each element has 4 different element attributes.

Element type: the physics (DOF), shape function, and dimensionality
Material Properties: linear properties such as elastic modulus and
thermal conductivity, as well as nonlinear properties such as plasticity or
creep
Real Constant or Section Properties: additional information about the
element outside of material properties, such as thickness of a shell
Element Coordinate System: specifies the direction for orthotropic or
anisotropic behavior

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Listing Attributes for Elements
Training Manual
To list the attributes for an element, use Utility menu > List > Picked
Entities +
Query Item should be set to Attributes
On Entities should be changed to Elements
Pick the element(s) of interest recall that by holding down
the left mouse button, one can drag the mouse on the
screen until the desired element is highlighted
By clicking on [OK] or [Apply], the attributes will be shown
Material
Property
ID
Element
Type ID

Real
Constant
ID
Element
Coordinate
System ID
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Section
Property
ID
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Plotting Attributes for Elements
Training Manual
To differentiate element attributes by color, use Utility menu >

PlotCtrls > Numbering
Under Elem/Attrib numbering, select which attribute to use to
differentiate the elements.
Under [/NUM] Numbering shown with, select Colors only

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Element Attribute IDs
Training Manual
One may notice from the previous slides that the element attributes
are referred by ID number
In Mechanical APDL, everything is designated via a unique ID number
Node numbers, element numbers
Element type ID, material ID, real constant ID, section property ID
Coordinate system ID
etc.
In a later chapter, the use of parameters will be covered, so users will

not have to remember ID numbers.
However, for now, keep in mind that numbers not strings or names
are used to refer to element attributes.

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C. Element Type
Training Manual
The element type is an important choice that determines the

following element characteristics:
Degree of Freedom (DOF) set, determining the physics of the problem
temperature, displacement, rotations, etc.
Element shape brick, tetrahedron, quadrilateral, triangle, etc.
Geometric and spatial dimensionality 1D, 2D (XY plane only), or 3D
Assumed displacement shape linear vs. quadratic vs. cubic
Linear shape function
Node I
Quadratic shape function
Node J
Node I
Node K
Node J
Example 1D line element

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Element Type vs. Element Name
Training Manual
There are many types of elements in the Mechanical APDL element

library. The element name refers to the element used, such as
SHELL181 (or just 181 for short).
The element type ID is a number that the user chooses to designate a
group of elements that are comprised of a given element name.
For example, a user may use element type ID #5 to refer to the element
name LINK180. Hence, if a particular element in the users model has an
element type ID #5, that element is a LINK180 element.
The reason why an element type ID is used is because, as will be
discussed shortly, there are different keyoptions that can be set for any
element name. Hence, a user may have two instances of a SOLID186
element, for example, where one usage is for a layered (composite)
definition while another usage is for a homogenous material. The
element type ID is therefore used to differentiate multiple occurrences of
the same element name.

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Defining Element Types
Training Manual
Element types present in the model can be viewed under Main Menu
> Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete
Highlight an element type of interest and use [Options] to bring up a
dialog box to change element behavior

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Listing Element Types
Training Manual
Use Utility menu > List > Properties > Element Types to get a
concise listing of defined element types.

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Element Type in Mechanical
Training Manual
In Mechanical, the element type is automatically determined by the

physics, body (line, surface, or solid), and how it is meshed:
In Mechanical, use Mesh > Method on a body to specify whether the
element has midside nodes
For example, a line body with Element Midside Nodes: Kept in a
structural analysis will be defined with BEAM189 element type
On the other hand, a surface body with Element Midside Nodes:
Dropped in a thermal analysis will use SHELL57 element type
A 3-node triangular element is usually defined
by a 4-node quadrilateral element type. This is
called a degenerate element. Note, however,
that a 10-node tetrahedral element will typically
have its own element type and not be defined
by a degenerate 20-node hexahedral element
A part meshed with hex-dominant mesh will
contain both element types (10-node tet and
20-node brick)

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Element Type in Mechanical
Training Manual
Please keep in mind that not all physics may support elements with or
without midside nodes. In these cases, the midside node specification
will be overridden
The [Options] dialog box in Mechanical APDL exposes the underlying
element formulation of the elements. In Mechanical, however, all of these
options are not presented to the user with the exception of the integration
scheme for brick elements
Under the Geometry branch, set Element Control: Manual. Then, per solid
part, the Brick Integration Scheme option will be available.

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Element Reference
Training Manual
In the [Options] window for an element type, click on [Help] to

retrieve detailed help information. This can also be accessed by
typing HELP,name in the Command Prompt.
The Elements Reference contains detailed information on each element,
including input parameters, available output results, and assumptions
related to each element

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Element Reference
Training Manual
Each element will be shown graphically,

indicating any degenerate shapes that
are available.
Pay close attention to the node
numbering (I, J, K, etc.) in the event that
a user may wish to switch/change the
element type. Only compatible element
types may be switched
One may convert between two 20-node
brick elements, but one cannot directly
convert from a 10-node tet to a 20-node
brick

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Element Reference
Training Manual
Each element may also have keyoptions.

These are the same items presented in
the [Options] window
For each element, note to the
keyoptions available, as changing a
keyoption will typically change some
aspect of the element behavior
On the right, the keyoptions for SHELL281
are presented. By changing KEYOPT(1),
one can remove the bending stiffness of
the element
Mechanical APDL may also

automatically change some element
keyoptions, to provide smarter default
options that depend on the model setup.
This is controlled with the ETCONTROL
command or under the Geometry
branch in Mechanical (Element
Control)
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APDL Commands
Training Manual
The equivalent APDL commands are as follows:

Defining or redefining an element type:
ET,#,name where # is the element type ID number a user chooses and
name is the element library name
Changing a keyoption:
KEYOPT,#,keyoption,value where # is the element type ID number,
keyoption is the keyoption number, and value is the new value
Listing element types in a window:

ETLIST

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D. Material Properties
Training Manual
Material properties may be linear or nonlinear and is a required input

for most element types
In structural analyses, linear material properties include Youngs
modulus, Poissons ratio, and density. Metal plasticity and creep,
hyperelasticity, viscoelasticity are some examples of nonlinear material
properties
In thermal analyses, thermal conductivity, density, and specific heat are
used.
Acoustic analyses involve defining density and speed of sound as
material properties
Joints (MPC184 element) can also have linear or nonlinear joint stiffness
and damping properties defined.
Some element types, such as springs, do not use the concept of material
properties to define stiffness but use real constants (defined next) for
input of spring constants and damping coefficients.
Similar to element types, material properties are referenced by a

unique ID number.
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Defining Material Properties
Training Manual
Defined material properties may be reviewed under Main Menu >

Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Models

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Defining Material Properties
Training Manual
In the Material Models GUI shown below, the left column lists the
defined material properties by ID number while the right shows
available constitutive models that can be added.

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Listing Material Properties
Training Manual
For linear material properties, use Utility Menu > List > Properties >
All Materials.
For nonlinear material properties, select Utility Menu > List >
Properties > Data Tables
Example Listing for Linear Properties

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Example Listing for Nonlinear Properties

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Material Properties in Mechanical
Training Manual
In Mechanical, material properties are defined in Engineering Data.

One material may be referenced by multiple bodies in Mechanical
When the model is transferred to Mechanical APDL, each body will have
its own element type ID and material ID, meaning that the material
definition will be duplicated for each part
In the example below, 1 material defined in Engineering Data (left) could
become 7 materials defined in Mechanical APDL, one instance per part. Any
change in material property needs to be done for all 7 material IDs.

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Material Property Reference
Training Manual
Details on the various types of linear material properties can be

found in the Help section below:
Mechanical APDL (formerly ANSYS) > Element Reference > General
Element Features > 2.4 Linear Material Properties
Nonlinear material properties are listed in the following Help section:

Mechanical APDL (formerly ANSYS) > Element Reference > General
Element Features > 2.5 Material Data Tables (Implicit Analysis)

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Material Property Reference
Training Manual
Before using a material property, however, verify that the associated

element will support that material definition by checking the Help
manual (Elements Reference):
In the Input Summary

section for each element
library name, linear
material properties the
element accepts are listed
in Material Properties
section.
Nonlinear material
properties that can be used
with this element are found
under Special Features

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APDL Commands
Training Manual

Defining a linear material property:
MP,material,#,value where material is the type of material property, #
is the material property ID number a user chooses and value is the value of
that material property
For temperature-dependent input, see MPTEMP and MPTEMP in the Commands
Reference
Defining a nonlinear material property:

TB,material,#,temp,points,option where material is the type of
nonlinear material, # is the material property ID number, temp is the
number of temperature-dependent sets of data. This specifies the active
nonlinear material table.
The actual data for the active table is defined by TBDATA or TBPT
commands, depending on the material model chosen.
Listing linear and nonlinear material properties in a window:

MPLIST
TBLIST,ALL,ALL

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E. Real Constants and Section Properties
Training Manual
Real constants and section properties typically provide geometric

information to elements that may be missing from the mesh:
Since a shell element may be geometrically 2D but spatially 3D, the shell
thickness must be supplied as additional input
A beam element is geometrically 1D but spatially 3D, so the cross-section
information is required
Layered (composite) elements also require additional information
Actual mesh of a
3D Shell Element

The layer and thickness information

are supplied via section properties
and shown here with 3D visualization
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Real Constants and Section Properties
Training Manual
Elements will typically use real constants or section properties to

supply this missing information:
Current technology elements use section input
Contact elements use real constants
Joints (MPC184) use section input
Legacy elements use real constants
Note that not all elements require real constants or section properties.
For example, a homogenous 2D planar or 3D solid element does not have
any missing information and will not require real constants or section
properties.
Check the Element Reference in the Help system for each element to
determine which input is used

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Difference with Keyoptions
Training Manual
Difference between element keyoptions and real constants/section

properties:
In Section C, keyoptions for element types were introduced. It was noted
that keyoptions can change element formulation or other types of
element behavior.
It may be helpful to view element keyoptions similar to toggles/switches to
select from a list of predefined options/behavior
On the other hand, real constants or section properties are usually

numeric input values that provide missing geometric information, such
as the thickness of a shell or properties of the cross-section of a beam.

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Defining Real Constants
Training Manual
Use Main Menu > Preprocessor > Real Constants > Add/Edit/Delete
to review currently defined real constants
When editing a real constant, the user needs to select the associated
element type for that real constant in the GUI
Note that real constants
and material properties
are not linked with a
specific element type.
The user needs to keep
track of the element type a
real constant set
corresponds to.
Consequently, Mechanical
will generate a body with
the same element type ID,
real constant ID, and
material ID, to make
association simple.
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Listing Real Constants
Training Manual
Use Utility Menu > List > Properties > All Real Constants to see a
text listing of real constants

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Real Constants
Training Manual
Note from the previous slide that real constants are lists of values:
The order (position) of each value is important for each element
For example, in the BEAM4 Element Reference help section, the first real
constant value is the cross-sectional area, while the second real constant
entry is the area moment of inertia Izz.

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Defining Section Properties
Training Manual
Section properties can be edited from Main Menu > Preprocessor >
Sections (supported element name in parentheses):
Sections are grouped by element type:
Beams (BEAM44, BEAM188, BEAM189)
Pipes (PIPE288, PIPE289, ELBOW290)
Shells:
3D thermal shells (SHELL131, SHELL132)

3D structural shells (SHELL181, SHELL281)
2D axisymmetric shells (SHELL208, SHELL209)
Layered solids (SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLSH190)
Bolt Pretension (PRETS179)

Joints (MPC184)
Reinforcements (REFIN264, REINF265)
General Axisymmetric (SOLID272, SOLID273)

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Listing Section Properties
Training Manual
Listing section properties is possible from Main Menu >

Preprocessor > Sections > List Sections or under Utility Menu >
List > Properties > Section Properties
The various types of sections are listed
in detail. An example of a joint section
output is shown on the right
Note that, unlike real constants which
are just lists of values and hence in
a generic format, section properties
are specific to a certain type of behavior,
so the input as well as listing is much
more descriptive

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Input in Mechanical
Training Manual
In Mechanical, commonly-used real constants and section properties

are already exposed in the Mechanical GUI:
Thickness & offsets for Surface Bodies (shells)

Cross-section definition & offsets for Line Bodies (beams)
Normal stiffness, pinball radius, thermal conductance for Contact
Various behavior for Joints

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APDL Commands
Training Manual

Defining a real constant:
R,ID,v1,v2,v3,v4,v5,v6 where ID is the real constant ID, and v1
through v6 are the first six entries
RMODIF,ID,loc,v1,v2,v3,v4,v5,v6 allows a user to modify the entries of
real constant ID, where loc specifies the starting entry location and v1
through v6 are the corresponding values starting from location loc
Listing real constants:

RLIST
Defining section properties:

SECTYPE defines the properties of the section and makes it active. See the
Commands Reference for details on the syntax
SECDATA specifies the particular values for the active section. See the
Commands Reference for details, including additional commands such as
SECOFFST, SECSTOP, etc.
Listing section properties:

SLIST

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F. Coordinate Systems
Training Manual
Coordinate Systems defined in Mechanical has many uses:

Orientation of loads and supports
Interpretation of directional results
Meshing sphere of influence
etc.

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Coordinate Systems in Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
A Coordinate System can be associated with a Body in Mechanical,

as shown below. This results in the elements of that body having
their element coordinate system aligned accordingly
In Mechanical APDL, element coordinate systems are shown with axis
colors the same as the global triad (lower-left)

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Coordinate Systems in Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
Element coordinate systems (ESYS) serve many purposes:

Orientation of element for orthotropic or anisotropic material properties
When a material acts stronger in one direction compared to another, the
element coordinate system is required to define the material directions
Layered element orientation is also influenced by ESYS
Actual element results such as stress and strain are calculated in these
element coordinate systems, then transformed back to the global CS
Output of results in the element coordinate system is possible in Mechanical
APDL
Definition of pressure directions for surface effect elements

Definition of orthotropic friction for contact elements

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Default Element Coordinate System
Training Manual
The default element coordinate system is covered for each element in

the Element Reference. Some important points are covered below:
Line (beam) elements must have the element x-axis acting along the axis
of the beam.
Shell elements always have the element z-axis pointing normal to the
element surface
Solid elements typically have the element coordinate system aligned with
the global Cartesian coordinate system

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Listing Element Coordinate System
Training Manual
ESYS can be associated with a local coordinate system. Each local

coordinate system has a unique, numeric ID number.
Use Utility Menu > List > Picked Entities + to select elements of
interest. The listing will show the element attributes, including the
element coordinate system ID (ESYS)

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Coordinate Systems
Training Manual
The built-in coordinate systems are as follows:
Coordinate system ID 0: global Cartesian

Coordinate system ID 1: global cylindrical with z as axis
Coordinate system ID 2: global spherical
Coordinate system ID 5: global cylindrical with y as axis
User-defined coordinate systems are called local coordinate systems

and start with any user-specified ID number of 11 and greater
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Coordinate Systems
Training Manual
When creating Coordinate Systems in Mechanical,

the user may specify an ID number in the Details
view:
The ID number should be 12 or greater
Although Mechanical APDL recognizes local coordinate
systems of ID 11 or above, Mechanical reserves ID 11, so
the user manually assigns ID 12 and greater
When the model is transferred to Mechanical APDL, a

local coordinate system with the same ID number will
then be created, making it easy to reference the
coordinate system
If the coordinate system is referenced by a body, that
body will have the same coordinate system ID
If the user leaves this field to Ansys System:

Program Controlled, then Mechanical will
automatically assign ID numbers to coordinate
systems
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Displaying Coordinate Systems
Training Manual
To list local coordinate systems, use

Utility Menu > List > Other > Local Coord
Sys
To plot local coordinate systems or
element coordinate systems, use Utility
Menu > PlotCtrls > Symbols
Select CS Local coordinate system
and/or ESYS Element coordinate system
Click on [OK] to plot
Local coordinate systems will be shown

as a small triad
Each element will plot its element
coordinate system, as shown earlier
For solid elements, use of wireframe mode
may be needed to see the element
coordinate system (Utility Menu >
PlotCtrls > Device Options )
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Modifying Element Coordinate System
Training Manual
Although typically not needed, if a user wishes to

change the element coordinate system in Mechanical
APDL, do the following:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Modeling > Move/Modify >
Elements > Modify Attrib
Select the elements to change and click [OK]
A dialog box will appear. Change STLOC Attribute to
change to Elem coord ESYS, and enter the local
coordinate system ID in the text area
Click on [OK] to commit changes
It is highly recommended to define the element

orientation (coordinate system) in Mechanical, as
demonstrated earlier

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Element Coordinate Systems
Training Manual
Element coordinate systems with a value of 0 mean that the

default element coordinate system is used:
Only user-defined local coordinate systems (ID 11 or above) can be used
for user-defined ESYS. Global, default coordinate systems 0-5 cannot be
referenced.
See the Element Reference for each elements default ESYS
For solid elements, the element coordinate system will align itself to
be parallel to the local coordinate system it is associated with (ESYS)
For shell elements, the element z-axis is always pointed normal to the
element. The element x- and y-axes are aligned with ESYS as
described in the Help system:
Mechanical APDL (formerly ANSYS) > Element Reference > 2. General
Element Features > 2.3 Coordinate Systems > 2.3.1 Element Coordinate
Systems
For beam elements, local coordinate systems are typically not used
instead, an extra node defines the element z-axis orientation.
Consequently, it is best to define the orientation in DesignModeler.
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G. Element Attributes from Mechanical
Training Manual
Mechanical will generate each solid, surface, and line body to have
the same ID numbers for the element attributes:
The element type ID, material property ID, real constant ID, section
property ID will all be the same. By default, the element coordinate
system ID will be 0
If hex-dominant meshing is used for solid bodies, note that 2 element
type IDs will be created one for the tetrahedral elements, the other for
the hexahedral / wedge / pyramid elements
For contact regions, the contact and target side will have sequential
ID numbers

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Creating Elements
Training Manual
When creating elements in Mechanical APDL, the active element

attributes are used to define the element
The active element attributes are shown at the bottom status bar of the
Mechanical APDL GUI
To change the ID numbers for the active element attributes, use the
following APDL commands:
Element Type: TYPE,id

Material Properties: MAT,id
Real Constants: REAL,id
Section Properties: SECN,id
Element Coordinate System: ESYS,id

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Lecture C4
APDL Commands

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APDL Commands
Overview of APDL
Training Manual
APDL, or the ANSYS Parametric Design Language, is the command

language which provides all of the solver functionality.
APDL provides more functionality than just the execution of actions.
APDL contains control and loop statements which provide logic to the
commands. Parameters (variables) can also be stored and retrieved via
APDL.
Mechanical prepares an input file comprised of APDL commands for the
Mechanical APDL solver. Whether Mechanical APDL is run interactively
or in batch, whether the GUI or commands are used, everything is
executed via APDL.
In Mechanical APDL, nearly all of the commands can be accessed from
the GUI menus or typed in the input window. (A Mechanical APDL
dialog box may often execute multiple APDL commands.)
One can embed APDL commands inside of Mechanical to perform

advanced solver functionality as well as to define input and output
parameters

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APDL Commands
A. APDL Commands
Training Manual
APDL Commands have the following properties:

In the format of Command,Argument1,Argument2, where the first word
is the command followed by a comma-separated list of arguments
Not case sensitive
If the command is longer than 4 characters, only the first four letters need
to be typed as long as the first four letters are unique
The BCSOPTION command controls sparse direct solver settings. The user
may type BCSOPTION or BCSO or BCSOPT to execute this command
Typically has default values for arguments. If the argument is not

supplied or left blank, the default value is substituted automatically
The MODOPT command controls how many modes to extract in a modal
analysis. Issuing MODOPT,QRDAMP,20,,,ON will use the default values for the
3rd and 4th arguments (which are the beginning and ending frequency range,
defaulting to 0 to 1e8 Hz, respectively)

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APDL Commands
APDL Commands
Training Manual
Generally speaking, there are a few groups of APDL commands

Commands that begin with a letter are standard APDL commands that
typically perform an action or define a setting
For example, the SF command applies a surface load to a group of nodes
Those starting with a forward slash / are often graphics or processorrelated, although some also relate to filename management
The /CONTOUR command allows a user to change the min/max range of legend
APDL Commands that begin with an asterisk * are often associated with
control logic, I/O tasks, or user interaction
To write data to an external text file, the *VWRITE command would be used
Functionality external to the main Mechanical APDL program are invoked

by commands which begin with the tilde ~ character
Importing a CATIA V5 model directly into Mechanical APDL is achieved
through the use of the ~CAT5IN command

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APDL Commands
APDL Commands and Help System
Training Manual
The user may click on the [Help] button in dialog boxes or type
HELP,Command in the Command Prompt to bring up the relevant,
detailed help section from the Commands Reference

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APDL Commands
Training Manual
The beginning of the help section indicates:

1.
2.
3.
4.
The command syntax

Short description of the command
What processor the command can be used in
Which ANSYS Products are supported
1.
3.
2.
4.

