Experiment 6

Objective: Report the effect of temperature on viscosity of the given sample on Engler
viscometer

Apparatus : Engler Viscometer, Thermometer, Flask, Stop Watch, etc.

Theory
Introduction
This equipment is used to study the variation of viscosity with respect to temperature. Because
viscosity is used for various design calculations in chemical engineering. Englers viscometer
which is efflux tube was developed in Germany. The method is basically empirical but
it is possible to relate efflux time to absolute viscosity using charts/tables developed by
Asphalt institute for this purpose.
Viscosity
The viscosity is an important fluid property when analyzing liquid behavior and fluid motion
near solid boundaries. Viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to gradual deformation
by shear stress or tensile stress. The shear resistance in a fluid is caused by intermolecular
friction exerted when layers of fluid attempt to slide by one another.

There are two related measures of fluid viscosity

dynamic (or absolute)

kinematic

Kinematic viscosity is the ratio of - absolute (or dynamic) viscosity to density - a quantity in
which no force is involved. Kinematic viscosity can be obtained by dividing the absolute
viscosity of a fluid with the fluid mass density.
=/

(2)

Where;
= kinematic viscosity (m2/s)
= absolute or dynamic viscosity (N s/m2)
= density (kg/m3)
In the SI-system the theoretical unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s - or Stoke (St) where

1 St (Stokes) = 10-4 m2/s = 1 cm2/s

Since the Stoke is a large unit it is often divided by 100 into the smaller unit Centistoke (cSt) where

1 St = 100 cSt

1 cSt (centistoke) = 10-6 m2/s = 1 mm2/s

Degree Engler
Degree Engler is used in Great Britain as a scale to measure kinematic viscosity. Unlike
the Saybolt and Redwood scales, the Engler scale is based on comparing the flow of the
substance being tested to the flow of another substance - water. Viscosity in Engler degrees is
the ratio of the time of a flow of 200 cubic centimeters of the fluid whose viscosity is being
measured - to the time of flow of 200 cubic centimeters of water at the same temperature
(usually 20oC but sometimes 50oC or 100oC) in a standardized Engler viscosity meter.
An instrument used in the measurement of the degree Engler, a measure of viscosity; the kinem
atic viscosity in stokes for this instrument is obtained from the equation =0.00147 t
3.74/ t, where t is the efflux time in seconds.

Figure 1 Engler Viscometer

Applications of Viscosity
The following are examples of how viscosity measurements are used:

Food

Viscosity measurements are used in the food industry to maximize production efficiency and
cost effectiveness. It affects the rate at which a product travels through a pipe, how long it takes
to set or dry, and the time it takes to dispense the fluid into packaging. The production process
has to be designed with the viscosity of the product in mind, making sure that pipes are angled
to optimize flow, or that dispensers provide the right amount of force to induce flow, but not so
much that the packaging will overfill.
Viscosity is also a characteristic of the texture of food. The products viscosity must be
measured and monitored during production to ensure that each batch is consistent and will go
through the production process efficiently.

Adhesives

To choose the right viscosity for an adhesive, consider how the adhesive must flow, or not flow,
on a part after the adhesive is applied. Low-viscosity adhesives will flow more readily than
high-viscosity ones, so if you want an adhesive to stay exactly where you put it after dispensing
rather than spread out a high-viscosity adhesive is ideal.

Other Industries
o Petroleum: Viscosity measurements project the effectiveness of lubricating oil
and determines design elements of pipelines.
o Concrete: Viscosity determines the self-leveling and pumping behavior of a mix.
o Cosmetics: Viscosity should be considered when designing the feel and flow of
cosmetic products.

Procedure:
Thoroughly clean and dry the viscometer. Insert the stopper and fill the water bath with water.
Heat the outer bath some degree above the test temperature. Pour the sample into the cup till it
exactly reaches the top of the measuring point. Level the instrument and place 100 mL flask
below to jet.
Place the lid and inner thermometer in position and maintain the required temperature of the
bath with frequent agitation. Maintain this continuously for three minutes by rotating cover.
When these conditions have been maintained, withdraw the sample from effuse tube. Start the
timer and note the time for filling 100 mL flask. Repeat the procedure and take at least six
readings. Draw a graph between time and temperature.

Results:
Temperatur
e (0C )

Time
(Engler Seconds)

20.6

42

24.6

40

29.1

39

34.1

34

40.1

30

Temperature vs. time

45
40
35
30
25

Time (s)

20
15
10
5
0
15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Temperature ( deg. C)

Comments:
The graph is a somewhat smooth line which depicts a non-linear decreasing trend. The results
seem reliable within experimental error.

Experiment 7

Objective: To determine the flash point of a given sample of petroleum product by

Pensky Martens apparatus ".

