Chapter 2

STEADYSTATE

coilDucTroil

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Condtction is rhat modc of hear uansfer in .which hcat
travels from a
of high temperaturc ro a region of lower lempcrature because
of
direcr contact berwcen the morecures of the medium. n"
..r^,i*rirrp
belween thr heat-transfcr rare by conduction and the temperrrure
;#;;:
rion in the medium is the Fouricr law.
Conduction can occur in solids, tiquids. and gascs. However, in
liquids
and gases that arc arowcd ro circurate, ir ii usualry combined with
convcction- Thercfore, purc conduction occurs primariljin
opuqu. souas,
whcrc morion of thc me16ii1 is rcsrricrc4 In rhis chaprc.u.
*ili
rbe conduaing medium lo
a rclid, bur rhc principics O"u"fop.a"o*ia.i
*i U.
\
oppli* ro liquids and gascs in which convcctivc rnotion is rcstrictcd.
A discussion of hear conducrion can bc broken dowa inro tiri.. ,";o,
subjcct arcas- The first invorvcs sready conductiou in which
*. ,r*;;:
turc is a funcrion of only onc coordinare dircction
a;;;;; iJ
G*
through 2{). The second arca conccrns stcady conduction
in wirich ttre
tcmpcrarurc is a f'sctbn of two or thrcc coordinarc oiredio,ns
s*d*
2-[ Thc rlird arca is transicnt or unsrcady conducrion- Thi, iscc
,G;";ii
be dcalt wirh in Cbaprer 3.
Digital computcrs and com?utcr prognmrning are imponant
aspccb of
hcat lransf6, as-wc frcquentry cncounier prob[rns rco
difficurt or timeconsuping to solve by han4 In such c-s6 we often tunr
lo computcrs,
r-egion

42

f..

f:;
.{

Coxoug.nox EQrrArroN 43

cirher digiral or prograrnmable hand calculators, to providc solutions. To

illustrate the t)pes

of

programs that can be uscd to solvc conduction

problems, four computer programs are included here- Thc progranE are
wrirren in a general form so thar they can be applied to a bioad'range of

problems.

The gcneral conduction equation is derivcd in the next scction- Much of

thc material that follows starts with a solurion of &is cquation- It provides
the tcmperature distribution in the material and oncc thc tempcraturc
distribution is known, the heat-transfer rate by thc conduction nrode can
be cvaluated by applying rhe Fourier law.

2.2 CONDUCTION EQUATION

The conducrion equarion is a mathematical expression of thc conservation
ener,ey in a solid subsrance.
is derived b1r performing an enerry

of

It

balance on an elemental volume of material in-which hJar is beii!

transferrcd by conduction. Heat transfer by convecrion and radiation ii
assumed to be negligible within rhe solid. Hear-rransfer rates by csnduction are related to the temperature disrribution in thc soiid by the Fourier
law (Eq. l-2).
The cnergy balance accounts for the fact rhat energlr can be generated
inside the material. Tlpical examples of inrernal .n.rgy generation in a
solid would be heat generared by chemical reacrions, hiaigenerared as a
result of clectric currents passing throu_eh a resisrance, and heat generated
bv nuclear reactions.

The leneral form of the conduction equa.rion accounts for storage of

in the material. we know from thermodynarnic considlradonithat,
thc intcrnal energy of a material will increase if the temperature of the'
matcrial increases. A solid material can therefore expericnci 3. net increase
in stored enerry when its temperature increases with time and a net
dccreasc in stored energy when its temperature decreascs wirh time If the
rnaterial tcmperature remains consrant, no cnerry can bc stored and steady
conCitions are said to exist.
Hcat-transfcr problems arc classilied in broad carcgories accordiag to
the variables that the temperarure depcnds orr. If...the temperaturc is
independcnt of time, the problem is callcd a steady ot stea4v-state problem.
,lf lrc tmpcntwc is a function <if tirnc, rhe problcm is dassificd as
unsteady v transient. Problems arc also classified by &e aumber of
coordinate dimensions thc tempcraturc dcpends on. lf thc tcmpcfiaturc is a
function of a single coordinatq thc problem is said to be on*dimensional.
energy

If the tcmpcrature is a function of two or thrce coordinarc dirnensions, it is

said to bc a n@- or three-dimensional problem, respcaivcly. If rhc tcmperaturc is a function of time and the .r dircction in rccrangulhr coordinates, or