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APDL Commands
Training Manual
The help section continues with details on the arguments:

5. Description of the argument
6. Default values, if any, are indicated
5.
6.

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APDL Commands
Training Manual
7. The Notes section gives additional details on the command usage

8. Product Restrictions, if applicable, are listed
9. The location of this command in the GUI is also shown
7.
8.
9.
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APDL Commands
APDL Commands
Training Manual
There are over 1,600 APDL commands available!

However, depending on the type of analysis one performs, one will
usually find a handful of commands that are used often, so the user
does not need to learn many APDL commands
Some of these commonly-used APDL commands have been introduced
already while others will be discussed later.

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APDL Commands
APDL Commands
Training Manual
One does not have to learn APDL commands directly. Instead,

annotating the log file will aid the user in determining necessary
APDL commands to perform an action (discussed next)
Dialog boxes also present the APDL commands in square brackets

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APDL Commands
B. Log File
Training Manual
The log file can be accessed from Utility Menu > List > Files > Log
File
The file resides in the solver directory as file.log
All actions, whether executed from the GUI or typed in the Command
Prompt, are recorded in the log file.

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APDL Commands
Log File and Comments
Training Manual
APDL contains comments, some of which are shown in the log file:
/COM, !, and C*** all designate the beginning of comments. Everything
after that is after these commands is ignored by ANSYS.
/COM and C*** echoes the comment in the Output Window and/or Output
File, useful to provide feedback to the user
! produces a silent comment and can appear anywhere on a line
In the log file, Mechanical
APDL automatically
includes the software
version number as well as
date & time of run as a
comment.
Some commands, such

as exiting Mechanical
APDL, are recorded in the
log file but commented
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APDL Commands
Log File and Comments
Training Manual
Learning all of the APDL commands can be challenging. However, by

annotating the log file using a comment, the user can obtain
snippets of APDL commands to perform actions they want
First, enter a comment (preceded by !) in the Command Prompt
Second, perform action using the GUI menus/dialog boxes
Lastly, enter a comment to indicate end of action
Commands in between comments can be used to perform action
By using comments, the log

file can be annotated.
The user can copy and paste
this highlighted section of
APDL commands to reverse
the black background to
white.
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APDL Commands
Log File and Picking Lists
Training Manual
When performing many picking operations, the FLST and FITEM

commands may also appear.
Many APDL commands usually require one or more ordered set of
numbered items as input
Because the user may pick
any entities in non-sequential
fashion, the FLST and FITEM
commands become useful to
record the numbers of the
entities chosen for a given
command. The picked list
is then replaced in the next
command that has the P51X
argument.

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APDL Commands
Log File and Picking Lists
Training Manual
While the log files use of element or node ID numbers allows

Mechanical APDL to reproduce the same behavior through executing
the contents of the log file, this method of using FITEM and FLST is
not helpful for general use
If the mesh changes, the node and element ID numbers change, so
being numbering-independent is preferred
If a user wishes to use the log file as a template, replace the FLST and
FITEM commands with selection logic to select a subset of elements
or nodes. Then, replace the P51X argument with ALL, indicating that
the command should operate on all selected nodes or elements.
More concrete examples will be supplied later

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APDL Commands
C. Parameters
Training Manual
Parameters are variables which can be used within Mechanical APDL

Parameters may be used instead of actual numbers/values in any dialog
box or command argument. This not only reduces the risk of a typo but
provides a basis for parametric modeling.
Parameters can include numbers or strings. Moreover, scalar or array
parameters may be defined.
Parameter naming convention:

Parameter names can be alphanumeric with an underscore
Parameter names cannot begin with a number
Parameter names should not begin with an underscore. These are
reserved for Mechanical and Mechanical APDL internal use.
Names can be up to 32 characters long
Naming parameters after Mechanical APDL labels such as ALL, PICK,
STAT, or P51X should be avoided.
Parameter names, as with APDL commands and arguments, are not casesensitive.

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APDL Commands
Defining Scalar Parameters
Training Manual
Scalar parameters are variables which can contain one value

Numeric scalar parameters can contain real numbers. There is no
distinction between integers and reals. This can also be in scientific
notation (10e3).
Character scalar parameters can contain up to eight characters, enclosed
in single quotes. These are becoming obsolete, however, in favor of
strings, which will be discussed shortly.
Defining scalar parameters:

Numeric scalar parameters are defined by *SET,param,value or
param=value
Character scalar parameters are assigned values by
*SET,param,text or param=text

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APDL Commands
Using Scalar Parameters
Training Manual
After being defined, scalar parameters can be used in an argument of

any APDL command, such as the one shown below:
APDL command is BLOCK,,LENGTH,,HEIGHT,-WIDTH/2,WIDTH/2
In some APDL commands, strings are required arguments. In this

case, forced substitution of parameters is possible:
APDL command is /TITLE,Max stress is %MAXSEQV%

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APDL Commands
Operating on Scalar Parameters
Training Manual
Scalar parameters can also be based on each other.

WIDTH = HEIGHT - 3
Note that this is a static, not dynamic, definition
Common arithmetic operations and functions can be used.
Type:
Example:
Arithmetic: + - * /
LENGTH=2 + 3*5
Note: there cannot be a space before * in equation
Exponential: **
SQUARE = 2**4
Note: exponential operator are two asterisks, not a ^ caret sign
Trig. functions: sin(x), acos(x), tanh(x)
PI=ACOS(-1)
Note: Radians assumed but can be changed via *AFUN command
Arith. functions: nint(x), sqrt(x), abs(x)
INTGR=nint(3.4)
Log functions: log10(x), exp(x)
DIST=log(15)
See *SET command help in the Commands Reference for a complete

listing
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APDL Commands
Retrieving Scalar Parameters
Training Manual
Another way to assign values to parameters is through the *GET

command (retrieve information from the database).
Utility Menu > Parameters > Get Scalar Data
APDL command: *GET,param,entity,ENTNUM,Item1,IT1NUM,
This command can be used to get almost any type of data from the
database, including results.
As will be demonstrated later, this is a very useful way to obtain any
input or output data from the model, and this can also be linked with
Workbench parameter management

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APDL Commands
Retrieving Scalar Parameters
Training Manual
Besides using *GET to retrieve data, there are some APDL commands
called *GET functions to do this more easily
NX(n) returns the x-coordinate of node ID n in the active CS
For example, one can use NSEL,S,LOC,X,nx(5) to select all nodes
which have the same x-coordinate value as node ID #5.
Parameters can also be assigned via PARAM=nx(5).
UZ(n) returns the calculated displacement in the z-direction for node n.
NELEM(E,NPOS) returns the ID number of the node in the NPOS position
of element E.
See Appendix B. GET Function Summary in the APDL

Programmers Guide in the Mechanical APDL help for a complete
listing.

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APDL Commands
Listing Scalar Parameters
Training Manual
Defined parameters and their values can be listed:

Utility Menu > List > Other > Parameters
APDL Command: *STATUS
Parameter names beginning and ending with an underscore _ are

hidden parameters. These typically do not appear in listings or in the
GUI. Mechanical and Mechanical APDL make use of hidden
parameters beginning with an underscore, while users may hide
parameters by using names ending with an underscore.
To show parameters beginning with an underscore: *STATUS,_PRM
To show parameters ending with an underscore: *STATUS,PRM_

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APDL Commands
Array Parameters
Training Manual
Oftentimes, it may be necessary to get information about the mesh or

manipulate the results in some manner.
Arrays become an efficient means of gathering and manipulating
information about the model. These are a logical extension of scalar
parameters.

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APDL Commands
Array Parameters
Training Manual
Array parameters allow the user to define a parameter which can

contain multiple values:
Arrays can be the following:
Vector (row)
Matrix (row and column)
Third-order tensor (row, column, and plane)
Fourth-order tensor (row, column, plane, and book)
Fifth-order tensor (row, column, plane, book and shelf)
Arrays are used like parameters but with an index:
MY_PARAMETER(3) or ANOTHER_PARM(3,4)

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APDL Commands
Array Parameters
Training Manual
Regular arrays are discrete values. These can be used for any
purpose, such as retrieving nodal results.
Tables are like arrays, but in-between values can be interpolated.

Character arrays are arrays containing sets of 8-letter characters.
These are becoming obsolete in favor of strings
Strings can be a series of up to 128-letter strings. These can be used
to retrieve and manipulate strings of information.

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APDL Commands
Array Parameters
Training Manual
There are two main uses for tables:

Define loads or boundary conditions that may be transient, spatiallyvarying, or temperature-dependent
Spatially-varying loads can be based on global or local CS
Define varying properties of real constants for some elements
Mechanical uses tables to define all loads (expressed as time-,

temperature-, and/or spatially-dependent)
An example of a spatially-varying pressure

loading on the top of a block.
When applying loads in Mechanical APDL,
a table can be used. Use %param% to
supply the name of the table param
when defining tabular loads, such as
SF,all,PRES,%param%

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APDL Commands
Defining Array Parameters
Training Manual
Defining arrays, tables, and strings is done via the *DIM command:
Defining a 3D (10x6x4) array:
*DIM,myarray,ARRAY,10,6,4
Defining a 4D table that is a function of x, y, z, and time:
*DIM,pressureload,TAB4,10,3,5,2,X,Y,Z,TIME
Defining a 1D string (max 128 characters):
*DIM,mystring,STRING,128
See the *DIM command in the Commands Reference for more details
on the syntax

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APDL Commands
Assigning Values to Arrays
Training Manual
Arrays are assigned values by index number, with up to 10 array

elements in a comma-separated list per assignment
For example, the following 2 lines of APDL commands defines the array
XYZ, graphically shown below:
XYZ(1)=59.5,42.494,-9.01,-8.98,-8.98,9.01,-30.6,51
XYZ(9)=-51.9,14.88,10.8,-10.8
To refer to an array, simply use the index number,

such as XYZ(8) which would give the value of 51

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APDL Commands
Assigning Values to Tables
Training Manual
Tables, on the other hand, have non-integer indices which are

defined by a 0th column
To illustrate this, consider the table named FORCE below:
FORCE(1)=0,560,560,238.5,0
FORCE(1,0)=1E-6,.8,7.2,8.5,9.3
To refer to a table array, simply use the same notation as earlier for a
regular array, although instead of using an integer index, use the
interpolation column. For indices outside of the defined range, the
last value will be used.
FORCE(3.2) will return 560
FORCE(9) will give 89.4375
FORCE(9.5) will return 0
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APDL Commands
Assigning Values to Tables
Training Manual
A more common way to define tables is by reading in values from a

text file that is comma-, space-, or tab-delimited via the *TREAD
command
Useful to import data from Excel into Mechanical APDL as a table array

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APDL Commands
Assigning Values to Strings
Training Manual
Strings can be given a value simply by referring to the first index

MYSTRING(1)=Here is a long string
The use of any other index will replace the contents from that
character
If the above command was executed, then the following was issued:
MYSTRING(9)=changed text
then the resulting string would be Here is achanged text

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APDL Commands
Retrieving Array Values
Training Manual
To retrieve array information from the database, the *VGET command

can be used:
Utility Menu > Parameters > Get Array Data
APDL Command: *VGET,myparm(1),entity,entnum,item1,it1num,

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APDL Commands
Retrieving Array Values
Training Manual
Through the use of the *VGET command, information can be obtained

from the model. Then, the information can be sorted or written to a
file, for example.
Consider the simple case where a user may wish to export the nodal
deformations as a text file for use in a 3rd party tool. *VGET can obtain
the original nodal locations as well as the x, y, z deformations to get the
final coordinates, which can be written to a text file via *VWRITE in any
format the user wishes.

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APDL Commands
Retrieving String Values
Training Manual
The *VGET command works for arrays. For strings, the use of the
/INQUIRE command allows users to get information of the analysis
For example, /INQUIRE,mystring,DIRECTORY will retrieve the current
solver directory and place it in the string mystring. This helps with file
management when dealing with multiple analyses inside of Mechanical
APDL
Operating system environment variables can also be retrieved with
/INQUIRE and placed in a string.

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APDL Commands
Operating on Arrays
Training Manual
Similar to functions which can operate on values or parameters,

arrays can be manipulated in a similar manner
Vector operations are performed on a single vector or on a single row
of 2-D, 3-D, 4-D, or 5-D arrays:
Utility Menu > Parameters > Array Operations
*VOPER command is used to operate on two vectors with the result as
one vector. Adding or comparing vectors is an example where the output
will be another vector.
*VFUN command is used to operate on one vector with the result as one
vector. Taking the cosine of a vector is an example.
*VSCFUN command is used to operate on one vector with the result as
one scalar parameter. Taking the sum, standard deviation, or max value
of a vector is an example where the output is a scalar parameter.
Matrix operations using *MOPER, *MFUN, and *MFOURI are also

available.

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APDL Commands
Operating on Strings
Training Manual
Strings may be operated on with string functions:

StrOut = STRSUB(Str1, nLoc,nChar)
Get the nChar substring starting at character nLoc in Str1
StrOut = STRCAT(Str1,Str2)
Add Str2 at the end of Str1
nLoc = STRPOS(Str1,Str2)
Get starting location of Str2 in Str1
StrOut = JOIN('directory','filename','extension')
Produces a contiguous pathstring. e.g. directory/filename.ext
StrOut = SPLIT('PathString', 'DIR')
Produces a separate output of the directory from the pathstring.
Note that strings must be referenced with a starting index, e.g.,

mystring(1). Also, in the above cases, the string has to be
created/dimensioned beforehand, e.g., *DIM,mystr,STRING,128
See Appendix B. GET Function Summary in the APDL
Programmers Guide for a complete listing of string functions.

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APDL Commands
Saving and Restoring Parameters
Training Manual
Scalar, array, table, and string parameters are saved in the

Mechanical APDL database. However, a user may wish to save or
restore (read in) parameters separately from a file.
Utility Menu > Parameters > Save Parameters
PARSAV command writes scalar or all parameters to a text file with a
default file extension .parm
Utility Menu > Parameters > Restore Parameters
PARRES command reads all parameters saved in a specified .parm file and
either adds or replaces the current parameters in the Mechanical APDL
database
These commands do not read/write to parameters in Workbench but only
to a text file (file.parm).
Interacting with Workbench parameters will be discussed shortly.

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APDL Commands
D. Control Logic
Training Manual
Mechanical APDL has control logic to perform repetitive actions or to

execute commands based on some criteria. There are two main sets
of control logic:
If-then statements
*IF, *ELSEIF, *ELSE, *ENDIF, *RETURN
Do loops
*DO, *DOWHILE, *CYCLE, *EXIT, *ENDDO, *RETURN

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APDL Commands
*IF statements
Training Manual
*IF and *ENDIF enclose a block of commands which are executed if

the criteria concerning a parameter is satisfied.
The flowchart on the right
shows a simple example
of using *IF and *ENDIF.
*ELSEIF statements are used
to provide additional
criteria to compare against.
The *ELSE command is used
as a default execution block
if commands need to be
executed in the event that
none of the criteria are satisfied.

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APDL Commands
*IF statements
Training Manual
The *IF and *ELSEIF statements usually compare a parameter and

whether it satisfies a criteria specified by EQ, NE, LT, GT, LE, GE, ABLT,
or ABGT. (A=B, !=, <, >, <=, >=, ||>||, ||<||)
*IF,a,EQ,b,THEN
/com, Case is true.
*ELSEIF,c,EQ,d
/com, Case is true.
*ENDIF
Multiple criteria can also be specified in the *IF statement. Instead

of THEN, use AND/OR/XOR, which allows more flexibility in specifying
the *IF criteria
*IF,a,EQ,b,OR,c,EQ,d,then
/com, Case is true.
*ENDIF

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APDL Commands
*IF statements
Training Manual
*IF statements have other behavior:

Instead of THEN to execute a block of commands, there are other options.
CYCLE and EXIT are used if the *IF statement is in a *DO loop, and you
want to exit or skip the *DO loop.
*DO loops will be discussed next
Branching to a different section can be done with :label. What
Mechanical APDL will do, if the *IF criterion is satisfied, is to go to the
next section beginning with the line :label.
Branching will be covered later
If THEN is not used, no *ENDIF is necessary.

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APDL Commands
*IF statements: Tip
Training Manual
The *IF statement is often used to compare the values of two

parameters or to compare the parameter with a known value:
*IF,myparama,EQ,myparamb,THEN
*IF,myvalue,LT,4.4,THEN
If a user may have a block of commands in a text file that may need to
be skipped temporarily, instead of deleting the commands, one can
enclose these commands with an *IF statement that returns a false
statement:
*IF,1,EQ,2,THEN
<block of APDL commands>
*ENDIF
The above will not execute the APDL commands but skip over them. This
is useful, as the user does not have to delete the APDL commands they
do not want to run.

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APDL Commands
*DO Loops
Training Manual
A series of actions can be performed repetitively by specifying it

within the *DO and *ENDDO commands.
*DO,param,initial_value,final_value,increment is the basic
syntax of the *DO loop. The parameter PARAM takes on initial value
specified and increments until it reaches the final value.
For example, *DO,I,16,25 will loop 10 times, incrementing the
parameter I by 1 (default) from 16 to 25.
Printout is suppressed after the first loop. Include the /GOPR command
inside the loop if you want to see text output in the Output Window or
Output File from execution of the *DO-*ENDDO block.

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APDL Commands
*DO Loops
Training Manual
A similar looping capability can be achieved with *DOWHILE and

*ENDDO commands.
*DOWHILE,parameter is the syntax of this command. As long as
parameter is greater than 0.0 (TRUE value), the loop continues.
However, when parameter is less than or equal to 0.0 (FALSE value),
the loop terminates.

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APDL Commands
*DO Loops
Training Manual
The *CYCLE and *EXIT commands can be used to break out of the
loop.
*CYCLE will bypass the remainder of the commands in the *DO loop and
go to the next loop (if applicable)
*EXIT will exit out of the *DO loop
The CYCLE and EXIT options of the *IF command are used more
often than the explicit *CYCLE and *EXIT commands. However,
*CYCLE and *EXIT can be used with *IF-*ENDIF in the event that,
before skipping or exiting the loop, other commands need to be
issued.

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APDL Commands
Branching
Training Manual
Branching refers to skipping to some separate part of the input file.

Lines beginning with : designate branch names, where the branch
name (including : character) cannot exceed 8 characters in length
For example, consider the input below:
*IF,a,eq,3,:BRANCH1
b=a+3
/eof
:BRANCH1
b=a**2
In this example, if the parameter a equals to 3, then Mechanical

APDL skips to the label :BRANCH1 and executes commands from
there (namely assigning to b the value of 9). Otherwise, if a
does not equal 3, the commands after the *IF statement are read
(b is designated as 3 more than a). Since /EOF (End-of-File
command) is present, Mechanical APDL stops reading the input at
that point.

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APDL Commands
Branching
Training Manual
Branching is used by Mechanical APDL in some situations, such as

submodeling and reading in input files:
The CBDOF command allows user to append to the .cbdo file with a given
label
The /INPUT command allows a user to read a file beginning from a
specified label
In a similar fashion, input files can incorporate branching to redirect

reading of the macro to a specified location if certain criteria are met
(used with *IF command).
A *GO command is also available, but it is considered obsolete so is not
covered here.

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APDL Commands
Branching
Training Manual
When using branching, ensure that branching does not occur within
a *DO loop or separate *IF statement
For example, the following is not permitted:
*dowhile,I
block,,1,,1,,1
test=i+test
*if,test,eq,5,:hello
*enddo
If the user wants to branch out of a *DO loop when a criterion is met,
the following presents a better approach:
*dowhile,I
block,,1,,1,,1
test=i+test
*if,test,eq,5,exit
*enddo
*if,test,eq,5,:hello

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Lecture C4
Using APDL in Mechanical 1

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Overview
Training Manual
Using an understanding of Mechanical APDL acquired from the

previous chapters, this section will demonstrate how to use APDL
commands to access advanced functionality within Mechanical.
Consider the APDL commands as a scripting language to:
Manipulate the mesh directly
Access advanced solver functionality
Access advanced postprocessing capabilities
In this chapter, using Commands objects in the Geometry, Remote

Points, and Connections branches will be explored.