Apparatus: Pensky Martens apparatus, beaker, thermometer.

Figure 2 Pensky Marten's closed cup apparatus

Related theory
Introduction
This apparatus is used to measure the flash point of an oil sample in close environment. In
the PenskyMartens closed-cup flash-point test, a brass test cup is filled with a test specimen
and fitted with a cover. The sample is heated and stirred at specified rates depending on the
material that is being tested. An ignition source is directed into the cup at regular intervals with
simultaneous interruption of stirring until a flash that spreads throughout the inside of the cup is
seen. The corresponding temperature is its flash point.
PenskyMartens closed cup is sealed with a lid through which the ignition source can be
introduced periodically. The vapour above the liquid is assumed to be in reasonable equilibrium

with the liquid. Closed cup testers give lower values for the flashpoint than open-cup
testers(typically 510 K) and are a better approximation to the temperature at which the vapour
pressure reaches the "lower flammable limit" (LFL).

Flash Point
The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to form
an ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a flash point requires an ignition source. At the flash
point, the vapor may cease to burn when the ignition source is removed.

Significance and Uses of flash Point

The flash point is one measure of the tendency of the test specimen to form a flammable
mixture with air under controlled laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of
properties that should be considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of a
material.
Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable materials
in a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable material. For example, an abnormally low
flash point on a test specimen of engine oil can indicate gasoline contamination.
Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to define flammable and
combustible materials.
Using flash point substances are classified into different groups and are kept in mind
during manufacture, storage and transport.

Procedure
Clean the oil cup and dry, taking care that no traces of any low flash solvent used in cleaning
remains in the cup. Pour the lid in position and insert level indicated by the filling mark, then
place the lid in position and insert the thermometer in the holder. Set the cup in air bath, apply
heat at the rate of 9-11 F per minute and adjust the stirrer to rotate at the rate of one to two
revolutions per second. Starting at the temperature of at least 60 F apply the test flame at
temperature intervals of 2 F if flash point is above 220 F, in such a manner that flame must be
lowered in one half second. Leave it in this position for one second and then quickly raise it up
(While the test flame is being applied stirring is stopped). Continue the procedure till flash point
is obtained. Then cool the apparatus and refill with fresh oil and check the flash point by
decreasing the range of temperature and get an accurate reading.

Result
The flash point obtained is 56O C.

Comments

The flash point is low hence the substance may be volatile. By consulting literature, the flash
point may correspond to that of diesel oil.
Experiment 3

Objective: To determine flash point and fire point of an oil using "Cleveland open cup
flash point apparatus" and determine the sample of oil.

Apparatus: Tripod stand with burner, Thermometer, Sand bath, cup containing oil,
glass lid, test flash.

Related theory
Introduction
This apparatus is used to measure the flash point and fire point of an oil sample in an open
environment. This apparatus consists of the test cup, heating plate, test flame applicator, heater,
and supports
The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest temperature at which it can form an ignitable
mixture in air. The fire point is defined as the temperature at which the vapor continues to burn
after being ignited. These are important temperatures in fuel storing. The main difference
between this open cup apparatus and closed cup apparatus is that in this apparatus, the vapors
are allowed to escape while in closed cup it is undesirable for the vapors to escape because
every time that happens the flash point rises.

Figure 3 Cleveland open cup apparatus

Flash Point
The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which it can vaporize to form
an ignitable mixture in air. Measuring a flash point requires an ignition source. At the flash
point, the vapor may cease to burn when the ignition source is removed.

Fire point
Fire point is the lowest temperature corrected to a barometric pressure of 101.3 kPa (760mm
Hg), at which application of an ignition source causes the vapors of a test specimen of the
sample to ignite and sustain burning for a minimum of 5 s under specified conditions.

Scope
These test methods cover the determination of the flash point and fire point of petroleum
products by a manual Cleveland open cup apparatus.
This test method is applicable to all petroleum products with flash points above 79 deg. C and
below 400 deg. C except fuel oils.

Significance and Uses of Flash Point and Fire Point

The flash point is one measure of the tendency of the test specimen to form a flammable
mixture with air under controlled laboratory conditions. It is only one of a number of
properties that should be considered in assessing the overall flammability hazard of a
material.
Flash point can indicate the possible presence of highly volatile and flammable materials
in a relatively nonvolatile or nonflammable material. For example, an abnormally low
flash point on a test specimen of engine oil can indicate gasoline contamination.
Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to define flammable and
combustible materials.
Using flash point substances are classified into different groups and are kept in mind
during manufacture, storage and transport.
The fire point is a general indication of fire hazard.
Fire point shows the tendency of a specimen to support combustion.