22

4l

Stlrur_c:ere Oor.rouqrox

n+} rhe probrem i,

rT-T{t,c) in cylindrical "t"..in.o as onc4imensiorur od uansienr- lI
is ctaaiticd es ,,"*.dttletrsiaul atd teady.
"*rt;;;;"-;;;i".
Fectangular Coordlnates
To sirnplify tre dcrivation of the
conductiou cquation, wc wiII considcr
qyri;L *,o'.n in Fig 2-l aada
assume rhat the rcmocraturc "."rai"r.
in ,n. rn"rcl"ii u tun"tioo of only
thc .r
coordinarc and drnc..or r: (r,r).
w;;i;,r".*rumc lbar rhc conductiriry'E densitv o. and specific il"t
oae-dimcnsional rcctangutar

at constanl T'c
cffecr of variabre conduciviry
"io-.i,ia
,.ilr u "ir**r.o
"r. 2_4.
r" section
A srakncnt of the cor scrvation
of energr applied to tt c
ot volumc
of Fig; 2-l is as follows:
"oit
rarc of cpcrg
I
I I rutc of cnerw
conducled inro + generated
l#.a.
I
f
|

l conrot volumc

]
I

Icontrol uolume J
f rarc oI

'l
enerw
*our

| conducted
I of control

lvolume

I rate of energy I

1+f stored

inside

l*n,tot

volume

(2_l)
Using thc Fourier law ro express
the rwo conduction tcrms and
dcfinins
thc symbol q'i as the,ur. oi

.n..g, g.nlrir.Ji"rio.

rbc conrrol ,rohmf

- Tlt. ,t

GcDcntiotr

qc-AAx

Conrunt
propcrlks
k- e-c

__:
Figure

'tt -IlI={
2-t

Conrrol votumc in.recangutar

coordiD.tca-

ffil-

CoxoucnoxEquenox 45.
per unit volumg Eq. 2-l may be expresse{ in thc
form

- u$ft)+ q,;,<dx:-arStr+a 4+pa a^,"{

Dividing by the volume of rhc conrrol volumc,

produces

lAr,

#f"*o'l-#t,t

e_2)

and rearranging

AT

Ax

(2-3)

Whcn thc limit is taken. as Ar_+O, the first

term on thc lcft_hand sidc of
Eq.2-3 bccomcs the definition or tttc sccond
daira,il;ii;;d;rr:J
with respect to the x coordfnere:

,-iT
^];*en *FE
.

Q4l

Equadon 24 is not a gencral equarion

because
assumlrtion thar:bc*apcne#{nio,tl
w'as

it

was derived

on

the

oncdi,a.r"ioael Jf rhir

rcrricriea io rwr rcfittvod, an! thc ,arnporrr..

to be a function
of all thrce coordinares as qrcll as ri..:;;t_frr,y,r,4,
"ssurnd lsnns
lite &e
first tcrm io Eq. Aq representing the net
condirction in the 2 and z
direcrions.will appear. "ite threei;rne";i;J;;r*
of thc conducrion
equadon
then becomer

-(#.#.#)+qt-p"#

(2-5)

It is imporunr

ro undersknd rhe physical significance

of cach term in
Eq' 2-5' The first rhree rerms on the
left-hind side of rhe equation
represent the

net rale o[ heat conductea into trre contror

volume pcr unii r
volume. The last rerm on the
left-hand
;;
rate of enerry generated
per unit volume inside the
".i;;;
conrrot
side of Eq. 2-5
represents .he rate of increasc
""1";;..il;'lghr-hand
in internal
energy insioe the control vorume
per unit volume. Each term has
dimension, #.n"rry per unit time and
volume. Each term has &e ,1r,lt pw7.:f
ji ,yr,"* of units.
i"G
Equation 2-5 is often used in tn.
fo# --- -1

#.#.#.+::#

;)rirc

(2{)

the thermal diffusivity, a, is a group

of material propertics defined

a=-

(2-7)

pc

Ihe thermal diffusivirv has units

of [rn2/sl. Numericat natues of thc
Aensity,
spccific
iear, aia rhermal diffusivity for
l..ar:.,- :onductivi.ty,
lumerous
cngincering materials
ar.e

.{

grvcn

in'tfrc-nppcnaixa.

as

q.:,;.*i

;?.j+

'ir:

l,

-,
46

Srrroy-St-^rz Aor-.rcTrT

Wc.rrc rcldorn rcquircd ro dctcrminc lhc tcarpcraturc distribution in a

solid matcrial by rclving thc conduaion cquation in the form of Eq- 2-6.
A solution to Eq- 2-6 would involve solving a partial diffcre.ntial cquationIa most problems wc can make simplilying assumptions that will climinatc

tcrms from thc conducti<in cquatiorL and wc can often rcducc thc complcx'
resulting solution. A fcw spccial cases of thc
conduction cquation ryill now be discussed and cxamplcs of thesc special
cases will bc considcrcd in larcr sectioas of this chapter.
tfttrc tnrpcranre of a sraretial is:rot a ftmaion of time, the problem is
rcferrcd to as steadl and the marcrial is unablc to storc cncr$/. Thc stcady

ity of thc problcrn and

form of a thrccdimcnsional conduction cquation in rcctangular coordi'

nates lhen becomes

1T*4*4*#-o
at AJ' al *
If io addirion to bcing

(2-8)

a stcady problcnL thcrc is no intcrnal energt

plificd to

o'i
tr
*Y+
=o
?xt dy' d:'