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A. Preliminaries
Training Manual
Before diving into the details of using Commands objects in

Mechanical, some general topics will be reviewed:
Solver unit system

Saving the Mechanical APDL database
Creating/deleting elements and other entities
Branches in the Outline Tree applicable to Commands objects

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Unit System
Training Manual
APDL commands may involve the input of values that are unitdependent, such as piezoelectric coefficients. Because Commands
objects are general, there is no mechanism to convert entered
arguments of APDL commands if a user decides to change the active
unit system from the Units menu.
Consequently, it is strongly recommended to manually specify the
solver unit system in the Details view of the Analysis Settings
branch. Solver Units: Manual allows the user to specify the unit
system for the Mechanical APDL solver
By setting Solver Units: Manual with Solver
Unit System set appropriately, the user-specified
unit system will always by used by the
Mechanical APDL solver, regardless of what
the active unit system is in Mechanical
This ensures that, if another user obtains the
Workbench project, their solution will be in the
correct unit system
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Saving the Mechanical APDL database
Training Manual
Mechanical uses the file.rst result file for postprocessing. Most

postprocessing operations can be done in Mechanical using User
Results, dicussed later. However, there may be unforeseen
circumstances where a user may wish to postprocess results in
Mechanical APDL
Postprocessing in Mechanical APDL was covered in an earlier chapter
Because of this reason, it is highly recommended to save the

Mechanical APDL database (file.db).
In the Details view of the Analysis Settings
branch, set Save ANSYS db: Yes
The default is not to save file.db, so this must
be specified by the user

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Creating/Deleting Elements
Training Manual
When elements or nodes are created or deleting using APDL

commands, please note that Mechanical will not be aware of these
changes to the mesh.
If elements/nodes need to be created using APDL commands in a
Commands branch, postprocessing of these elements must be done
inside of Mechanical APDL
If possible, avoid deleting elements via APDL commands. Consider
modifying the geometry/mesh to omit regions that are not of interest

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Inserting Commands Objects
Training Manual
The following branches in the Outline tree allow

users to insert Commands objects:
Any Body under a Geometry branch

Any Remote Point under a Remote Points branch
Any Contact Region under Connections branch
Any Spot Weld under Connections branch
Any Joint under Connections branch
Any Spring under Connections branch
Any Beam under Connections branch
Directly under any analysis branch
Directly under the Solution branch
The details of each of these options will be covered

in this chapter

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Supplementary Branches
Training Manual
Two branches that do not use Commands objects

directly but are quite helpful are the Coordinate
Systems and the Named Selections branches
As will be discussed later, a Coordinate System can be
assigned a manual coordinate system ID number,
which can be used in APDL commands. For example,
this is useful for selecting a node near a coordinate
system or transforming results in a particular
coordinate system in Mechanical APDL.
Named Selections will appear as nodal or element
components in Mechanical APDL, where a
component is a group of nodes or elements. This
allows users to conveniently reference entities without
having to worry about geometry, node/element ID
number, etc., and this method can be used for updated
geometry as well.

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Other Branches
Training Manual
Other branches, such as Construction Geometry,

Virtual Topology, Symmetry, Mesh, and
Solution Combination branches, are not applicable
to APDL commands, so Commands objects are
not inserted under those branches.

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B. Geometry Branch
Training Manual
A Commands object may be inserted under a

Body under the Geometry branch
Note that a Commands object cannot be inserted
directly under the Geometry branch or directly
under a multibody part. It can only be inserted under
a particular body
Point Masses are also not applicable for Commands
objects
The below lists some reasons to use a Commands

object associated with a Body:
Definition of composite materials
Solving other types of physics not native to
Mechanical
Adding nonlinear material models, such as creep or
viscoelasticity or anisotropic hyperelasticity

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Geometry Branch
Training Manual
Once a Commands object is inserted, APDL commands can be

pasted or typed into the text area.
The Commands object inserted under a Body can be used to
change the following element attributes for that Body:
Element type
Material Properties
Real Constants/Section Properties
Element Coordinate System
Use the APDL parameter MATID to reference the element type,

material property, real constant, or section property ID number.
The Element Coordinate System ID will typically be 0 (default) unless a
Coordinate System has been associated with that body

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Geometry Branch: Element Type
Training Manual
As discussed in a previous chapter, changing element types is done

via the following two commands:
ET,MATID,
KEYOPT,MATID,
Changing the element type allows a user to solve different physics or

use a specialized element. However, the nodal connectivity must be
the same between the original and target element type
The Mesh branch controls whether the element will be higher- or lowerorder. The Mesh Method also dictates what the element shape will be
(e.g., hexahedral, tetrahedral)
If any element-specific options (keyoptions) need to be set, use the

KEYOPT command

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Training Manual
Caution concerning pyramid elements:

Note that while most higher-order elements have a pyramid shape, not all
lower-order elements have a pyramid shape. Hence, check the Elements
Reference to ensure that the selected element type supports pyramids.
For example, the structural 8-node

brick element SOLID185 does not
show a pyramid form, so a user
should not attempt to use this
element if pyramids are present
Pyramids appear when a Mesh Method of Hex-Dominant Meshing or
MultiZone (with Free Mesh Type set) is used.
When pyramids are present, this also typically means that tetrahedrons are
present as well. Mechanical will generate tetrahedrons as a 10-node tet while
pyramids and wedges are degenerate 20-node hex elements. Hence, in these
case, MATID will represent the 10-node tet elements while MATID+1 will refer to
the 20-node hex element type ID.
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Training Manual
Note about Element Control:

In the Details view of the Geometry branch,
the user can change Element Control
By default, this is set to Program Controlled,
where the Mechanical APDL solver may change
keyoptions automatically prior to solution
Currently applicable to structural elements
APDL Command is ETCONTROL
See the Commands Reference for ETCONTROL
for additional details

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Training Manual
Note about Element Control (continued):

During solution, the following will be printed in the Solution Information
branch:
If automatic resetting of keyoptions is not desired, be sure to set Element
Control: Manual in the Details view of the Geometry branch
Notice that certain keyoptions

have been automatically reset by
Mechanical APDL.
Although the automatic setting of
options is meant to aid the user in
selecting appropriate element
formulations, etc., the
knowledgeable user may not want
keyoptions automatically
overridden. In this case, set
Element Control: Manual prior
to solution.

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Geometry Branch: Material Properties
Training Manual
Deleting all existing material properties for the particular body is

done via the following commands:
MPDELE,Label,MATID
TBDELE,Label,MATID
As a review, defining linear elastic material properties:

MP,Label,MATID, (constant materials)
MPTEMP, and MPDATA,Label,MATID, (temperature-dependent)
To define nonlinear material properties, use:

TB,Label,MATID, to activate a particular material table
TBTEMP, and TBDATA, or TBPT, to define the parameters
In all of the above cases, Label refers to the material property name.
See the MP or TB help in the Commands Reference for details.

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Training Manual
Material Properties are the only element attribute which allows

superimposing multiple definitions.
For example, to define density and elastic modulus, one would repeat
the MP command as follows:
MP,EX,MATID,10e6
MP,DENS,MATID,0.1/386.1
To define bilinear isotropic plasticity and creep, one would do the

following:
MP,EX,MATID,200e3
MP,NUXY,MATID,0.3
TB,BISO,MATID,1
TBDATA,1,300,2e3
TB,CREEP,MATID,1,3,10
TBDATA,1,3.125E-14,5,0
Defines linear elastic properties

Defines bilinear plasticity constants
Defines creep law and its coefficients
For nonlinear structural material combinations, see Section 2.6

Material Model Combinations in the Elements Reference for details
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Training Manual
Points to keep in mind:

When adding creep material properties via TB,CREEP,MATID, note that
Mechanical, by default, will not request creep strains to be saved. By
adding OUTRES,EPCR,ALL in a Commands object under the analysis
branch (discussed later), one can ensure that creep strains are stored for
postprocessing. (Note that, in the specific case of creep, RATE,ON must
also be added in the Commands object under the analysis branch.)
For user-defined materials with TB,USER,MATID or user-defined creep
with TB,CREEP,MATID,,,100, state variables are often defined via
TB,STATE,MATID. As with the above case, the user should add
OUTRES,SVAR,ALL in a Commands object under the analysis branch to
ensure that state variables are stored in the result file for postprocessing.

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Geometry Branch: Section Properties
Training Manual
The Elements Reference in the Mechanical APDL help system

describes whether a particular element uses real constants or section
properties
In either case, the APDL scalar parameter MATID can be used to reference
the real constant and section property ID number of that particular Body.
Deleting existing real constants or section properties:

RDELE,MATID
SDELETE,MATID
Recall the definition of a new real constant or section property:

R,ID,
SECTYPE,ID, and SECDATA,
Modification of a real constant:

RMODIF,ID,
(No equivalent functionality is present for sections. One must delete an
existing section and define a new section instead.)

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Geometry Branch: Section Properties
Training Manual
Tip for composite (layered) elements:

Composite elements define the material properties for each layer via real
constants or section properties. There is no need to redefine or modify
the material ID number associated with the Body.
Note, however, that structural damping (MP,DAMP) and reference temperature
for thermal strains (MP,REFT) are defined via the material ID number, not per
layer.
For composite elements, one must define the material ID numbers used
in each layer within the Commands object
Use material ID numbers that are larger than the number of parts present when
defining the material ID number for each layer
The actual material property definition used in layers only needs to be
performed once in the event that multiple bodies have composite definition
From the Workbench Project Schematic, link the Model to a

Mechanical APDL system. Then, verify the composite definition inside
of Mechanical APDL using /ESHAPE,1 to visualize the 3D cross-section,
including layeres.

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C. Remote Points
Training Manual
Remote Points are an integral part of many features

in Mechanical:
Point Mass
Joints
Springs
Moment
Remote Force
Remote Displacement
Each Remote Point has an (x, y, z) location and is

scoped to a geometric entity. One can think of
Remote Points as tying nodes on a geometric
entity to the remote point location, either with a
deformable or rigid behavior.
Understanding how Remote Points work allows
users to take advantage of them with Commands
objects
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Uses for Remote Points
Training Manual
The below are some reasons why one may wish to use Commands
objects with Remote Points:
Reduce the interface nodes for creation of CMS superelements for more
efficient system-level analyses
Define monitor locations, such as the average deformation of a given
surface
Create an MNF file for use with Adams/Flex
Adams is developed by and is a registered trademark of MSC Software

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Remote Point Representation
Training Manual
A Remote Point consists of contact and target elements

The target element is a 1-node element, representing the remote point
location
The contact elements are associated with the vertex, edge, or surface that
is scoped in the Remote Point Definition
This is an example of surface-based constraints using contact elements.
For details, see Chapter 9 of the Contact Technology Guide.
TARGE170 Element (circled)
CONTA174 Elements (purple)

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Remote Point Behavior
Training Manual
To better understand the deformable and rigid behavior, consider

the simple 2D plate with a remote force (via remote point) applied to
the center hole:
Deformable behavior: circle does not retain shape
Rigid behavior: circle maintains shape

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Remote Points
Training Manual
Insert a Commands object under a Remote Point:

The parameter _npilot reflects the node ID number. One can define a
new parameter to keep track of this node ID number for later use, such as
defining master DOF:
MY_INTERFACE_NODE = _npilot
m,MY_INTERFACE_NODE,all
The parameter TID is the target elements element type ID number. For
example, if one may wish to constrain only UX and UY DOF rather than all
6 (or all 3, if 2D), one can use the following command:
keyopt,TID,4,11

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Remote Points
Training Manual
Tips on using APDL with Remote Points:

Keep in mind that APDL parameters are persistent throughout the
Mechanical APDL run. Hence, per the previous slide, the parameter
MY_INTERFACE_NODE will have the value of the node ID number and can
be used in postprocessing as well.
Most functionality with regards to Remote Points, such as load
application, postprocessing displacements or reaction forces,
spring/joint definition, are already built into the Mechanical GUI. Hence,
prior to using Commands objects with Remote Points, consider
whether or not the sought capability already exists within Mechanical.

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D. Contact Regions
Training Manual
Commands objects may also be inserted

under any Contact Region
There are many situations where APDL
commands can access advanced controls:
Definition of debonding/delamination with CZM
Use of fluid pressure-penetration loading
Near-field contact radiation and convection
Definition of multiphysics contact (coupled
thermal-electric-structural) with frictional heat
generation
Inclusion of orthotropic friction or dynamic
coefficient of friction, along with cohesion
Changing contact detection locations
other options available as well!

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Contact Regions
Training Manual
Most of the commonly-used contact options are present in the

Mechanical GUI.
However, ANSYS contact elements have a plethora of options to
allow users to simulate many different scenarios
To understand the various contact capabilities that are available,
refer to the following sections in the Help documentation:
Contact Technology Guide > Chapter 3: Surface-to-Surface Contact
Contact Technology Guide > Chapter 7: Multiphysics Contact
Contact Technology Guide > Chapter 12: Debonding

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Contact Regions
Training Manual
Insert a Commands object of the Contact Region of interest:

The parameters CID and TID are used to refer to the contact and target
element type IDs, respectively.
To apply fluid pressure-penetration loading where pressure loading
occurs when a contact status opens, use the following:
esel,s,type,,CID
sfe,all,1,pres,,120
allsel,all
To change the contact detection type to normal from target, use

keyopt,CID,4,2

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Contact Regions
Training Manual
Tips on Contact Regions and APDL:

Because Contact Regions are not included in Named Selections, to
reference a contact region for later use, use either of the following:
Define a parameter(s) with the CID (and TID) values
Create an element component (group) for later use via ESEL and CM commands
Understand the situations where symmetric and asymmetric contact

pairs exist. If Behavior: Symmetric is set for Pure Penalty or
Augmented Lagrange algorithms, ensure that any change real
constants or material properties are reflected for both CID and TID.

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E. Joints
Training Manual
Typical uses of Commands objects inserted

for Joints include the following:
Definition of Screw Joints and other joints not
available in the Mechanical GUI
Incorporation of nonlinear stiffness, nonlinear
damping, and/or Coulomb friction1
Obtaining more detailed control over joint
behavior, such as applying rotational stops and
locks on a General Joint
Note that, at release 12.0, the hysteretic friction capability of Joints

(MPC184) has been removed in favor of the Coulomb friction model.

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Joints
Training Manual
Many sophisticated joint functionality are present in Mechanical:

Torsional stiffness and damping for Cylindrical and Revolute Joints
Bushing Joint, which can be thought of as a General Joint where a user
may input stiffness and damping relationships between all 6 relative DOF
Joint stops and locks for many joint types
Prior to implementing Commands objects for Joints, review the

Help system to ensure that the capability is not already present:
Mechanical (formerly Simulation) > Using the Mechanical Application
Features > Geometry in the Mechanical Application > Joints

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Joints
Training Manual
If it is deemed necessary to include a Commands object to access

functionality via APDL commands, review the following Help manual:
Multibody Analysis Guide > Chapter 2. Modeling in a Multibody
Simulation > Section 2.3 Connecting Multibody Components with Joint
Elements
Elements Reference > Element Library > MPC184
The element type used for joints is MPC184. Note that the joint
(MPC184 element) is connected to the solid model via Remote Points.
If the connection between the joint and solid part needs to be modified,
define a Remote Point with a Commands object, as discussed in an
earlier section of this chapter.
Only insert a Commands object under a Joint branch if the joint
property will be modified. This includes constraining relative DOF,
adding stops/locks, or defining joint material properties

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Joints
Training Manual
The APDL parameter _jid refers to the element type, material, real
constant, and section ID number of the MPC184 element:
To define nonlinear stiffness for a Translational Joint:
tb,join,_JID,1,4,jnsa
tbpt,,U1,F1
repeat (Each TBPT command defines pair of displacements Ui and forces Fi)
To add a rotational stop for relative Z-rotation for a General Joint between
-45 and 45:
secstop,6,-acos(-1)/2,acos(-1)/2
(Notice input is in radians, and 6 refers to relative DOF 6 or ROTZ)

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Joints
Training Manual
Tips on using APDL commands with Joints:

The SECTYPE command is required to define the joint behavior and is
typically defined by Mechanical. Hence, to add stops/locks, one should
not use the SECTYPE command if it already defined by Mechanical, but
one can just add SECLOCK and SECSTOP commands, as the particular joint
ID will already be active.
Not all Joints support stops, locks, and joint material definition
(friction, stiffness, damping) for example, the Spherical Joint supports
neither. Consult the Elements Reference for details on each Joint type
prior to using APDL commands to ensure that the feature is available for
that joint type
Modifying the local coordinate system which defines the orientation of
the relative joint DOF is highly discouraged since Mechanical will
incorrectly report results for that joint.
The DJ command applies joint constraints while the FJ command applies
loading to the joints. However, when possible, use of Joint Loads in
Mechanical is recommended over using APDL commands, as the former
is much easier to implement.
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F. Springs and Beams
Training Manual
In addition to Contact Regions and Joints, the

Connections branch allows use of Springs
and Beams
Springs are longitudinal springs and/or
dampers with preload capabilities
Beams have circular cross-sections and are
meant to represent structural connections that
carry bending loads
As with Joints, Springs and Beams are

connected to 2D or 3D bodies via Remote
Points
If a Remote Point is not explicitly used, the
underlying finite element representation is still
using surface-based constraints of contact and
target elements, as elaborated in the Remote
Points section of this chapter

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Springs and Beams
Training Manual
A Spring is represented with a COMBIN14 element, and a Beam is

modeled with a single BEAM188 element.
Line Bodies are also represented with BEAM188 elements, and the two
should not be confused with each other.
When modeling beam structures, use line bodies (number of beam elements
per line body is controlled via Mesh Sizing).
To model a connection that can carry bending loads, a Beam connection may
be applicable.
Using Commands objects for Springs and Beams is not as

common as its usage in other branches, although a few reasons for
doing so are listed below:
Changing the longitudinal Spring to a torsional one via keyoption
Replacing the Beam with a rigid beam (MPC184)
Replacing the Spring with nonlinear or other types of spring elements

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Springs and Beams
Training Manual
For Springs, after inserting a Commands object, use the parameter

_sid to reference the springs element type, material, and real
constant ID number
Example of changing to a torsional spring:
keyopt,_SID,3,1
Note that stiffness and force will refer to torsional stiffness and
moment
Springs do not use a section ID, so the section ID number will be 1
For Beams, the parameter _bid refers to the beams element type,
material, real constant, and section ID number
To replace the deformable beam with a rigid one, use the following:
mpdele,all,_BID
et,_BID,184,1,0
Note that the Beam has material properties, so density and thermal
expansion may be used, if present. To prevent these materials from
being used, MPDELE is included in the above example to delete the
material definition for _BID (beams material ID).
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Springs and Beams
Training Manual
1D springs may be required for an analysis, where the stiffness in a

particular direction is known beforehand.
1D springs should be modeled with COMBIN14 and KEYOPT(2)=1 through
6. The best practice is to model 1D springs with coincident nodes.
Because Springs in Mechanical are longitudinal springs, they must have
finite length. Hence, Springs should not be converted to 1D springs.
To create 1D springs between bodies, define 2 Remote Points at the same
location but scoped to the 2 bodies geometric entities. Add
Commands objects under both Remote Points to record the pilot node
ID number as parameters. Using Commands object in the analysis
branch (described shortly), 1D spring(s) can be defined using the two
pilot node locations.
Springs operate in the nodal coordinate system. Hence, if Remote Points
are used, ensure that the referenced coordinate systems are the same.

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Lecture C4

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Overview
Training Manual
As a continuation of the previous chapter, this section examines the

use of APDL commands in the Analysis and Solution branches.
Discussion and examples of these usages will be covered.