Procedure
Apparatus was setup and burner and test fire was set and checked. Oil in an open cup was
placed on a sand bath. Initial temperature of oil was noted. Thermometer was dipped in oil and
burner was lighted to heat oil uniformly via sand bath. Test fire of small diameter (1 inch) was
established. Test fire was brought over oil to check flash point after every 3 O C rise in
temperature. After flash point was determined, test fire was brought over oil vapours more

frequently after every 2 degree rise in temperature to check the fire point. When oil caught fire,
the lid was put on the cup to block the supply of oxygen and extinguish the fire. The
temperature for fire point was noted.

Result
The flash point obtained is 76o C and the fire point obtained is 86o C.

Comments
The flash and fire point corresponds to that of diesel oil.

Experiment 4

Objective: to find out the softening point of pitch bituminous

Apparatus: Bituminous, Beaker, Kerosene oil, iron ball, thermometer, two
square shouldered brass rings, pouring plate, a flat smooth brass plate,
balls-two steel balls, ring holder and assembly.
Theory:
In this method the determination of softening point of bitumen in the range
from 30 to 157 deg. C. Two horizontal disks of bitumen cast in shouldered
brass rings are heated at a controlled rate in a liquid bath while each
supports a steel ball. The softening point is reported as the mean of the
temperatures at which the two disks soften enough to allow each ball
enveloped in bitumen to fall a distance of 25mm.
Reagents and materials:
1. Bath liquid which can be used
2. Freshly boiled distilled water to avoid trapping air bubbles on the
surface of the specimen which may affect the results.
3. USP glycerin
4. Ethylene Glycol
5. Release agents; to prevent adhesion of bitumen to the pouring plate
when casting disks the surface of brass pouring plate may be thinly
coated just before use with silicone oil or grease, a mixture of glycerin
and dextrin, talc or china clay.
Procedure:
Select any one of the following bath liquids and thermometer appropriate
for expected softening point.
1. Distilled water; used for softening points between 30 deg. C and 80
deg. C.
2. Glycerin; used for 80 deg. C up to 157 deg. C.
3. Ethylene glycol; all softening 30- 110 deg. C.

Assemble the apparatus in the laboratory hood with the specimen

rings ball centering guides and thermometer in position.

Place the bath in ice water if necessary or gently heat to establish and
maintain the starting bath temperature for 15 min with the apparatus
in place.

Heat the bath so that temperature rises at a uniform rate of 5 deg. C.

Record for each ring and ball the temperature indicated by the
thermometer at a uniform rate of 5 deg.C

Record for each ring and ball the temperature indicated by the
thermometer at the first instant the bitumen surrounding the ball
touches the bottom plate

Calculations:
From the experiment the softening point of bituminous comes out to be
64 C. The softening point determined in a water bath will be lower than
the determined in a glycerin bath.
Significance and Uses:

Bituminous are viscous elastic materials without sharply defined

melting points they gradually become softer and less viscous as
the temperature rises.

The softening point is useful in the classification of bitumen, as one

element in establishing the uniformity of sources of supply and is
indicative of the tendency of the materials to flow at elevated
temperatures encountered in service.

Experiment 5

Objective: to report the effect of the temperature on the viscosity of given

sample by redwood viscometer
Apparatus:
1. Redwood viscometer
2. Thermometer
3. 5 ml flask
4. Stop watch
5. Tissue paper

Procedure
Clean and dry the oil cup thoroughly, soft tissue paper should be used for
rubbing the interior of the cut. Set the apparatus and level it. Heat the bath
few degrees above the test temperatures and pour sample into the oil cup.
Adjust the temperature to the required point, while the temperature is being
adjusted stir the bath by rotating the stirrer continuously and the oil gently
by the thermometer.

After the oil temperature has become steady at the required valve, adjust
the level of the oil at the gauge point then cover the il cup with the lid and
start the test.
Place a clean dry 50 ml flask below jet at the distance of few millimeter. Lift
the vlave and start stop watch as the oil reaches graduation mark at the
neck of the flask stop the watch and record the temp. Repeat the procedure
and take few readings.

Observations and calculations

For 50 ml volume
Temperature (deg. C)

Time (s)

21

77

26

52

31

43

36

31

41

28

46

20

51

18

56

16

80
70
60
50

Time

40
30
20
10
0
15

20

25

30

35

40

temperature

45

50

55

60

Precautions
The oil should be fitted thoroughly to remove the solid particles that may
clog the jet.
The receiving flask should be placed in such a manner that the oil stream
from jet strikes the neck of receiving flask and will not cause any foaming.
After each reading the oil should be completely drained.

Significance & uses

Viscosity is the property of the lubricating oil that determines its ability to
lubricate and through its film strength it is used denoting the effect of
temperature changes and for determining the presence of contaminants in
used oil during service.