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A. Named Selections and Components
Training Manual
Named Selections become a critical way of referencing parts of the

model inside of Mechanical APDL. A Named Selection in Mechanical
will transfer as an Element or Nodal Component in Mechanical APDL

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Named Selections and Components
Training Manual
Components in Mechanical APDL are simply groups of either nodes

or elements:
Named Selections of Bodies transfer as Element Components
Named Selections of Vertices, Edges, and Faces transfer as Nodal
Components
This distinction is important because a Named Selection of Surface Bodies will
be Element Components while Named Selections of Faces are Nodal
Components
Components are always a group of one type of entity nodes or elements
similar to Named Selections in Mechanical. While Assemblies in Mechanical
APDL may consist of nodes and elements, the focus of this discussion will
only be on Components.
The Named Selection should consist of up to 32 alphanumeric characters

If a space is in the Named Selection, the Mechanical APDL Component name
will replace the space with an underscore
If the Named Selection starts with a number, the Mechanical APDL Component
name will have a C_ prefix to the name
Components provide an easy way to reference regions using APDL

commands
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Named Selections and Components
Training Manual
Many APDL commands can operate directly on components:

If a user wishes to apply a acoustic pressure DOF constraint to a Named
Selection of surfaces called Pressure Boundary Condition, this can be
achieved with the following APDL commands:
D,pressure_boundary_condition,PRES,0
An alternative method is to use Mechanical APDL selection logic to

select the component (group), then operate on all selected items:
The same example above is given using selection logic:
CMSEL,S,pressure_boundary_condition
D,ALL,PRES,0
CMSEL,ALL
The above two methods are equivalent. In situations where a single

APDL command does not operate on components (see Commands
Reference to determine if a command can operate on components),
the second method above will always work.

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Selection Logic
Training Manual
Selection logic was introduced in earlier lectures and workshops but

will be covered in detail here:
Selection command format:
Selecting components (Named Selections):
CMSEL,type,name
Selecting elements:
ESEL,type,item,comp,vmin,vmax
Selecting nodes:
NSEL,type,item,comp,vmin,vmax
Selecting nodes attached to selected elements:

NSLE,type,nodetype
Selecting elements attached to selected nodes:

ESLN,type,ekey,nodetype
Refer to the Commands Reference for additional details on syntax

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Selection Logic
Training Manual
The type of selections are listed below and shown on the right:
S: From Full
R: Reselect
A: Also select
U: Unselect
INVE: Invert (not applicable to CMSEL)
NONE: Unselect all types
ALL: Select all types
An important note is that, if using

selection commands, be sure to use
xSEL,ALL or ALLSEL,ALL to select
all entities after the task is complete.
Otherwise, Mechanical APDL will
solve the analysis with only the
selected nodes & elements!
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From Full
Reselect
Also Select
Unselect
Invert
Select None
Select All
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Selection Logic: Example 1
Training Manual
An example may serve to illustrate the power of selection logic.

Consider the model below. Suppose one may want to manipulate all
of the elements on the left part that are touching the middle
(trapezoidal) part. This is not directly accessible in Mechanical since
a portion of the body is sought!
The desired elements are shown as opaque on the right figure

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Training Manual
Assuming that a Named Selection LEFT_BODY of the left part and a

Named Selection BOUNDARY_EDGE of the lines between the left and
middle parts are defined in Mechanical, the previous task can be done
with 3 APDL commands:
cmsel,s,LEFT_BODY
cmsel,s,BOUNDARY_EDGE
esln,r
This can be read as the following:

1. Select the elements in the component LEFT_BODY
2. Select the nodes in the component BOUNDARY_EDGE
3. Reselect only those elements whose nodes are currently selected

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Training Manual
As an alternative, if LEFT_ID is the APDL parameter of the left parts

element type ID number while MIDDLE_ID is the APDL parameter of the
middle part, the same can be accomplished with the following:
esel,s,type,,MIDDLE_ID
nsel,s,ext
esln,s
esel,r,type,,LEFT_ID
This can be read as the following:

1.Select the elements with element type ID number equal to MIDDLE_ID
2.Select the nodes exterior to the selected elements
3.Select (from full) all elements whose node(s) are currently selected
4.Reselect (select subset) element type ID of LEFT_ID

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Selection Logic
Training Manual
From the previous example, two items may be apparent:

Selecting nodes and selecting elements are independent of each other
For example, consider the case below. The elements on left are selected but
not its nodes; the nodes on the right are selected but not their elements
Selected Elements
Selected Nodes
As shown in the previous example, the independence of selection of nodes and

elements gives the user much flexibility
There are often many ways to achieve the desired selected set using a
combination of APDL selection commands
There may be multiple ways to select a portion of the model one is interested
in, so one should not view there being a single, correct approach. The
various options in the 5 APDL selection commands give the user versatility in
approaching different applications
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Training Manual
Consider a second example below a user may wish to select nodes

within a given radius, as designated by the circles.
Note that a cylindrical Coordinate System has been defined with ID 12.
Objective: Select
nodes within a radius
of 4e-3 to 7e-3

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Training Manual
The APDL commands to achieve this goal are as follows:

csys,12
nsel,s,loc,x,4e-3,7e-3
csys,0
To explain the above APDL commands in words:

1. Set the active coordinate system to coordinate system ID #12 (which was
defined in Mechanical as a cylindrical coordinate system)
2. Select nodes (from full set) based on location of x (x in cylindrical CS is radial
direction) from a minimum value of 4e-3 to a maximum value of 7e-3
3. Set the active coordinate system back to ID 0 (global Cartesian)

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Active Coordinate Systems
Training Manual
In Mechanical APDL, there are element coordinate systems (ESYS)

and result coordinate systems (RSYS) that were discussed earlier.
A display coordinate system for listing and nodal coordinate systems
for node orientation are also present in Mechanical APDL
The active coordinate system (CSYS) is the fifth type of coordinate
system. The active coordinate system:
Defines where nodes are created, if created manually in Mechanical APDL
Specifies the meaning of x, y, and z for NSEL,,LOC commands of
selecting nodes based on location
The active coordinate system is set via CSYS command. If using this
command, it is good practice to set CSYS,0 to reset the active
coordinate system back to global Cartesian
If this is not done, any nodes created later will be based on (x, y, z) of the
active coordinate system rather than global Cartesian!

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Active Coordinate Systems
Training Manual
Tip on Active Coordinate Systems:
If wishing to obtain the node ID number of a node nearest to a

Coordinate System, do the following:
1. Define a Coordinate System in Mechanical with a manually-specific
coordinate system ID number (e.g., assume ID is #14)
2. Add a Commands object under the Analysis branch with the following:
CSYS,14
MYNODE=node(0,0,0)
CSYS,0
3. The parameter MYNODE now points to the node ID number of the node
nearest to coordinate system ID #14
The above method allows one to indentify the node nearest to a

coordinate system this can be useful to create new elements at a given
location or perform specific postprocessing on a node without having
to know the node ID number! (This works even if the part is remeshed)
Note that the node() function operates on currently selected nodes
If multiple nodes at (x, y, z) are present, the lowest ID number is returned
See Appendix B of the ANSYS Parametric Design Language Guide for
details on node() and other GET Functions.

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B. Analysis Branch
Training Manual
Commands objects may also be inserted

under the Analysis branch
For multiple Steps, in the Details view, the user
may specify which step(s) will run the APDL
commands
There are many uses for a Commands

object under the Analysis branch:
Change advanced solver options, such as
using QR Damped or Supernode eigensolver or
turning on rate effects for creep analyses
Apply loads and boundary conditions for
physics not directly supported in Mechanical
Add or modify special elements, such as
reinforcement elements REINF264/265, infinite
acoustic elements FLUID129/130, or general
axisymmetric elements SOLID272/273
many more uses!
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Analysis Branch
Training Manual
APDL commands that can be used in the Analysis

Branch generally fall into one of two categories
Preprocessing or Solution Processing
To use preprocessing commands, such as ESURF, first
input the command /PREP7 to enter the Preprocessor
For solution processor commands, use /SOLU
Some commands, such as those related to load and
boundary condition application, can be used in either
/PREP7 or /SOLU
In a Commands object inserted under the Analysis

Branch, be sure that the solution processor is active and
that all nodes and elements are selected
When in doubt, end with the following commands:
/SOLU
ALLSEL,ALL

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Analysis Branch: Example 1
Training Manual
This side describes the actions of

the APDL commands on the right:
The following commands can be

used to create infinite acoustic
elements (FLUID130):
/prep7
*get,AR99,etyp,,num,max
et,AR99+1,130
r,AR99+1,1.5,0,0,0
mp,dens,AR99+1,1000
mp,sonc,AR99+1,1500
Enter Preprocessor
Get highest element type ID #
Define FLUID130 with ID AR99+1
Define radius of FLUID130
Define density of 1000
Define speed of sound of 1500
cmsel,s,N_INFINITE
type,AR99+1
real,AR99+1
mat, AR99+1
esurf
Select Named Selection of nodes

Set active element type ID
Set active real constant ID
Set active material ID
Create infinite acoustic elements
/solu
allsel,all
cmsel,all
Enter Solution processor

Select all nodes and elements
Select all components (optional)

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Training Manual
To verify that the previous APDL commands create the infinite

acoustic fluids correctly, one may add a Mechanical APDL system
linked to the Setup cell in Workbench, then view the model in
Mechanical APDL (the commands, not including SOLVE, will be run):
The blue elements
represent the created
infinite acoustic
elements
For details on acoustic analyses, see Fluids Guide > Acoustics in the
Help system.
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Training Manual
Modal analyses usually assume symmetric matrices with no damping

The QR Damped eigensolver can be used to include the effect of
friction (unsymmetric stiffness matrix) and damping
The following APDL commands utilize the QR Damped eigensolver in a
modal analysis along with gyroscopic damping matrix:
modopt,qrdamp,30,,,on
mxpand,30
coriolis,on,,,on
omega,,,240*acos(-1)
The above solves for 30 modes including the gyroscopic damping matrix
(CORIOLIS command). The rotational velocity is defined with OMEGA.
For details on analyzing rotating structures, see Rotordynamic Analysis

Guide and Advanced Analysis Techniques Guide > Ch.8 Rotating
Structure Analysis in the Help system.
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Analysis Branch
Training Manual
Points to Remember:
A SOLVE command (solution of matrix equations) will be automatically
executed after the contents of the Commands object(s) are run.
Consequently, do not add a SOLVE command; otherwise, two solutions
will be performed.
If the automatically-added SOLVE command is to be suppressed, use an
Abbreviation to redefine the SOLVE command via
*ABBR,SOLVE,*SET,AR99,1
However, this is considered advanced usage and should not be necessary for
most situations
The Details view of the Command object inserted under the Analysis
Branch gives the user control over which Step the Commands object
will be executed.
For Mode-Superposition Harmonic analyses, the Commands object will be
run both during the modal and harmonic solutions by default. To control this
behavior, use *GET,myflag,ACTIVE,,ANTY to determine the current analysis
type. If the value is 2, a modal analysis is being run while a value of 3
reflects the harmonic solution. Use of *IF commands allows a user to execute
APDL commands just for the modal analysis, for example.
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C. Solution Branch
Training Manual
Commands objects may also be used under

the Solution branch for postprocessing
Some examples of using this feature are:
Generating Campbell diagrams (PLCAMP)
Creating contour plots of crushing/cracking of
concrete elements (PLCRACK)
Plotting J-integral results (PLCINT)
Plotting time-history results of CZM elements

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Solution Branch
Training Manual
APDL commands used in the Solution branch are generally meant

to (a) generate static images and/or (b) create text listings of results
Before using a Command object for postprocessing, consider
whether or not the results can be more readily obtained
Mechanical supports postprocessing complex mode shapes (QRDAMP)
Mechanical also supports User Defined Results, such as plotting
pressures from an acoustic analysis (sample shown below):

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Solution Branch
Training Manual
If a Commands object exists under the Solution branch,

Mechanical will look for any generated PNG files and collect them
under the Commands object, as shown below.
/SHOW,PNG will redirect subsequent plots to PNG files. Specify this
command prior to plotting commands, such as PLNSOL.

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Solution Branch
Training Manual
If generating contour plots of 3D geometry, it may be difficult to

determine the camera angle to create plots of interest.
Transfer the model (Setup cell) to Mechanical APDL in Workbench.
Inside of Mechanical APDL, set the graphics options as needed.
Also, manipulate (rotate, pan, zoom) the view to the position desired.
Use the /GSAVE command to save the graphic settings to a file
(default name is file.gsav in the APDL solver directory). Open
this file in a text editor, and copy and paste the contents to the
Mechanical Commands object. This will allow users to get the
angle/position of the model for 3D plots.
XY plots usually do not require such setup, although the user may
also use the above technique to modify XY plot settings (axis labels,
number of tick marks, curve colors, etc.)

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Solution Branch
Training Manual
Cautionary note:
If any changes are made to a Commands object under the Solution
branch, the entire analysis must be re-run in order to regenerate the
plots. Hence, when possible, use User Defined Results in Mechanical, or
manually postprocess in Mechanical APDL

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D. Input Parameters
Training Manual
APDL Parameters may be linked with Workbench Parameters through

the Details view of the Commands object
Note in the example below that ARG1 is assigned a value of 30 while
ARG2 is assigned 753.98. These are APDL parameters that can be used
in the Commands object.
The user may include up
to 9 scalar parameters
(ARG1 ARG9)
Selecting the checkbox
makes that APDL parameter
a Workbench input parameter
Use of Input Arguments
is also helpful for users not
familiar with APDL. They
can input values in the
Details view without needing
to know the contents of the
Commands object
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Output Parameters
Training Manual
For Commands objects under the Solution branch, an additional

feature of output parameters is available. The Output Search Prefix
defines which parameters will be retrieved.
In the example below, the real and imaginary frequencies are retrieved as
MY_FREQ1R and MY_FREQ1I via the *GET command.

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Parameters
Training Manual
The ability to define input APDL parameters (ARG1 ARG9) as well as

output APDL parameters (default is MY_ prefix) allows users
familiar with APDL commands to create customized macros for
others to use, without requiring each user to know the inner workings
of the APDL commands.
The APDL parameters can also be used as Workbench parameters for
What-If scenarios as well as Design Exploration studies

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Customer Training Material
Workshop 2A
Small vs Large Deflection
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 2A: Large Deflection
Goal
Compare and contrast results using small deflection theory and large deflection
theory on a model with identical loads and boundary conditions.
Model Description
3D Spring plate
Linear steel material
Meshed with 3D Shell elements
Fixed support at one end, A
250N load at opposite end, B
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Steps to Follow:
Start an ANSYS Workbench session.
Use File > Restore Archive browse for existing file W2a_spring.wbpz
Location of directory provided by instructor
Save as
File name: WS2a-spring

Save as Type: Workbench Project Files (*.wbpj)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

The project Schematic should look like the picture
to the right.
From this Schematic, you can see that the Engineering

(material) Data and Geometry have already been
defined (green check marks).
It remains to set up and run the FE model in Mechanical

Open the Engineering Data Cell (highlight and double
click OR Right Mouse Button (RMB)>Edit) to verify the
linear material properties.
To see relevant dialog boxes, it might be necessary to

go to Utility Menu > View..
Click on Properties and Outline
Verify that the units are in Metric(Tonne,mm,)

system. If not, fix this by clicking on
Utility Menu > Units > Metric(Tonne, mm,)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Return to Project Schematic

Utility Menu > Return to Project
Double click on the Model Cell to open the FE Model (Mechanical Session) (or RMB=>Edit)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
The spring model is already set up with a fixed boundary condition and a force load on the opposite
end.
Highlight the Fixed Support and Force Load to confirm that the model is properly supported,
loaded and ready to solve.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Note the Analysis Settings Specifications:
Auto Time Stepping = Program Controlled

Large Deflection = Off
Run the Solution
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

After solution run is complete, highlight the Solution Information folder
and scroll to near the bottom of the output.
As expected, this solves in one iteration.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Review the stress and displacement results from this first run.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Return to the Project Schematic
Highlight the Model Cell, RMB Duplicate

Rename this new analysis Large Deflection - Linear Mat'l, Static Structural
10
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Double click on the Large Deflection Model Cell to open the FE Model (Mechanical
Session) (or RMB=>Edit)
11
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight the Model folder and change the name to Large Deflection
Highlight the Analysis Settings Folder
Turn on Large Deflection

Run the new Solution
12
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
After solution run is complete, open the Solution Information folder and scroll to
near the bottom of the output. Note the solution now solves with 11 cumulative
iterations made on the stiffness matrix during the run to account for large deflection
effects.
13
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Change Solution Output to Force Convergence to review the Newton-Raphson

History.
14
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Review the large deflection stress
and displacement results and
compare with the first run.
This is an example of how changing
shape and stress stiffening effects
can have a subtle influence on the
results of what would otherwise be
a linear problem.
Please keep this model open for

use in Workshop 2B
15
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 2B
Performing a Restart
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 2B: Performing a Restart
Goal
Use Restart Control technology to remedy a nonconverged solution and add a new load
step
Model Description
Same as Workshop 2A
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Continuing with same model from Workshop

2A, highlight the Force load and increase the
magnitude to 350N.
From Analysis Settings, open Restart

Controls and request all substeps be
saved as restart points and set Retain
Files after Full Solve to Yes
Execute a new Solve
3
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

After a few warnings, errors and bisections, the run fails to converge.
Review the Solution Information Solver Output and Force Convergence plot
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Examine the Solver Output text
Note the warnings and errors recorded early in the run that indicate excessive element distortion
and recommend more substeps as one possible remedy.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Recall that the default for Step Control was used
For this application, with large deflection turned ON,

this resulted in the solver automatically trying to solve
this problem with one substep initially, allowing up to
10 (maximum) if necessary.
Towards the end of the run, the Automatic Time

Stepping program had reduced the timestep size down
to the minimum value (0.10). Therefore, no further
adjustment downward is available.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Return to Analysis Settings
Set Restart Type to Manual

Set Current Restart Point to the last successfully
converged subset (Loadstep 1, Substep 5)
A logical first attempt to remedy this

nonconvergence would be to simply enlarge
the time step range from the default values.
Turn Auto Time Stepping ON and adjust the range

as shown
10 is a reasonable value to restart initially
100 is just a guess based on experience.
The range is highly problem dependent. Other

models might require many more substeps.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

After making these changes, execute the restart.
Highlight the Solution information Branch and monitor the

Force Convergence
Notice the additional bisections that lead to a different

convergence pattern and ultimately a successfully completed run
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Review the stress and displacement results as
before.
Also confirm that the full load is reacted out at

the fixed support
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Having achieved convergence, we will now use restart technology to add an additional
load step and define a new load without having to start the run from the beginning.
Return to Analysis Settings again
Set Current Restart Point to the last successfully
converged subset (Loadstep 1, Substep 12)
Set Number of Steps to 2

With Current Step Number set to 2,
define the same Auto Time Stepping
specifications for LS2 as were used for LS1
10
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight the existing Force in the Project Tree
Define a new Y component of force (=100N) in the Tabular Data such

that its application begins at LS 2
11
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
After making these changes, re execute the solve.
Note, from the force convergence graph, that the run picks up at the end of LS1, as
expected, and runs successfully to completion.
12
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Review the stress and displacement results
and reaction forces before.
13
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

For comparison, clear the generated data and re-solve the
model from the beginning.
Notice the model now solves with only three bisections over 2
load steps and in 74 total iterations (as compared to 124
iterations), cutting the run time significantly. This underscores
the importance of taking advantage of auto time stepping
technology with a sufficient range in nonlinear problems.
14
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 3A
Contact Stiffness Study
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 3A Contact Stiffness Study

Goal:
Perform a convergence study on contact stiffness
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 3A: Contact Stiffness Study
Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file W3a-stiffness.wbpz
Save as
File name: W3a-stiffness

Save as type: Workbench Project Files (*.wbpj)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
The project Schematic should look like the

picture to the right.
From this Schematic, you can see that Engineering

It remains to set up and run the FE model in
Mechanical
Open the Engineering Data Cell (double click on it OR
Right Mouse Button (RMB)=>Edit) to verify the linear

material properties.
You might have to activate important dialog boxes
from Utility Menu > View >
Properties
Outline
Verify that the units are in Metric (Tonne,mm,)
Utility Menu >Units >Metric(Tonne, mm,)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Double click on the Model Cell to open the FE Model (Mechanical Session) (or
RMB=>Edit)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Geometry is 2D Axisymmetric. Lower plate is rigidly constrained. Upper plate is a flexible

body with a crowned contour along bottom face. The upper plate is under a 5MPa pressure
load acting downward.
Material: Both plates are default linear elastic structural steel.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Open the folders beneath the model branch to become familiar with the model set-up.
Highlight Geometry and refer
to the details window to verify that
this is a 2D axisymmetric model.
Inspect the Analysis Settings.

Autotime stepping = ON
Initial substeps = 10
Max substeps = 100
Large deflection = ON
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Review the Frictionless contact set up and specifications. A single contact pair has already
been set up with the following specifications:
The default Program Controlled

settings will result in:
One Asymmetric Pair
Augmented Lagrange Formulation
Gauss point detection
This workshop will focus on a study of the contact stiffness and its influence on results
(surface pressure and penetration).
8
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the contact region and set the following:

Normal Stiffness =Manual
Normal Stiffness Factor = 1e-002.
Update Stiffness = Never
Execute the Solve
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the Solution Information Branch and scroll up the Solver Output to find the
contact specifications.
Confirm the auto-asymmetric behavior, Augmented Lagrange formulation, gauss
point detection and the user defined Normal Stiffness (FKN) value with no mention
of automatic stiffness updating.
10
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post process the Total Deformation:
11
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post process the contact results:
12
Contact Pressure
Contact Penetration
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Record the results in Table below.

Repeat analysis with Normal Stiffness factors, FKN= 0.1, 1.0, 10.0, 100.0
For further comparison, change the contact formulation to Normal Lagrange.
Contact
Formulation
FKN
Aug Lagrange
0.01
Aug Lagrange
0.1
Aug Lagrange
Aug Lagrange
10
Aug Lagrange
100.0
Norm Lagrange
13
Total Deform
Contact Pressure
Penetration
# of
iterations
N/A
Experiment also with Update Stiffness between iterations @ FKN=100 for comparison.
Which combination offers the best results (in terms of accuracy and # of iterations)?
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Conclusions
Notice that as stiffness increases, contact penetration decreases while maximum
contact pressure increases. Notice also the general trend toward more iterations
and longer run times leading eventually to convergence troubles at FKN=100.
Note the benefit of using the automatic stiffness updating tool to overcome
convergence trouble at FKN=100.
Note also that regardless of which stiffness value is used, the overall total
displacement of the assembly changes very little. This underscores the need to
know your engineering objectives. If localized contact related results are
unimportant, then the program controlled defaults might be acceptable.
Specifying the right contact stiffness is highly problem dependent .
The correct answer depends on the engineering objectives and is always a
balance between quality (accuracy) and cost (run time).
14
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 3B
Symmetric vs. Asymmetric
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 3B: Symmetric vs. Asymmetric
Goal
Use contact to predict pressure profile at spherical interface
between ball and socket.
Socket
Compare and contrast Symmetric vs. Asymmetric Contact

behavior.
Model Description
2D Axisymmetric model of ball and socket joint
Materials:
Ball
Steel on Steel
Contact between parts:
One frictional region on spherical interface

0.40 coefficient of friction
Loads & Boundary Conditions:
Socket is fixed at the top

Ball has a 1000N force applied to it in vertical (-Y) direction
2
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file W3b-Socket.wbpz
Save as
File name: W3b-Socket

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
The Project Schematic should look like the picture below.
Note: The engineering data, geometry, loads and boundary conditions and
preliminary contact region have already been set up. It remains to redefine the
contact behavior and compare and contrast contact results.
4
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the Engineering Data Cells double click to open and verify the predefined
material properties
Verify that the units are in Metric(Tonne,mm,) system. If not, fix this by clicking on
Utility Menu>Units>Metric(Tonne, mm,..)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Return to the project schematic page
Double click (or RMB=>Edit) on the Model Cell to open Mechanical Session
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Once inside the Mechanical application, expand each folder in the project tree to
become familiar with the model set up. Confirm material assignments, boundary
conditions, and loads as described on the slide 2.
Highlight the contact region and
modify the specifications as follows:
Type = Frictional
Coefficient = 0.4
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the Analysis Settings Folder:
Turn Large Deflection ON

Take default settings for everything else
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Execute a Solve:
Highlight the Solution Information branch

and note the following from the Solver
output:
Because of the 0.4 friction coefficient,
autotime stepping starts with 5 substeps.

Turning on large deflection will ensure stress
stiffening effects are included
From the Force Convergence Graph, the

solution converges easily
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post Process Total Deformation and Equivalent Stress
10
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the Solution Branch
RMB > Insert > Contact Tool
Highlight the newly inserted Contact Tool
RMB > Insert >
11
Pressure
Penetration
RMB > Evaluate Results
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Recall, this is a symmetric contact region. Hence, there are contact results available on
both the contact and target sides.
Using the Contact Tool, compare and contrast the contact results (status, pressure and
penetration) for Both, Contact and Target
12
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Note the differences between the contact and target pressure profiles.
Which one is correct?
Contact Side Only
Target Side Only
Answer: Neither. The correct answer is an average of the two profiles.

13
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Return to the Connection Folder.

Highlight the frictional contact region
Change Behavior to Asymmetric
Rerun the solution
14
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post process the contact results as before. Note that there is now only one answer (on the
contact side) and it is an approximate average of the two results that were available with
the symmetric contact.
(13.466 + 4.2745)/2 = 8.87Mpa
Contact Side Only

15
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Target Side Only
Note that regardless of which contact behavior is used (Symmetric or Asymmetric) in

this example, the overall model results for deformation and equivalent stress remain
essentially the same. Symmetric behavior is intended to enhance convergence.
However symmetric contact results can be more challenging to interpret.
16
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 4A
Metal Plasticity
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 4A Metal Plasticity
Goal:
Define a nonlinear metal plasticity material for a belleville spring geometry and simulate
spring back upon application of and subsequent removal of a displacement load.
Post process stress and strain results
Generate a force vs. deflection curve on the spring.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
2D axisymmetric geometry
The spring material is a ductile steel sandwitched between two rigid surfaces.
Frictionless contact is assumed between the spring and the rigid geometries
Displaced rigid boundary

2D axisymmetric
centerline
Belleville spring
Fixed rigid boundary
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 4A: Metal Plasticity

Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file W4a-belleville.wbpz
Save as
File name: W4a-belleville

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013



Mechanical
Open the Engineering Data Cell (highlight and double

click OR Right Mouse Button (RMB)>Edit) to verify
the linear material properties.
Verify that the units are in Metric(Tonne,mm,)

Utility Menu > Units > Metric(Tonne, mm,)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Double click on the Model Cell to open the FE Model (Mechanical Session)
(or RMB=>Edit)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight Geometry and refer

to the details window to verify that
this is a 2D axisymmetric model.
Inspect the two asymmetric
frictionless contact regions on top
and bottom of spring which
interface with top and bottom rigid
boundaries.
Inspect the no-separation contact
region which ties down the spring
at the bottom corner to prevent
rigid body motion during
unloading.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Review the mesh:
RMB>Generate Mesh
The upper and lower geometries are meshed with
one element each, while the belleville spring
geometry is a free mesh.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

This is going to be a 3 load step analysis:
With the bottom plate fixed:
LS1: Null Solution (to generate results at origin for force-deflection plot)
LS2: Apply displacement load (-5mm) to upper plate
LS3: Remove displacement load
Confirm the following Analysis Settings:
Number of Steps: 3
Weak Springs:
Off
Large Deflection: On
For Current Step Number =1, Auto Time Stepping
On and with Initial, Minimum and Maximum
Substeps = 1. (Null Solution)
For Current Step Numbers 2 and 3, Program
Controlled for Auto Time Stepping.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Review the predefined displacement load on the upper plate for the
three load steps.
10
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Execute Solve:
After solution is complete, review convergence history:
11
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post Process results at Load step 2:

Note how high the stress in the spring is at the end of LS2.
Recall, this is still linear elastic material.
At LS3 (not shown), plastic strain is zero and there is no permanent
deformation of the spring upon unloading as expected.
12
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Generate Force vs. Deflection Curve of Spring
With Solution Branch Highlighted:

RMB>Insert>User Defined Result
Scope result to the upper rigid plate

Define the expression as abs(FY) for absolute value of
force in Y-direction
13
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Repeat Procedure for Displacement in UY
Highlight both User Defined Results:

RMB>Rename based on Definition
Highlight Solution Branch:

RMB>Evaluate results
14
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Insert a Chart Tool for plotting FY vs UY
Fill in Chart tool Details Window as Follows:
15
Outline Selection: Select abs(FY) and abs(UY) from Solution Branch

X Axis: abs(UY) (Max)
X-Axis Label: Deflection
Y-Axis Label: Force
Omit: Time, abs(FY)(Min), abs(UY)(Min)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Resulting Chart of Force vs Displacement for linear material is a
straight line with no permanent deformation as expected
16
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Duplicate the Static Analysis

Highlight the Model Cell and RMB> Duplicate
17
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Disassociate material properties link
The second analysis is going to be with metal plasticity defined

Highlight the Engineering data link and RMB>Delete
18
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Project Schematic should now look like the diagram below
We can now modify the Engineering data in Table B without effecting the model
and/or results of Table A.

Change the title of the new Analysis to:
Belleville Spring-Nonlinear Materials
Open the Engineering Data Cell in Table B
19
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Insert a Metal Plasticity Model
From the Tool Box, open the Plasticity Folder

Highlight Multilinear Isotropic Hardening and RMB>Include Property
The new material should now appear in the Properties dialogue box
20
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Define Plasticity data
Fill in plastic strain and stress data as

shown to the right
From the Utility Menu, read in the

modified material properties with
Refresh Project
Return to Project Workspace
21
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
From the project schematic, highlight and open the model cell in Table B.
All the geometry entities, meshing specs, boundary conditions, loads and analysis
settings are preserved from the previous analysis.
Execute the Solve with the newly defined plasticity properties
22
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
After solution is complete, review Solution output:

Confirm that the metal plasticity, as defined, was included in this new run
23
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Review the Convergence History. Compare this with the Linear

material run.
24
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Post Process results at Load step 2 as before:
Compare the max stress in this material with the linear material
Note also that the spring

now takes a permanent
set after load is removed
as expected.
25
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the Chart tool and Plot Force vs Deflection as before.

Note the nonlinear path of the curve reflecting the influence of the
material yielding and taking a permanent set.
Note also the difference in the magnitude of the load required to produce
the same deflection with this material verses the linear material,
underscoring the importance of considering nonlinear material behavior in
some designs.
26
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 5A
Post Buckling Analysis
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 5A: Post Buckling
Goal
Use Nonlinear Stabilization tools together with restart technology to simulate
post buckling behavior.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Model Description
L shaped frame represented with 3D Line Bodies
Meshed with 3D Beam elements
Linear Elastic Material
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Model Description (contd)
Horizontal beam fixed at far end.
Vertical column simply supported at bottom.
All nodes are constrained from movement in Z
direction.
500 lb compressive load applied 10 inches off
center of vertical column.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file W5A_buckling.wbpz
Save as
File name: W5A_buckling

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

From this Schematic, you can see that the

Engineering (material) Data and Geometry have
already been defined (green check marks).

Mechanical
Open the Engineering Data Cell (highlight and

double click OR Right Mouse Button (RMB)>Edit)
To see relevant dialog boxes, it might be necessary

to go to Utility Menu > View..
Click on Properties and Outline
Verify that the units are in US Eng units (lb, in,)

Utility Menu > Units > US Engineering(lb, in,)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013


(or RMB=>Edit)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
The frame model is already set up with the displacement boundary conditions and a
force load.
Highlight the BCs and Load to confirm that the model is properly supported and
loaded.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Note the Analysis Settings Specifications:
Auto Time Stepping = ON
Initial Substeps = 20 (min=20,max=1000)
Large Deflection = ON,
Weak Springs = OFF
Stabilization = OFF
Run the Solution
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
After a few bisections, the model fails to converge at about 91% of the total load
10
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Review the results from last successfully converged substep
At the point of convergence failure, the structure is beginning to collapse onto itself
and loosing its stability
11
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight Analysis Settings and set up for a manual
restart and utilizing Stabilization
Restart specifications:
Restart Type = Manual
Restart Point = Load Step 1, Substep 20
Stabilization specifications:
Constant
Damping
Damping Factor = 0.0001
Activation = On Nonconvergence
Execute the restart
12
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

With Stabilization activated,
the solution now converges
successfully.
Retrieve total displacement and

other results at end time.
Animate results
Over results set
Highlight the last 10% of
displacement
Slow down the animation to
4 seconds per frame to get a
better view of the snap thru
behavior
13
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Use the Chart tool and user defined results to graph the nonlinear reaction force vs
displacement in y direction at the point of load application
Re-Solve with more substeps (50 min) to improve the quality of the graph
14
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 6A
Contact Diagnostics
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 6A: Diagnostics

Goal
Diagnose convergence trouble with surface body contact model
Model Description
3D Spring plate Surface Body

3D Rigid Target Body
Linear steel material
Meshed with 3D SHELL elements
Spring Fixed support at one end, A
Rigid Body displaced into Spring 19mm
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file W6a-diagnostics.wbpz
Save as
File name: W6a-diagnostics

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

From this Schematic, you can see that the
Engineering (material) Data and Geometry have

already been defined (green check marks).
Mechanical
Highlight the Engineering Data Cell and open by
clicking on the Right Mouse Button (RMB)=>Edit to

verify the linear material properties.
Verify that the units are in Metric(Tonne,mm,..)
Utility Menu=>Units=>Metric(Tonne, mm,..)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013


(or RMB=>Edit)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
The spring assembly is already set up with frictionless contact pairs, a fixed boundary
condition and a displacement load on the rigid component.
Highlight the entities beneath each folder to become familiar with the model and to confirm
that it is properly supported and loaded and ready to solve.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Confirm the Analysis Settings Specifications as shown:
Run the Solution
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
After solution run is complete, highlight the Solution Information folder and scroll to near
the bottom of the output.
The model solves without error.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Review the Total Deformation results.

Something is wrong. The contact relationship between the two parts has obviously
failed.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
With 25 initial substeps and Auto Time Stepping turned ON, the contact should
have engaged. In an effort to determine the problem, we will evaluate what the
initial condition of the contact pairs are.
Highlight the Connections Folder: RMB> Insert> Contact Tool
Highlight the Contact Tool: RMB>Initial Information>Generate Initial Contact Results.

This will run a partial solve to establish initial contact parameters
(i,e. Initial status, gap, penetration, etc).
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Review the Initial Contact Information.
Note the following:
The two active pairs both have an initial status of Far Open
Both pairs have a pinball radius of 4mm. Is 4mm enough?
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
By studying a profile of the undeformed geometry we can see that the initial gap is less
then 1.50mm. Hence, the Pinball Radius of 4mm should be sufficient for this contact pair
to be in an initial status of near-open.
Rigid Target
Spring
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the contact region representing the contact between the spring and target.
In order for contact to work properly, the contact element normals must be facing
the target element normals.
Recall that surface bodies are meshed with shell elements that have a top and a
bottom face. The reason this contact pair is not working is because the contact
normals are on the wrong side of the surface body with normals that face away
from the target. This needs to be reversed.
Target element
normal direction
Contact element
normal direction
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
From the details window of the contact region, switch the contact shell face from
Bottom to Top . The red color highlighting the contact side should switch.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight the Solution Information Branch
Set Newton-Raphson Residuals = 3

This will save force imbalance data for the last 3
Newton-Raphson iterations. This is especially helpful
information for troubleshooting troubling contact
convergence problems.
Rerun the solution
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
From the Solution Information Branch, the contact is now engaging, but the solution fails
to converge after several iterations.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
These first two converged substeps likely represent the trivial solutions that occur as
the small gap between the two parts is being closed and no contact has been made yet.
This first spike in the Newton-Raphson residual (measure of
imbalance) likely occurs at the point when contact first engages.
From there on out, the solution struggles and fails after two
bisections and many iterations to find a balance.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
A plot of Newton-Raphson Residual (measure of force imbalance in the model)

confirms that the point where contact is engaged is the source of the highest
imbalance .
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October 25, 2013

Highlight both Contact Regions and change the contact
specifications in the details window.
Reducing the contact stiffness

factor will reduce the calculated
force generated at the contact
surface and thereby reduce the
imbalance
Re-run the solution
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

The solution now converges very nicely with no bisections
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October 25, 2013
Although this solution is now converged, notice the excessive penetration. This is
because, by default the shell contact detection points are at the midplane of the shells.
By default, contact elements are located at the mid plane of surface bodies, in same
position as the shell elements that represent these bodies.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight the Contact Regions and
return to the Details window
- Set Shell Thickness Effect to Yes
Re-run the solution
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Review the Total Deformation results as before.
Shell thickness is now properly accounted for.
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October 25, 2013
Workshop 8A
Transient Analysis
(Caster Wheel Test)
14.5 Release
ANSYS Mechanical
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Workshop 8A - Goals
Our goal is to determine the dynamic
response of a caster wheel exposed to a
side impact such as hitting a curb.
This may be simulated in a physical test by
dropping a heavy Striker Tool on the
side of the wheel.
The dropped weight represents side impact on

the wheel.
Striker
Tool
The Wheel and Striker Tool are made of

Steel.
Assume the far face of the Wheel/Axle is
constrained.
Assume the sides of the Striker are constrained
to slide up and down vertical rails.
Assume a damping ratio of 0.02 (i.e. 2%)
Wheel
Constrain End
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Workshop 8A Project Schematic

From the project schematic, insert a new
Transient Structural system.
Import the Geometry file
caster_test2.agdb
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Workshop 8A - Preprocessing
Edit the Model cell to open the Mechanical application.
verify that the material assignment is Structural Steel
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Workshop 8A Units
In Mechanical, set the following units system:
m, kg, N, s, V, A
Degrees
RPM
Celcius
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Suppress the upper Striker.
Expand the geometry Branch, and determine

which part is the upper Striker.
>RMB>Suppress Body
We will incorporate the lower Striker in the
simulation only.
We will apply an initial velocity to the lower Striker
to account for its momentum due to the drop
height & force.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Define the contact between the bottom of
the Striker Tool and the top Edge of the
Caster Wheel
LMB on >Connections in the Outline Tree.

>Insert>Manual Contact Region
Use Face select
Change Update Stiffness to Each Equilibrium
Iteration
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Workshop 8A - Environment
Apply constraints on the end of the
bore to oppose loads on the
wheel.
Within the Flexible Dynamic Branch
>Insert>Fixed Support
Use Face Select, LMB and pick four
annular surfaces on the bottom of the
axle hole.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
The Striker Tool is guided on rails so it can
only travel up and down when dropped
on the wheel.
>Insert>Frictionless Support
Use LMB and pick all four sides of the Striker
Tool block.
Note: The four sides of the block may consist
of more than four total faces depending on
how the (CAD) geometry was originally
generated.
a Face
a Face
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Apply a gravity inertial load
RMB >Insert>Standard Earth Gravity to
account for weight (mass) and to

accelerate the Striker downward towards
the Wheel.
In the Details window, change the
Direction in this case to +X (look at the
XYZ Triad to understand global
orientation)
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
10
Release 14.5
Apply an initial velocity on the Striker.
Use Body Select and pick and >Apply the Striker Part.
Enter 10 m/s for X
initial velocity is assigned to the picked Striker but not the Caster
Wheel
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
11
Release 14.5
Workshop 8A Solution Settings

Check on >Analysis Settings in the Outline
Tree
define the analysis settings in the time
domain
Verify 1 for Number of Steps
Verify 1 for Current Step Number
Verify 0.001 for Step end time
Enter 0.0001 for Initial Time Step
Enter 3e-5 for Minimum Time Step
Enter 2e-4 for Maximum Time Step
Solve the Transient analysis.

it may take some hand calculations and/or trial &
error to find values that are appropriate for the
scale and severity of your non-linear problem.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Workshop 8A - Results
After the Solution is completed review the results.
Very important in many problems like this
Set Result Scale to 1.0 (True Scale)

>Insert additional solution objects of interest
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Workshop 8A - Results
To get an overall view of the Dynamic
(transient) results step thru the
TimeLine for each result plot of interest.
Evaluate any objects that have lost their Green
Checkmark (possibly because the Display time

has changed due to changes in the Timeline.
Remember to Animate (Play & Stop) the mode
from the Timeline window.
You can typically rotate the model during animation
too.
If time permits, make a note of your results, and

>Insert>Sizing (at the mesh object in the outline)
and enter a smaller Element Size (refer to the
Graphics Ruler). Then >Solve again and compare
results.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Workshop 8B
Transient Analysis of a Gantry Crane
14.5 Release
ANSYS Mechanical
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Goals
This workshop consists of a gantry crane assembly. The crane is rated
to carry a 5 tons weight. The purpose of this workshop is to compare
the full transient method versus the mode superposition method.
Support # 3
Support # 4
Support # 1
Support # 2
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Assumptions
Well assume supports # 1 to 3 are fixed in all direction, whereas
support # 4 is allowed to move in the x- direction.
A weight of 5 tons (50,000 N) is applied using remote force, and is
scoped to the middle of the horizontal beam.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Project Schematic
Open the Project page.
From the Units menu verify:
Project units are set to Metric (kg, m, s, C, A,N, V).
Display Values in Project Units is checked (on).
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
. . . Project Schematic
Begin a new Workbench session and, from the
Project page, choose Restore Archive . . .
and browse to the file WS08_Transient.wbpz
and Open (location provided by instructor).
When prompted, Save using the default
name in the same location as the archive file.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
In the Workbench Project and drag and drop a new transient analysis
from the toolbox onto the existing Model cell.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
In the Workbench Project and drag and drop a new transient analysis
from the toolbox onto the existing Solution cell of the Modal analysis
system.
The schematic should look like

this when this step is complete.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Double click and rename both transient systems as follows:
(B): Full Transient Analysis
(C): MSUP Transient Analysis
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
1. From the Static Structural system double click
(or RMB > Edit) the Model cell.
1.
2.
2. When Mechanical opens, verify the units are

set to Metric (m, kg, N, s, V, A).
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Preprocessing
Since we will be using a remote force to model the hanging weight, lets define
a named selection at the location where the remote force will be scoped.
3.
3.
Highlight the Model branch in the tree.
4.
Select the 2 faces shown below, RMB > Insert > named selection.
4.
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October 25, 2013
10
Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
RMB and rename both transient systems in the tree as follows:
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
11
Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
7.
Highlight the Modal (A5)

branch in the tree.
8.
Highlight the bottom faces of

supports 1,2, and 3, RMB >
Insert > Fixed Support.
9.
Support # 3
Highlight the bottom face of

support # 4, RMB > Insert >
displacement.
Support # 4
X = free, Y = 0.0, Z = 0.0

Support # 1
Support # 2
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
10. Highlight the Full Transient Analysis
(B5) branch, Analysis Settings
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
12. Highlight the fixed support and
displacement BCs under Modal (A5,
drag and drop in Full Transient
Analysis (B5)
13. Highlight the Full Transient Analysis

(B5) branch, RMB > Insert > remote
force.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
12. Under details of Remote Force
a. Scoping Method > Named Selection
b. Named Selection > Selection
X Coordinate = - 0.7135
Y Coordinate = 1.1
Z Coordinate = -4.3905
c. Define By > Components
b.
a.
c.
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Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
d. Y Component> Tabular
e. Fill in the table as shown
e.
d.
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
13. Highlight the MSUP Transient Analysis
(C5) branch, Analysis Settings
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
14. Highlight the remote force under Full
Transient Analysis (B5), drag and
drop in MSUP Transient Analysis (C5)
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
15. Highlight the solution branch under Full
Transient Analysis (B5),
RMB>Insert>Deformation>Directional.
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Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
16. Highlight the Directional Deformation
under Full Transient Analysis (B5),
drag and drop in MSUP Transient
Analysis (C5)
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
17. Highlight the both displacement
output
18. Click the New Chart and Table Icon
19. In the Details of the Chart, set the
Output Quantities as shown.
20. Solve
17.
19.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
18.
21
Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
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October 25, 2013
22
Release 14.5
Workshop 8C
Applying Initial Rotational Velocity
14.5 Release
ANSYS Mechanical
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Goals
The objective of this workshop is to illustrate the process of applying
initial angular velocity to a wirebond using steps.
Initial angular velocity = 15 rad/sec.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Project Schematic
Open the Project page.
From the Units menu verify:
Project units are set to Metric (kg, m, s, C, A,N, V).
Display Values in Project Units is checked (on).
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Begin a new Workbench session and, from the
Project page, choose Restore Archive . . . and
browse to the file W08C_Transient.wbpz and
Open (location provided by instructor).
When prompted, Save using the default name in
the same location as the archive file.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
1. From the Static Structural system double click
(or RMB > Edit) the Model cell.
1.
2.
2. When Mechanical opens, verify the units are

set to
1.
2.
3.
Metric (m, kg, N, s, V, A).

Radians
Rad/s
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
Preprocessing
Since we will be using a remote displacement to apply the angular velocity,
lets define a coordinate system at the origin where the velocity is to be
applied:
3.
Highlight the Coordinate System under Model branch in the tree.
4.
Select the cylindrical face shown below, RMB > Insert > coordinate
system.
4.
3.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
In order to apply an initial angular velocity of 15 rad/sec
Initial angular displacement of 0.0015 rad
Initial velocity of (0.0015/0.001) = 15 rad/sec.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
5.
Highlight the Transient Analysis (A5)

branch, Analysis Settings, and set up
two load steps as shown
Make sure that time integration effects are turned

off for the first step.
on for the second step.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
6.
Highlight the Transient Analysis (A5) branch.
7.
Select the face as shown> RMB> Insert> Remote Displacement
8.
Under the details of Remote Displacement > Coordinate system> pick

the previously defined coordinate system
7.
8.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Release 14.5
. . . Preprocessing
9.
In the details of the Remote Displacement, fill in the Tabular Data

as follows:
10. At the last cell under RX> RMB> Activate/Deactivate at this step!
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
10
Release 14.5
Solution
11. Highlight the Analysis Settings and from the details window change
Large Deflection from to ON.
12. Add results to solution:
Highlight the solution branch:

From the context menu, choose deformation > Total
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
. . .Solution
6.
Highlight the Transient Analysis

branch > RMB> Insert>
Commands
7.
In the commands write

kbc,0
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
12
Release 14.5
. . .Solution
14. Solve the model:
Choose solve from the tool bar or RMB Solution branch
and choose Solve.
2012 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
13
Release 14.5
Postprocessing
14. Highlight the solution branch> Total Deformation
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October 25, 2013
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Release 14.5
Workshop 2A
Contact Interference Fit
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 2A: Contact Interference fit
Goal
Use interface treatment tools to simulate an interference fit
between surfaces.
Tip
Model Description
Insulator
2D Axisymmetric model of injection molding machine nozzle tip

assembly
Materials:
Steel for Housing

Copper alloy for Tip
Titanium for Insulator
Housing
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October 25, 2013

Contact Pairs:
A. Frictionless contact at Housing to
Nozzle tip face seal
B. Bonded contact at Nozzle tip To
insulator
C. Bonded contact at threaded
connection between Housing and
Nozzle tip (thread details not
modeled)
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October 25, 2013

Thermal Boundaries:
A. Hot manifold @ 220C
B. Cold manifold plate @50C
C. Nozzle tip band heater @ 80 Watts
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Structural Boundaries
Frictionless Support @ Nozzle
Housing Flange
Frictionless Support @ Insulator
Structural Loads
1st loadstep reconciles interference
fit between housing and tip face
seal
2nd loadstep reads in temperatures
from steady state thermal run
3rd loadstep applies pressure to
melt channel wall.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
melt
channel
wall

Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file W2a_offset.wbpz
Save as
File name: WS2a-offset

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Note: The engineering data, geometry, loads and boundary conditions for the thermal
and structural runs have already been set up. It remains to specify the contact surface
offset at the tip-housing face seal, run the solution and post process contact results.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight the Engineering Data Cell and double click to open
Verify the predefined material properties

Verify that the units are in Metric (Tonne,mm,) system.
If not, fix this by clicking on
Utility Menu>Units>Metric(Tonne, mm,..)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Double click (or RMB=>Edit) on the Thermal Model Cell to open Mechanical Session
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Once inside the Mechanical application, verify the
working unit system
Unit > Metric (mm,kg,N,s,mV,mA)
Expand each folder in the project tree to become

familiar with the model set up and to confirm material
assignments, boundary conditions, and loads as
described on the slides 2 thru 5.
Verify the initial condition of the three predefined
contact regions
10
Highlight the Connections Branch

RMB > Insert >Contact Tool
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight the Initial Information branch of the newly
inserted Contact Tool
RMB > Generate Initial Contact Results
This should produce the following table of specifications

on the initial condition of the contact regions:
11
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Note:
The two bonded contact regions are assigned two contact pairs that act equal and
opposite to each other to enforce the contact. This reflects Symmetric behavior.
The frictionless contact region has only one active pair, reflecting Asymmetric
behavior. The companion frictionless pair (grayed out) is inactive. It is initially in a
Near Open status with a small gap.
The initial penetration at the bonded regions is essentially zero and is ignored by
default.
Without making any changes to the contact specifications, execute a SOLVE
12
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the Solution Information Folder and switch Solution Output to Force Convergence
The Solution converges quickly and easily in a few iterations
13
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

RMB > Insert > Contact Tool
Highlight the newly inserted Contact Tool
RMB > Insert >

Pressure
Penetration
Gap
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the Contact Tool and filter out the bonded contact pairs by clicking off the
checkmark in box next to each region
RMB > Evaluate Results
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Using the Time line in the Graph window, post process the contact pressure for each load
step
Loadstep 1
Loadstep 2
Loadstep 3
As expected, pressure at the frictionless interface is zero at LS1. It ramps up to about
50Mpa for LS2 due to thermal differential expansion. It drops back to zero as a result of
melt channel pressure load at LS3.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post process the contact penetrations and gaps for each load step
Note, in particular, the max gap profile (gap =0.049181)at the end of LS3. This interface must
remain closed in order to prevent leakage in operation.
17
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Return to the Connections folder, highlight the FrictionlessHousing To Nozzle tip contact region
In the Details window, Set Offset to 0.050mm
This will make a

mathematical
adjustment to the
position of all the
contact detection points
toward the target
surface, creating an
interference fit
18
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Use the Contact Tool to verify that the offset has been set in
Initial Information in the Contact Tool
RMB > Generate Initial Contact Results

Note: The frictionless contact is now reported closed at the start
with an initial penetration of 4.8943e-2. Is this correct?
Recall, prior to defining the 0.050 Offset, the initial gap was
reported as 1.0567e-3 (slide 12).
0.05 - 1.0567e-3 = 4.8943e-2
Hence, the offset has been correctly introduced
Execute the another solve
19
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the Solution Information Folder and switch Solution Output to Force
Convergence
The Solution takes a few more iterations then the first run, because of the contact offset, but it
still converges relatively easily
20
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post process the contact pressure
Because of the initial interference, a maximum pressure concentrated at the melt channel wall of
about 500Mpa is now established and maintained throughout the load history.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Note also that when you zoom in on the frictionless contact region, there appears to be a
small gap where we expect an interference.
This is expected as the Offset is a like a rigid region created by a mathematical adjustment to the
contact detection point locations.

This underscores the importance of using this interface treatment tool for very small adjustments
only.
Rigid region
22
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight Solution
RMB>Insert>Probe>Force Reaction
In Details of Force Reaction Set..
Location Method = Contact Region
Contact Region = Frictionless- Housing To Nozzle tip
RMB>Evaluate Results
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

As expected, the preload is nearly constant across the three loadsteps
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Post process the equivalent stress at LS2.
This peak stress is much higher then the actual yield strength of the tip material.
Localized yielding is expected and will likely reduce the preload.
25
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Return to Engineering Data, highlight the Copper NL and Stainless Steel NL

materials to confirm that the plasticity models have been defined with Bilinear
Isotropic laws as show below.
26
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Return to Mechanical GUI.

From the Geometry Branch in the Project tree, highlight the Housing and Nozzle Tip
components
In the Details Window, turn Nonlinear Effects ON to include the plasticity effects
27
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Execute a SOLVE
The convergence now takes over 20 iterations, up from just 9 when all materials
were considered linear elastic.
28
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post process the contact pressure
Notice the dramatic difference in pressure distribution at the seal face as well as the peak value
when compared with same results published with linear materials
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post process the preload at the frictionless contact resulting from the interference
fit as before.
Compare the preload and contact pressure results with same results generated
using linear materials. Notice, the change in preload is not nearly as dramatic as
the change in contact pressure. Why?
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
RMB>Insert>Strain>Equivalent Plastic Strain

Note: Yielding is concentrated locally at the melt channel wall. Material remains elastic across
most of the seal face. Hence, preload does not change very much.
31
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Post process equivalent stress and compare to results published for linear materials
32
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 2B
Contact Stabilization
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 2B: Contact Stabilization
Goal
Resolve rigid body motion convergence issues due to open contact status
Model Description
2D Plane Stress of Pin-Plate assembly

Fixed Pin.
Plate under a upward load of 100Mpa
Materials:
Steel for both Pin and Plate
Plate
Pin
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file WS2b_Stabilize.wbpz
Save as
File name: WS2b-Stabilize

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

The project Schematic should look like the picture to the right.
Highlight the Engineering Data Cell and open by clicking on the

Right Mouse Button (RMB)=>Edit to verify the predefined
material properties
Structural Steel
Verify that the units are in Unit > Metric (mm,kg,N,s,mV,mA)

Utility Menu=>Units=>Unit > Metric (mm,kg,N,s,mV,mA)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Double click (or RMB=>Edit) on the Model Cell to open a Mechanical Session
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

working unit system

familiar with the model and to confirm material
assignments for each part, boundary conditions, loads
and Analysis Settings.
The pin-plate assembly is already set up as a 2D plane
stress model with the necessary boundary conditions
and loading previously described.
A frictionless asymmetric contact pair has been set up
between pin and plate.
Analysis settings already have autotime stepping
specifications set.
Execute the solve..
6
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
The solution quickly fails. Open the Solver output to discover the reason for non
convergence
Note also the diagnostic message
Basically the contact failed and the plate flew off until the Uy DOF exceeded the default
limit of 1e6.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight the Connections folder
Insert a contact tool and RMB=>Generate Initial Contact Results
From this, there is a large gap reported at this contact interface
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight the Frictionless contact pair
Change Interface Treatment to adjust to touch
Regenerate contact initial conditions

- Note the contact status is now closed with essentially zero penetration
Re-execute the Solve
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Model converges relatively quickly in just a few iterations
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
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Postprocess equivelant stress and displacement

- Note although the adjust to touch option resolves the DOF exceeded error, it fails to
accurately represent the gap between pin and plate. There remains a rigid region around the
perimeter of the pin and the gap is being ignored.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Postprocess equivelant stress and displacement
- Add a probe to extract the reaction force at the pin
- Compare this number to the applied load 5080N (=100Mpa*50.8mm2)
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Return to the Frictionless contact pair
Change Interface Treatment back to Add offset
- Leave Offset value as default (zero)
Define Stabilization Damping Factor as 5e-3
Re-execute the Solve
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October 25, 2013

Model now converges but with more iterations
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October 25, 2013
Postprocess equivelant stress and displacement again

- The open gap is now properly accounted for.
- Compare and contrast these results with those using adjust to touch option on previous
pages
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October 25, 2013
Note also the reaction force at the pin has increased by less then 0.2 % due to the
presence of additional damping forces being added at this interface
- Compare this number to the applied load 5080N (=100Mpa*50.8mm2)
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 2C
Contact with Friction
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 2C: Contact with Friction
Goal
Create contact pairs between three parts (piston, cylinder and
seal).
Run 2 load step analysis to simulate assembly of the three parts
together.
Post Process force along axis to assembly parts.
Piston
O-ring
Model Description
2D Axisymmetric
Piston is constrained from movement.
Cylinder is displaced to simulate assembly
Materials:
Steel for Piston and Cylinder
Elastomer for O-Ring
1st load reconciles interference between piston and inside
diameter of O-ring
2nd load step slides cylinder onto piston-O-ring subassembly.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Cylinder

Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file W2c_friction.wbpz
Save as
File name: WS2c-friction

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013


Right Mouse Button (RMB)=>Edit to verify the predefined
material properties
Elastomer and Structural Steel
Verify that the units are in Unit > Metric (mm,kg,N,s,mV,mA)

Utility Menu=>Units=> Unit > Metric (mm,kg,N,s,mV,mA)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Double click (or RMB=>Edit) on the Model Cell to open a Mechanical Session
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Once inside the Mechanical application, verify the working unit system

The piston-cylinder assembly is already set up as a 2D axisymmetric model with the
necessary boundary conditions and loads. It remains to define the contact pairs between
the parts, set up the solution control analysis settings, run the solution and post process
the results.
Expand each folder in the project tree to become familiar with the model and to confirm
material assignments for each part, boundary conditions, loads and Analysis Settings.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Note: Auto contact detection did not create adequate contact relationships for this
model. There is only one bonded contact pair created by default and it is insufficient for
representing the assembly.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Redefine the O-ring To Piston contact region as follows:

Target definition should include the
three surfaces on the piston side as
shown. Contact should be on the oRing side (2 edges)
Change Type to Frictional

Friction Coefficient = 0.2
Switch behavior to Asymmetric

Interface Treatment = Add Offset,
Ramped Effects
Normal Stiffness = 0.1
Updated stiffness each iteration
Pinball Radius = 2mm

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October 25, 2013
target
Insert an additional manual contact region between O-ring and Cylinder wall by
highlighting Contact branch and RMB>Insert>Manual Contact.
Defined this new region with specifications below.
Contact
Target
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October 25, 2013
Confirm the Analysis Settings
Highlight Analysis Settings and specify two load steps with different Auto Time Stepping
10
specifications as defined below

Turn Large deflection ON
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Apply the displacement load of 10mm to the cylinder at load step 2 only.
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October 25, 2013

Execute the solve.
After many iterations and a few bisections, the solution converges.
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October 25, 2013

Change the contour bar to clarify the deformation of the O-ring geometry
Animate the result
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October 25, 2013
Highlight Solution Branch and RMB>Insert>Contact Tool
Insert and post process contact status, pressure, frictional stress and penetration for O-ring To
Piston Contact
Repeat for O-ring To Cylinder contact

Save the Project and keep it open for next Workshop
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October 25, 2013
Workshop 1A
Connection Worksheet
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 1A: Connection Worksheet
Goal
Use Connection Worksheet together with Redundancy Analysis tool to evaluate
and resolve an overconstrained condition
Model Description
Assembly of 12 parts with many
contacts and joints, one longitudinal
spring and one beam element.
Materials:
Linear structural steel
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Steps to Follow:
Launch a WB-Mechanical Session.
From the Project page, Utility Menu=> File=> Restore Archive browse for file
W1a_Connection.wbpz
Save as
File name: WS1aConnection

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Highlight the Engineering Data Cell and double click to open
Verify the predefined material properties

Verify that the units are in Metric (kg,mm,) system.
If not, fix this by clicking on
Utility Menu>Units>Metric(kg, mm,..)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Double click (or RMB=>Edit) on the Model Cell to open Mechanical Session
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

working unit system

familiar with the model set up, boundary
conditions, and loads.
Note especially the multiple contact pairs, the
several joints, circular beam and longitudinal
spring element.
Without changing anything, execute a SOLVE
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

After several iterations and a few bisections, model fails to converge.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Open the Solver Output, scrolling up to find several messages indicating that the
Lagrange Multiplier Option does not satisfy Joint Conditions .
This could be an indication of redundant constraints in the model.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
With Connections Folder highlighted, click on Worksheet button in the Utility Menu
Taking the default Preferences, click Generate
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
From the Contact Information Table, all of the contact regions are Bonded, Face-toFace, with program controlled default specifications with the exception of Contact
Region 7, which is an MPC pair that has been suppressed.
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October 25, 2013
Scroll down to the Connection Matrix. Note there are multiple connections involving
parts 1,4,5 and 11
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October 25, 2013
With Connections Folder still highlighted, RMB => Redundancy Analysis
This brings up a table below the graphics window that lists all the constrained DOFs
associated with the Joints.
Click on the yellow lightning bolt to run the Redundancy Analysis
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October 25, 2013

The Table is now updated to list those DOFs which are redundant
Click on the Convert.. button to release redundant constraints
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October 25, 2013
Clicking on the Set button will apply these changes to the actual joint definitions in
the model
Verify the changes made by examining the expanded Joint Folder, compare with the
original settings (see slide 7)
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October 25, 2013

With these changes made, re-solve the model.
Solution converges very nicely now in 10 iterations:
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October 25, 2013

Post Process Results:
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 4A
Hyperelastic Curve Fitting
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 4A - Hyperelastic Curve Fitting
Goal
Use curve-fitting tool to create a hyperelastic material model from test data.
Analyze 3d tensile rubber test specimen
Plot and graph results
Image courtesy of Axel Products,

Inc.
http://www.axelproducts.com/
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October 25, 2013
Model Description
3D large deflection with nonlinear material (hyperelastic)

Three planes of symmetry (1/8th of the actual model)
Loads and Boundary Conditions:
Frictionless supports on each plane of symmetry

Displacement load to elongate one end.
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October 25, 2013
Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file WS4A-hyper.wbpz
Save as
File name: WS4A-hyper

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October 25, 2013
The project Schematic should look like the picture to

the right.

(material) Data and Geometry have already been defined
(green check marks).
It remains to set up and run the FE model in Mechanical

Highlight the Engineering Data Cell and open by clicking
on the Right Mouse Button (RMB)=>Edit to verify the
default linear material properties.
Verify that the units are in Metric (Tonne,mm,) system.

If not, change this by clicking on
Utility Menu=>Units=>Metric(Tonne, mm,)
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October 25, 2013
Click on Return to Project

RMB=>Edit)
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October 25, 2013
Confirm the three frictionless boundary conditions.

Confirm the displacement load of 19mm on the far end.
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October 25, 2013
Preview the mesh:

The default mesh should be swept with hexahedral elements
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Introduce hyperelastic material test data

Open the Engineering Data Cell
Highlight theStructural Steel material and RMB
duplicate.
Change the name of the duplicated material to

Elastomer and the description to test specimen
Click to edit Master text styles
Verify metric units are active
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October 25, 2013
With the Elastomer material highlighted, insert hyperelastic material test

data
From the Toolbox, expand the Experimental Stress Strain Data Folder
Highlight Uniaxial Test Data, RMB>Include Property
Repeat for:
Biaxial Test Data
Shear Test Data
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October 25, 2013
Become familiar with the property tables and chart

a. Properties Outline Dialogue box should now include three additional cells for the
hyperelastic test data
b. The Table of Properties represents the data for the cell that is highlighted in a.
c. The Engineering Data Chart is a graphical display of the tabulated data in b.
b
Note:
The question mark next to
each cell indicates that no
data has been read in yet
c
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October 25, 2013
Read in material test data
Browse for and open tension-uni.xls

- This spread sheet contains two columns of data that represent uniaxial
strain-stress data
Highlight the two columns and copy them with Ctrl-C

Return to the Table of Properties Row 9: Uniaxial Test Data in the
Engineering Data Cell
- Highlight the asterisk * at the bottom of the Uniaxial Test Data Table and
RMB>Paste to the insert data
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October 25, 2013
The Table of Properties should now display the Uniaxial Test Data in tabular form.
The Chart should display of the data in graphical form.
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October 25, 2013
Repeat procedure for biaxial test data and shear test data using excel files tensioneb.xls and tension-pt.xls respectively.
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October 25, 2013
From the Toolbox, open the Hyperelasticity Folder and highlight Yeoh 3rd Order with
RMB> Include Property.
You should now see a Yeoh 3rd order cell in the Properties Dialogue box with undefined
constants; hence, the question mark.
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October 25, 2013
Execute Solve Curve Fit.
Expand the Yeoh 3rd Order Cell

Highlight the Curve Fitting Cell
RMB>Solve Curve Fit
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
When complete, the Engineering Data Chart will display all three modes of test
data in dot-dash lines. Superimposed on this is the predicted Yeoh behavior in
solid lines for comparison.
Note: The Coefficients have been calculated, but no material model has been saved to the
Engineering Data yet. This is by design. If you are not satisfied with the resulting curve fit,
you can try other functions, or perhaps suppress a less dominate mode of loading and rerun
the curve fitting routine for a better result.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Change the Error Norm from Normalized Error to Absolute Error and run the curve
fitting routine again.
Recall the normalized error approach gives equal weight to all data points while the absolute
error approach gives more weight to larger strain values.
This results in a slightly improved curve fit at higher strain values.
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October 25, 2013
Once a successful curve fit is achieved, copy the data to the Engineering properties
Highlight Curve Fitting RMB> Copy Calculated Values to Property
The Yeoh coefficients are now copied to the Properties Table. Notice the D parameters are all
zero. This is in keeping with the assumption that the material will be fully incompressible if no
volumetric strain data is read into the curve fitter.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
From the Utility Menu:

Click on Refresh Project
Return to the Mechanical Session and
highlight the 3 bodies that make up this
part and change the default material
assignment from Structural Steel to
Elastomer
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Return to the Mechanical Session and specify Analysis Settings as shown below:
Turn on Auto Time Stepping

Specify enough substeps
to enhance convergence
Turn on Large Deflection
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October 25, 2013
Model converges very nicely in less then 20 iterations
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October 25, 2013
Post process results (i.e. deformation, stress, strain,etc).
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October 25, 2013
Select Vertex as shown and insert User defined results to post process stress
and strain along x direction
Vertex for user defined post processing
Expression for x direction of stress is SX

Expression for x direction of strain is EPELX
Refer to documentation on PRNSOL command for syntax of user defined results
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October 25, 2013
Add chart tool and insert EPELX and SX user defined results as objects for
plotting stress vs strain as shown below.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Change the displacement load to 50mm and re-run the solution.
Model still converges without trouble in 22 iterations, no bisections, even though

the loading is outside of the bounds of the original test data.
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October 25, 2013
Notice the dramatic stress stiffening effects at higher strain values, a

common characteristic of most elastomers.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
WS4A-Alternative Curve Fitting via MAPDL GUI
To access the MAPDL Curve Fitting Module,

first launch the MAPDL application
This can be done from the WORKBENCH

Project Page by highlighting Mechanical
APDL in the Component Systems Folder and
dragging and dropping it onto the Project
Schematic Page
Or from the Start Menu (independent of

Workbench )
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October 25, 2013
If launching MAPDL from the WB Project Schematic, highlight Analysis and

RMB=> Open Mechanical APDL
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Navigate to the Hyperelastic Curve-fitting tools in MAPDL:
Main Menu > Preprocessor > Material Props > Material Models
Structural > Nonlinear > Elastic > Hyperelasticity > Curve Fitting
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Under Uniaxial test data for Material 1,

select Read From File and select the file
NR_23C_ST_SCL_1_SEG38 and click on
Open
- The contents of the data will be

displayed in the dialog box. Click on
Next to continue.
Or Via Command Input method:
/PREP7
TBFT,EADD,1,UNIA,NR_23C_ST_SCL_1_SEG38
Notes:
The first set of test data requested is uniaxial
tension data. This should be in the format of
engineering strain vs. engineering stress in a
space- or tab-delimited text file.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Repeat procedure for Biaxial test data for

Material 1, select Read From File and select the
file NR_23C_EB_SCL_1_SEG38 and click on
Open
- The contents of the data will be displayed in
the dialog box. Click on Next to continue.
Repeat procedure for Shear test data for Material
1, using NR_23C_PT_SCL_1_SEG38 for the file to
read data from.
For Simple ShearVolumetric test data for
Material 1, leave the data blank and click on
Next.
or Via Command Input method:
TBFT,EADD,1,BIAX,NR_23C_EB_SCL_1_SEG38
TBFT,EADD,1,SHEA,NR_23C_PT_SCL_1_SEG38
Notes:
For this example, volumetric test data is not used and
incompressibility will be assumed.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
In the dialog box entitled Solve for the

following Function, select Hyperelastic >
Yeoh > 3rd Order. This is not a nonlinear
curve-fit, so no coefficients need to be
initialized. Well use the normalized error
norm first.
Click on Solve. A dialog box confirming
that Solution is Completed will be
displayed, and the solved coefficients and
residual will also be displayed.
Click on Plot to view the curve-fit
or Command Input method:
TBFT,FADD,1,HYPER,YEOH,3
TBFT,SOLVE,1,HYPER,YEOH,3,1,1000,0,0
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
The plot of the experimental data vs. curve-fit

values are plotted for the three sets of test
data provided.
or Via Command Input method:

TBFT,PLOT,1,UNIA,HYPER,YEOH,3
TBFT,PLOT,1,BIAX,HYPER,YEOH,3
TBFT,PLOT,1,SHEA,HYPER,YEOH,3
TBFT,SOLVE,1,HYPER,YEOH,3,0,1000,0,0
To generate curve fit for absolute values click

on <Prev to go back to Solve for the
Following Function dialog box, unselect Use
Normalized Error and re-click on Solve.
Notes:
Recall the normalized error norm gave equal
weight to all data points whereas unnormalized
error norm put greater weight for data points with
larger stress values.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Click on Save & Close To execute the

APDL commands for creating the material
model with the coefficients calculate from
the curve fitter
These coefficients can be typed into WBEngineering Data GUI
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Use the GUI menu method:
Click on Plot to display the new curve-fit

values. With unnormalized values, the larger
strain values tend to fix better, most noticeably
for the equibiaxial case. Select Save&Close
to save the hyperelastic coefficients.
or Command Input method:
TBFT,PLOT,1,UNIA,HYPER,YEOH,3
TBFT,PLOT,1,BIAX,HYPER,YEOH,3
TBFT,PLOT,1,SHEA,HYPER,YEOH,3
TBFT,FSET,1,HYPER,YEOH,3
Notes:
For this workshop, the uniaxial mode of
deformation is most important, so the curve-fit
would have matched much better if we used only
uniaxial data. However, since most products do
not experience a uniaxial state of stress, we used
all three modes of deformation. Doing so results
in a less-than-perfect match for a particular mode
of deformation but still can capture all three
states of stress generally well.
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 3A
Stress Relaxation
ANSYS Mechanical
1
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Goal
Predict rate dependent stress relaxation of structure using an implicit time hardening
creep model.
Model Description
C-Clamp assembly consisting of a 3D solid
body meshed with tetrahedral elements to
represent the clamp and a line body
meshed with beam elements to represent
the bolt
C-Clamp
Bolt tied to the clamp body via fixed

joints at each end.
Materials:
Rate dependent structural steel for
clamp
High strength rate independent steel for
bolt
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Bolt

Materials:
Bolt: Rate independent structural steel
Clamp: Rate dependent structural steel that relaxes according to the following
Modified Time Hardening formula:
C 2 C3 +1 C 4 /T
C1 t e
cr =
(C3 + 1)
Where: C1 = 2e-10, C2=1, C3=1.5, C4 = 0, metric units (mm,mm-s^-2)
Load specifications:
10,000N bolt pretension loading for 150 seconds
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Steps to Follow:
Restore Archive browse for file W3A-creep.wbpz
Save as
File name: W3A-creep

2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

From this Schematic, you can see that Engineering (material) Data
and Geometry have already been defined (green check marks).
It remains to define the rate dependent creep material properties,

set up and run the FE model in Mechanical

Right Mouse Button (RMB)=>Edit.
Verify that the units are in Metric(Tonne,mm,..) system. If not, fix

this by clicking on
Utility Menu=>Units=>Metric(Tonne, mm,..)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Define the creep material model
Highlight the Default Structural Steel material

and RMB=>Duplicate to create a separate
material model. Rename this new material
Creep
With the new Creep material model
highlighted, go to the Toolbox and insert a

Modified Time Hardening creep model from the
Creep folder.
The Engineering Data page should now look as

shown
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013

Define the creep material model (contd)
Set the Reference Length Unit to mm,s,K,tonne,mm s^2

Using the constant values from page WS3A-3 fill in the data table accordingly
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Return to the Project Schematic and Refresh project
RMB=>Edit)
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Once inside the Mechanical application, verify the working unit system

Expand Geometry branch and note the two different body types (solid body for the clamp, line
body for the bolt).

Expand the Connections branch and note the two fixed joints designed to connect the ends of
the bolt to the faces of the clamp by way of constraint equations automatically. The pinball is
sized to represent the extent of bolt head and nut interface with the clamped surfaces.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Highlight the Solid body representing the clamp and change material assignment to the
Creep model
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Highlight the Analysis Settings branch, set number of load steps to 2 and define the
Solution Control specifications as shown for each load step.
Note:
LS1 establishes the static stress state in one substep at time zero (=1e-006 s) with the Creep Effects
11
turned Off.
LS2 activates the creep calculation (end time =150 s) over several substeps, allowing bisections
if/when creep strain exceeds 10 times the elastic strain.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Loads and Boundary conditions.
The back face of the clamp body is fixed.

A bolt pretension load is applied to the line body over two load steps
LS 1 calculates the adjustment needed in bolt shank length to produce user defined bolt load
Set LS2 to lock the adjustment into the bolt via constraint equations .
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2013 ANSYS, Inc.
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Execute the solve
This run should converge without
trouble, but might take a few minutes

depending on hardware.
Note the development in creep strain as
indicated by nonzero values reported
for creep ratio in the solver output
during the run.
After solution is complete, post

process results (displacement, stress,
strain,etc)
Insert Equivalent Creep Strain

Notice how the Equivalent Creep Strain
13
increases (as expected) over time, while

bolt pretension and equivalent stress
dissipates as the structure relaxes.
Animate various results over time to
confirm these effects.
2013 ANSYS, Inc.
October 25, 2013
Workshop 2
Analyzing a Beam &
Shell Model with Command
Objects

WS2-1
June 2009
Inventory #002669
Workshop 2
Introduction
Training Manual
Results of an analysis of a venting duct in a exhaust gas filtration

module is reviewed in this workshop
Model comprised of line and surface bodies
Thermal-stress analysis set up and performed in Mechanical

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Workshop 2
Workshop Objectives
Training Manual
In this workshop, the user will learn to do the following:
Transfer a Mechanical model to Mechanical APDL

Become familiar with Mechanical APDL user interface
Learn how to verify and list loads
Perform basic postprocessing
Informative text in this workshop is preceded by bullet point whereas

steps to perform are designated with numbers.
This applies to top-level bullet/numbered items only
APDL commands that can be typed in the Command Prompt are

shown with Typewriter (Courier) font.
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Workshop 2
Reviewing Results in Mechanical
Training Manual
1. Launch ANSYS Workbench 12.0
Windows Start menu > Programs > ANSYS 12.0 > Workbench
2. Restore archive workshop 2a.zip
File menu > Restore Archive

Select workshop 2a.zip from the location specified by your instructor
Save the duct project to a directory specified by your instructor

WS2-4
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Workshop 2
Training Manual
3. Double-click on the Results cell in the Project Schematic to open

the model in Mechanical
Review the model setup. Notice that the model is a multibody part of
surface and line bodies. There are two Steps for the analysis

WS2-5
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Workshop 2
Training Manual
4. Review the results
Check the two result sets by selecting the desired Step in the Graph or
Tabular Data sections and right-click to Evaluate This Result

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Workshop 2
Training Manual
Although there are two Steps in this model, because the analysis is
linear, these two Steps are independent
The first Step has gravity and temperature loading
The second Step includes pressure loading
There are 4 Named Selections in the model:

Front Bars contains 9 line bodies
Top Cross contains 2 line bodies
Support Brackets contains 4 surfaces and is referenced in the
Frictionless Support
Bottom Edge contains 4 edges
The next set of instructions will demonstrate reviewing the mesh and
results in Mechanical APDL. Do not worry too much about the
details, as many of these points will be discussed again.

WS2-7
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Workshop 2
Opening in Mechanical APDL
Training Manual
1. Return to the Workbench Project Schematic

2. Right-click on the Solution cell, and select Transfer Data To New
> Mechanical APDL
A new Mechanical APDL system will be added

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Workshop 2
Training Manual
3. Right-click on the Analysis cell and select Edit in Mechanical

APDL The Mechanical APDL GUI will appear.

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Workshop 2
Training Manual
4. In Mechanical APDL, from the Utility menu, select File > Resume
Jobname.db
Resuming is the same as opening a file. The jobname is the

filename, so the above action opens the file named file.db.
5. (Optional) The slides in this presentation use a white rather than

black background. If you would like to do the same, use Utility
menu > PlotCtrls > Style > Colors > Reverse Video

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Workshop 2
Training Manual
At this point, it is worth discussing the behavior of opening

Mechanical models inside of Mechanical APDL. Depending on which
Mechanical cell is linked to a Mechanical APDL system on the Project
Page, different types of information will be transferred:
If linked from a Geometry cell, only solid model geometry will be
transferred to Mechanical APDL. The geometry is automatically read in
once Mechanical APDL is launched.
If linked from a Model or Setup cell, the finite element mesh,
materials, loads, and boundary conditions will be transferred to
Mechanical APDL. No results will be transferred. The mesh is
automatically read in when Mechanical APDL is opened.
If linked from a Solution cell, the database (if saved) and result file will
be transferred to Mechanical APDL. The database is not read in
automatically when Mechanical APDL is run, so the user must use Utility
menu > File > Resume Jobname.db as shown earlier to load the
database in memory (i.e., open the model).
The database is not automatically read in since a user may choose not to save
a database file (although this practice is not recommended)
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Examining Element Types
Training Manual
1. Main Menu > Preprocessor > Element Type > Add/Edit/Delete
A listing of element types will be shown in a dialog box

With Type 1 SHELL181 highlighted, select the [Options] button
A new dialog box with details on SHELL181 is presented

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2. In the SHELL181 element type options dialog box, select [Help]
The ANSYS Help system will appear with details of this element type
When finished reviewing the Help manual, use File > Close to close
the Help window. Then click on [Cancel] and [Close] to close the two
dialog boxes.

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3. Utility menu > List > Properties > Element Types
A text listing of element types, similar to the previous step, will be

displayed. Use File > Close to close the window when done.
Equivalent APDL command is ETLIST (type in the Command Prompt)

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Training Manual
Although not discussed yet, each element in Mechanical APDL has

an element type attribute. The selection of a particular element type
implies the use of a specific shape function, and each element has
different capabilities.
The [Options] dialog box provides the user with the ability to change
element options and behavior
The Help system gives detailed information on each element type,
including detailed description of the element, input specifications, what
type of output results can be expected from the element, and
assumptions & restrictions
If a user knows the element type number, in the Command Prompt, type
HELP,number to bring up that relevant section in the Elements Reference. For
example, the previous steps showed SHELL181. Hence, to bring up the help
manual for SHELL181, enter HELP,181 or HELP,SHELL181.
A text listing of the defined element types can be generated, as shown

earlier

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Training Manual
4. To visually differentiate element color based on the element type ID,

use Utility menu > PlotCtrls > Numbering
In the dialog box, set Elem / Attrib numbering to Element type num
Change [/NUM] Numbering shown with to Colors only
Click on [OK]

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5. Dynamically rotate the model
Hold down the Ctrl key and use the right mouse button to change the
view. Note that the location clicked will serve as the rotation center
Use Ctrl + left mouse button to pan the model
Notice that the parts are differentiated by color

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Training Manual
One may notice that the outside has different colors, but the inside
may be the same color. This brings up two points:
For each part in Mechanical, a unique element type ID will be generated
for the Mechanical APDL model
Pressures are applied with surface effect elements

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Training Manual
For the first point, each Mechanical part is mapped as a unique

Mechanical APDL element type, as illustrated below
Although all surface bodies are shell elements, by mapping each part as
a unique element type, two surface bodies can have different element
behavior, if required
In Mechanical, all element attribute assignment is done by ID numbers

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Training Manual
Not only are there elements that represent the physical structure, but
there are also special elements that are for loading purposes only
Structural and thermal surface effect elements exist to allow users to
apply complex loading on surfaces.
Contact elements are similar they do not represent the physical
structure but are meant to define interaction between parts

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Training Manual
6. Selecting a subset of the model is helpful to examine certain

elements more closely. Select only the surface effect elements by
performing the following steps:
Utility menu > Select > Entities

In the Select Entities dialog box
Change the first pull-down menu to Elements

Change the second pull-down menu to By Attributes
Select Element type num
Type 73 in the text box
Click on [Apply] then [Replot]
Equivalent APDL
commands that can
be typed in the
Command Prompt:
ESEL,S,TYPE,,73
/REPLOT

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Training Manual
When the previous steps are performed, now only the orange
elements will be shown on the Graphics window:
Notice in the Output Window that a subset of elements are selected
The Output Window always gives text feedback after an action is
performed, so it is a good idea to always refer to the Output Window to
see if a command has been successfully executed.

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Training Manual
ESEL,S,TYPE,,73
What type of entity to select

How to select
What is the value of that criterion
What type of selection to perform
Do not worry about the details yet,

as selection logic will be discussed
later. This is just to introduce the
concept by example

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Examining Loads
Training Manual
7. To list the applied pressures, use Utility menu > List > Loads >
Surface > On All Elements
Equivalent APDL command is SFELIST

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Examining Loads
Training Manual
8. To plot pressures, select Utility menu > PlotCtrls > Symbols
Change [/PSF] Surface Load Symbols to Pressures

Change Show pres and convect as to Arrows
Click on [OK]
APDL commands
/PSF,PRES,,2
/REPLOT

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Examining Loads
Training Manual
The pressures will be displayed as grey arrows. Each element face

on which pressure is applied will have an arrow shown.
The user may change the pressure symbol from an arrow to contour
By examining the pressure loads, one may verify the direction and
locations of pressure loading. For example, at the 4 supports, one may
not wish for the pressures to be applied, so the Mechanical model may
need to be corrected.
By default, the gravity load
as well as support boundary
conditions will be shown.
For users typing in APDL
commands, use the following
to also display these symbols:
/PBC,ALL,,1
/REPLOT

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Examining Loads
Training Manual
One may have noticed from the listing of the pressures that the
numeric value is initially not shown:
Loads are represented with tables, so the temporal and spatial variation
can be captured (e.g., pressure as a function of time)
When listing or plotting pressures in the Mechanical APDL Preprocessor
or Solution processor, the table name (in this case, _LOADVARI53) is
shown. As will be discussed later, we can list or modify the contents of
this table.
When listing or plotting pressures in the Mechanical APDL
Postprocessor, the actual numeric value is shown (e.g., if postprocessing
results at time=1 second, the pressure evaluated at time=1 second will be
listed or displayed)

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Examining Loads
Training Manual
9. Select Main menu > General Postproc > Read Results > Last Set
APDL commands:
/POST1
SET,LAST
10. Utility menu > List > Loads > Surface > On All Elements
APDL command:
SFELIST
Notice that the listing now shows

the numeric value of 0.01, which
is the same as 0.01 MPa defined
in the Mechanical database.
By going into the postprocessor
and reading the results, the
pressure for that Step is now
listed or displayed.
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Postprocessing Results
Training Manual
1. Reselect all elements by using Utility menu > Select > Everything
Only the surface effect elements are selected at this point, so to

postprocess results on the shell and beam elements, all of the elements
must be selected again
Equivalent APDL command is ALLSEL,ALL

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2. To plot unaveraged equivalent stress results, use Main menu >

General Postproc > Plot Results > Contour Plot > Element Solu
Select Element Solution > Stress > von Mises stress and click [OK]
APDL command is PLESOL,S,EQV

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Training Manual
In Mechanical APDL, the nodal solution is synonymous with

averaged results in Mechanical while the element solution is
unaveraged results.
Stresses and strains are calculated at the element integration points, so
when extrapolated to the nodes they can be averaged or unaveraged.
Because surface effect elements exist on top of the shell elements,

the display may look similar to below. In the next steps, the surface
effects will be unselected for a clearer view

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3. Utility menu > Select > Entities
The purpose here is to unselect elements by the

element library name of SURF154 (instead of
unselecting by element type ID number 73).
By using this method, if multiple SURF154
element types were defined, we do not have to
unselect each one by ID number but can use
a single command instead
Change the first pull-down menu to Elements
Change second pull-down menu to By Elem Name
Enter 154 for Element name
SURF154 is also acceptable input
Change the radio button to Unselect

Click on [Apply] then [Replot]
Equivalent APDL Command:
ESEL,U,ENAME,,154

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Training Manual
4. Use Utility menu > PlotCtrls > Hard Copy > To File.. to save the
graphics snapshot to an image file
Change the image type to PNG or any image format

of interest
If the background is black but a white background is
desired, keep Reverse Video selected
Click on [OK] to create the PNG file
Equivalent APDL commands:
/SHOW,PNG
/REPLOT
/SHOW,CLOSE
The image files will be created in the Mechanical APDL

working directory. This project name is duct, so the
files will be saved in the following subdirectory:
duct_files\dp0\APDL\ANSYS

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Training Manual
5. To see the beam and shell elements with their cross-section shown,
use Utility menu > PlotCtrls > Style > Size and Shape
Turn [/ESHAPE] Display of element shape based on real constant

descriptions to On. Click on [OK]
APDL command is /ESHAPE,1 followed by /REPLOT

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Training Manual
The resulting plot will look similar to below, where beam and shell
elements are shown as 3D elements

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A note about hidden windows and unresponsive pickers:

If, at any point, the dialog boxes or sub-windows (such as the Graphics
Hard Copy widget or the Select Entities menu) get hidden, the Raise
Hidden icon will bring these sub-windows to the foreground
If the picker may not respond for picking actions, the Reset Picker icon
will remedy the situation.

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Training Manual
6. Display the element plot with Utility menu > Plot > Elements
APDL command is EPLOT
7. A user may wish to query what element type ID is associated with a

given element. Utility menu > List > Picked Entities + will bring up
a picker to query items
Change On Entities:
to Elements
Click on the element
shown on the right.
(It does not have to be
exact. Also, click and
hold down the left mouse
button, drag the mouse,
then when the desired
element is highlighted,
let go of the left mouse
button.)
Click on [OK]

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A listing similar to below will be shown. (Depending on which

element was selected, the numbers may be slightly different than
what is shown below.)
The ELEM column reflects the element ID number
The TYP column indicates the element type ID number
The last 4 columns list the element connectivity based on the node ID
numbers
This element type ID is 33 for this element

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Training Manual
8. Use Utility menu > Select > Entities to select element type ID 33
Here, we will select elements by element type ID

number 33
The first pull-down menu should be Elements
Change the second pull-down menu to By attributes
Select Elem type num
Enter 33 in the text area
Select the From Full button
Click on [Apply] then [Plot]
APDL Commands
ESEL,S,TYPE,,33
/REPLOT

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9. Display the element coordinate system via Utility menu > PlotCtrls
> Symbols
Set [/PBC] Boundary condition symbol to None

Check the ESYS Element coordinate sys box
In Mechanical APDL, the check boxes will show the current value.
Hence, an unchecked box is Off but, when checked, it will change to
On, reflecting the current value
Click on [OK]
APDL commands:
/PSYM,ESYS,1
/REPLOT

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Each element will now display its element coordinate system. This is
important for orthotropic or anisotropic materials, where different
material directions may have different material behavior. Also,
postprocessing can be done in the element coordinate system, too.
The black (or white) axis is the element x-axis
The green-yellow axis is the element y-axis
The blue axis is the element z-axis
Colors are the same as the
global coordinate system
axis colors (Right-click and Fit
the view to see the global triad)
In Mechanical, the default
element coordinate system
can be set under the Details
view for each part, under the
Geometry branch

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10. Use Utility menu > File > Exit .. to exit Mechanical APDL
When prompted, do not save anything

APDL command is /EXIT,NOSAVE
11. Exit ANSYS Workbench. You do not need to save the Workbench
project.

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Summary
Training Manual
In this workshop, the Mechanical APDL GUI was introduced. A model

solved in Mechanical was transferred to Mechanical APDL. Plotting
and listing functions were used to verify the contents of the
database. Simple postprocessing was also performed.
There will be additional features introduced in later workshops, and
there will also be more efficient techniques shown for some steps
presented here. The user need not be comfortable with all concepts
introduced in this workshop at this point in time.
This concludes this workshop.

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Workshop 6
Solving a Piezoelectric
Problem with Commands
Objects

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Overview
Training Manual
An ultrasonic welding tool will be analyzed in this workshop

Piezoelectric material properties
symmetry model
Modal analysis will be performed first, then harmonic response analysis

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Note About Piezoelectric Materials
Training Manual
In piezoelectric materials, a strain produces a charge or, conversely,

a potential difference causes strain. The elastic and electrostatic
equations are related as shown below (IEEE form):
{T} is stress, {S} is strain

{D} is electric flux density, {E} is electric field intensity
[cE] is stiffness matrix evaluated at constant electric field
[S] is dielectric matrix evaluated at constant mechanical strain
[e] is the piezoelectric stress matrix
There are several ways to input the material properties. Input of

electric loss tangent and coupling to circuit elements available.
Refer to the Help system for details on piezoelectric capabilities:
Mechanical APDL (formerly ANSYS) > Coupled-Field Analysis Guide >
Direct Coupled-Field Analysis > Piezoelectric Analysis
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Note About Coupled-Field Elements
Training Manual
The coupled-field elements are PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227

These elements have many capabilities:
Piezoelectric strain produced by applied voltage

Piezoresistive change in resistivity due to applied stress
Thermal-electric Joule heating and Seebeck/Peltier/Thomson effects
Thermoelastic thermal strain and piezocaloric effect
Electroelastic electrostatic forces on dielectric
and combinations of the above!
In Mechanical, both Joule heating and thermoelectric (e.g., Seebeck)

effects are available in a Thermal-Electric analysis:
Joule heating is irreversible heat generation proportional to current2
Seebeck coefficients relate voltage and temperature difference
(reversible, proportional effect) and are entered in Engineering Data
Temperature-dependent Seebeck coefficients capture the Thomson
effect, relating heat and current (reversible effect)
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Workshop Objectives
Training Manual
In this workshop, the following will be covered:

Setting up Piezoelectric Materials in Mechanical
Use of Commands objects in Mechanical
Application of boundary conditions with Commands objects
Informative text in this workshop is preceded by bullet point whereas

steps to perform are designated with numbers.
This applies to top-level bullet/numbered items only
APDL commands that can be typed in the Command Prompt are

shown with Typewriter (Courier) font.
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Open the Workshop Files
Training Manual
1. Launch ANSYS Workbench 12.0
Windows Start menu > Programs > ANSYS 12.0 > Workbench
2. Restore archive workshop 6a.zip
File menu > Restore Archive

Select workshop 6a.zip from the location specified by your instructor
Save the transducer project to a directory specified by your instructor

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Review Defined Materials
Training Manual
3. Double-click on Engineering Data cell (B2) to review materials
Notice that Ceramic material has orthotropic definition

Click on Return to Project when done

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Review Model in Mechanical
Training Manual
4. Double-click on the Setup cell (B5) to launch Mechanical
Review the boundary conditions, material properties, and mesh

Piezoelectric Ceramics
5. Change the unit system to MKS by selecting Units menu > Metric
(m, kg, N, s, V, A)
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Review Model in Mechanical
Training Manual
6. Highlight one of the Geometry > transducer > ceramic bodies
Notice that the Coordinate System has already been defined. Piezo
ceramics have a polarization direction, so the element coordinate
system is important in specifying the correct orthotropic properties

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Add Piezoelectric Definition
Training Manual
7. Right-click on the ceramic body and Insert > Commands
In the Context Toolbar, select the Import icon

A notice indicates that existing text will be replaced click [Yes]
Add workshop 6a.txt from the folder specified by your instructor

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Training Manual
The inserted commands will be discussed:

Since piezoelectric materials relate voltage and displacements, a
coupled-field element must be used
et,MATID,226,1001
The above command redefines the current element type ID number

(MATID) to SOLID226. Keyoption #1 is set to 1001, which is the setting
used for piezoelectric analyses.
The first keyoption can be thought of as a string of boolean values 0 or 1
that activate specific physics. In this case, 1000 for electrostatic + 1 for
structural results in an element that solves for both physics. As a digression,
10 is for thermal and 100 is for electric current conduction.
As with any other situation, when switching element types with the ET
command, ensure that both element types are compatible. In the present
case, the ceramic parts are swept-meshed with 20-node bricks, which
would result in SOLID186 element type. Since SOLID226 is also a 20node brick, they are compatible. If this part were meshed with 10-node
tetrahedra, one would use SOLID227 instead.
See the Elements Reference for additional inforation on SOLID226.
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Training Manual
The dielectric material is defined with the following:

mp,perx,MATID,804.6
mp,pery,MATID,804.6
mp,perz,MATID,659.7
Piezoelectric ceramics typically have orthotropic permittivities. The

above specifies element x- and y-directions to be the same, while the
polarization direction (z-direction) has different values
The piezoelectric stress matrix [e] is set via the commands below:
tb,piez,MATID
tbdata, 3,-4.1
tbdata, 6,-4.1
tbdata, 9,14.1
tbdata,14,10.5
tbdata,16,10.5
The piezoelectric constants are often obtained from the manufacturer

Note that this matrix is often published in {x, y, z, yz, xz, xy} form, but in
ANSYS, the order should be rearranged as {x, y, z, xy, yz, xz}
The capability to input the piezoelectric strain matrix [d] is also available
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Training Manual
8. Since there are three other ceramic bodies,

drag-and-drop the Commands (ANSYS)
branch to the other parts
The final tree should look as displayed on the

right

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Set Solution Options
Training Manual
9. Highlight the Analysis Settings branch. In

the Details view, do the following:
Set Max Modes to Find to 30

Set Save ANSYS db to Yes
Although in this workshop, postprocessing in

Mechanical APDL will not be performed, this is
always good practice whenever using Commands
object in the event that the user may wish to review
the model in Mechanical APDL at a later date
Set Solver Units: Manual, the change Solver

Unit System: mks
The active unit system was changed to MKS units

earlier. However, when using Commands objects
that contain any unit-dependent input (such as
piezoelectric material properties), it is a good idea
to manually set the solver units as well. In this way,
if the model is given to another user who is
accustomed to using a different set of units, the
solution will still solve in the correct set of units.

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Solve the Model
Training Manual
10. Click on the Solve icon in the Toolbar to initiate the solution
The solution should take less than a minute
11. When the solution is done, select the Solution branch. In the
Tabular Data view, highlight all cells, right-click, and select
Create Mode Shape Results

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Review Results
Training Manual
12. Right-click on one of the created Total Deformation branches,

and select Evaluate All Results to see the mode shapes
Review the various mode shapes

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Review Results
Training Manual
Consider the two modes below. The mode on left is at 15.7 kHz while
the mode on the right is at 17.9 kHz.
The displacement at the end of the horn is more uniform for the 17.9 kHz
mode, which may be a more desirable effect for this case.
Assuming that the operation of the device will excite the 17.9 kHz
mode, the next steps will involve performing a harmonic response
analysis
15.7 kHz Mode

17.9 kHz Mode

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Set Up Harmonic Response Analysis
Training Manual
1. Close Mechanical
2. In the Workbench Project Schematic, drag-and-drop a Harmonic
Response (ANSYS) analysis system onto the Model cell (B4)
The resulting schematic should look similar to the one below
3. Double-click on the Setup cell (C5) of the newly-added Harmonic

Response (ANSYS) system to launch Mechanical

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Training Manual
4. In the Details view of the ANalysis Settings

branch, change the following:
Range Minimum: 17500 (Hz)

Range Maximum: 18000 (Hz)
Solution Method: Full
Constant Damping Ratio: 5e-3
Save ANSYS db: Yes

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Training Manual
5. Drag-and-drop the Fixed Support branch from

the Modal (B5) analysis branch down to the
Harmonic Response (C5) branch
While a new Fixed Support could have been

manually defined, it is typically easier to just copy
the same boundary conditions from the modal
analysis

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Apply Voltage Boundary Conditions
Training Manual
6. Right-click and Insert > Commands on the Harmonic Response

(C5) branch
In the Commands text window, enter the following:

d,NEG,volt,0
d,POS,volt,700
The first command applies a voltage of zero (ground) to the nodes in the
Named Selection neg while the second command applies a voltage of
700 (peak) to the nodes in the Named Selection pos

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Apply Voltage Boundary Conditions
Training Manual
The application of voltage boundary conditions for piezoelectric

elements is achieved through the use of the D command, as shown
earlier. The vertex, edge, or surface Named Selections are defined in
Mechanical, and the Commands object references the
corresponding nodal components directly
Another common practice in piezoelectric analyses is to make the
nodes associated with an electrode to be equipotential (all nodes
same voltage but not necessarily a constant value). This is achieved
through coupling the DOF together. The following command would
couple the voltage DOF of the nodes in the Named Selection pos:
cp,next,volt,POS
The above command should not be input in this exercise but is simply
provided as reference on how to couple voltage DOF
Coupling DOF with CP command is different from specifying a voltage via
D command. The former simply says that the nodes must have the same
voltage; on the other hand, the latter forces the nodes to have a particular
value.
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Request Results
Training Manual
7. Select the Solution branch. Change the selection filter to

Vertex selection, then select the highlighted node below. Add
Frequency > Deformation

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Request Results
Training Manual
8. In the Details view of the newly-added Frequency

Response branch, change Orientation: Z Axis
9. Select the Solution branch again. From the

Context Toolbar, add Deformation > Directional,
and change Orientation: Z Axis. Specify 17800
as the frequency

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Solve Harmonic Analysis
Training Manual
10. Solve the model by clicking on the Solve icon in the Toolbar
The solution may take a few minutes to complete

It is worth remembering that only 10 evenly-spaced solutions are
performed in this workshop. To get better accuracy, one may want to
request more solution intervals.
The mesh density is sufficient for this frequency range, but in general,
one should remember that the mesh needs to be fine enough to capture
the mode shapes. With ultrasonic devices, operating frequencies can be
very high, which means that the wavelength becomes shorter. One way
of estimating required mesh density is as follows:
Determine speed of sound in the material (e.g., steel ~5000 m/s). This is
obtained by calculating the bulk modulus from the elastic modulus and
Poissons ratio, then using c = sqrt(K/
)
The wavelength is =c/f. For 20 kHz, the wavelength in steel is 0.25 m.
The number of elements per wavelength should be around 10-20.
An element size of 10 mm is sufficient for the above purposes. However, if
the frequency gets higher, one can see that the mesh density must be smaller
in order to capture high-frequency response.

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Review Results
Training Manual
11. Select the Frequency Response branch
The peak response is between 17.8 and 17.85 kHz

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Review Results
Training Manual
12. Select the Directional Deformation results and animate the

response
Note that one can control the automatic scaling to a lower value
13. In the Details view, change the phase angle to 90 and compare
results
The peak response at the end of the horn is closer to 90 than 0,

showing a phase difference with the applied voltage
Phase Angle 0
Phase Angle 90
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Review Results
Training Manual
14. Select the Solution branch. With the Vertex selection filter, select
the same vertex in the middle (corner for symmetry) of the end of
the horn.
Add Phase Response > Deformation from the Context Toolbar.

Enter Frequency: 17800 Hz, and right-click to Evaluate All Results
This is a more direct

way of seeing the
phase difference
between input
(voltage) and output
(deformation at tip)

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Review Results
Training Manual
Time permitting, one may review results at 17850 Hz or possibly

even solve the analysis using more steps.
15. Close Mechanical, then exit Workbench
This concludes the current workshop.

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Schulung CERN 2014 May

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CERN, Geneva

ANSYS Workbench Advanced Training

Dr. Davide Valtorta

CAE-Simulation Key to Success

ANSYS Germany GmbH

CADFEM Products, Services, Know-How

Tel.: +41 (0)21-61480-40

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

Table of Contents Structural Nonlinearities

General Nonlinear Procedures

Nonlinear Transient Analysis

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

Table of Contents Advanced Nonlinearities

Advanced Material Nonlinearities

Rate Dependent Material Behavior: Creep

Contact Interface Treatment

Accessing Advanced Contact Features via MAPDL

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

Table of Contents Using Command Objects

MAPDL Element Attributes

Using APDL in Mechanical Part I

Using APDL in Mechanical Part II

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

Workshop descriptions and instructions are included in the training manual.

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

A. What is Nonlinear Behavior?

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

A. What is nonlinear behavior?

Linear structures are well-suited to finite-element analysis, which is

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

... What is nonlinear behavior?

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

... What is nonlinear behavior?

Strains beyond the elastic limit (plasticity)

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

Geometric nonlinearities: If a structure

Material nonlinearities: A nonlinear stress-strain

Contact: A changing status nonlinearity, where

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

Rubber Boot Seal

2013 ANSYS, Inc.

October 25, 2013

B. Nonlinear solution using linear solvers

However, a nonlinear structure can be analyzed using an iterative series of linear