(2-e)

F4uation 2-9 is thc Laplace equotio4 which occurs in scvcral scientific

disciplines.
For steady conduction with no gcneration and a purcly one-dimensional
problem such that tbe temperature is only a function of thc x coordinate,
the conduction equation may be reduccd further to
d2T

:o

(2- r 0)

dx2

Dlmenslonless Form
Thc coaduction cguation written in the form of Eq- 2-6 is a dimensional
cquation. It is oftcn convcnicnt to rcwrite this equation so lbat cach tcrm is
dimcnsionless. In doing so we will idcntify thc dimcnsionlcss groupc that
govcrn thc hcat-conduction procas. We will nondimcnsionalizc the one-.
dimensional form

of the

conduction cquation (Eg. 24) by dcfining

dirncnsionlcss tempcftrtur as

a dimcnsionless coordinate

o=+

(2-r r)

-r
,In

(2-t2)

as

li

i:*,i. :*:

CoNDUcnoN

Eormor

{7

and a dimensionless time as

I

t,
Thc symbols T,,

(2-r3)

L;, aad I, rcprescn! a reference. temperaturg lengtla and

rn" choice of refercnce quanriries is arbitraqr, altbough

,i*";
values should bc selected once the problcm b complctcly
r*tii"f
prefcr".rp"",i".ry.
A dirnensionless ratio of temperature differences is oftea
;.d.
groups
dimensionlcss
of
choice
.Lt. ,o ratio of temperaturc; and the
grouP6
"
dimcnsionlcss
of.thc
The
f9-rm
problenproblem
to
*"y *ty from
oft.n

sclected so that thqy- linit the dimensionless variables bctwcen

extremes such as zero and l' The value for t is usually
rhe maximum x dimension of thc system for which the

"i"
.onu"ni.n,

iclected as

tmperature distribution is being detcrmined'

and
When the definirions of the dimensionless temperature, coordinate'
a
in
wrinen
cqua{on
conduction
the
24'
Eqinto
substiruted
are
time
nondimensional form becomes

L,2: L,2 ao
kr;
dt'*
"', a'

azo

qT

(2-r4)

number'
The quantity ot,/ C is a dimensionless group called the Fourier
which is designated by the svmbol Fo:
at-

Fo: --L,'

(2-15)

The choice of reference time and length used in the Fourier numbcr may
varv from problem to problenq butthe basic form remair$ unchanged.

time
The Fourier number will always bi: a thermal diffusivity multiplied by
divided by the square of a charactcristic lcngth.
Thc Fouricr number is the rate of heat transfer by conduction divided

by the ratc of cnergv stored in a rnaterial- The Fourier number is an

importanr dimension'iiss group used in transient conduction problems and

it will appcar frequently in thc work that follows. The other dimensionless group appearing in Eq' 2-14 is a tcrm involving
heat gencration. Wc will ut" tt i ty-Uot {o to represent the dimc'nsioalcss
generation:

_ c:i,L:
4a=a7

(2-16)

This term is a ratio of internal heat generated pcr unit time to heat
'
conducred through the volumc pcr unit timc-

2ll

43

STaTDYSI TE C-otcDuc'nox

cquation cxPrcsscd in
Thc oncdimcnsional form of thc conducdoa
dimensionlcss form now bccomcs

la,

a20

p+1e-fr6
Exemple

.q;;;b.t

(2-17)

thc gcncral colduction

?1. Dqcrminc thc simplificd fgrm.of
in a rcctanguapplics to stcady'

oncldiy*i""tt-T,lduction

gcncration' Solvc thc rcsulting

lar solid with consrant p'op"ruo and no
and hcat-transfer

f"t d;';;;"rato" ?ito;ludm

conduction cquadon

inteEntiott'
ratc in thc sotid in terms of conslanls of

cquarion is
Sotution: Thc general form of the conducdon

-(#.#-#)

rcmpcraturc is
srcady and one-dimcnsioral thc
dontfr*efftntffi
antl it titnvir'-ctq"
x coordnatc'
we assumc t}iai fit only a funnioa of thc

Since thc problem

#;;;';tirrc
dircctions.

If

+qz-r*

is

or-o 4:o - {-o

d:'
0t
01"

Also, since no generation is prcscnt'

s';:0
equation bccomes
The simplified form of the conduction

lir:o
dxl

equarign twicc yiclds the tcmpcrInrcgrating this sccond-ordcr diffcrendal

of inrcgrarioa' C' and C':
i*o

aturc distriburion in

""t

oi

-ntono
T:Cf+Cz

bc dctsoincd in

would
valucs for ihe rwo oonstants of integrarion
rwo tbun&rlr conditions'
and-a:nd1ng
tp"liyitg
uy
problcm
pardcllar
otid in ttrc r dircction is
rt'c
thru"S
beat-transr", ra,"
Thc

"otia"iJ
givcn bY thc Fouricr law:

s*-U*-'ktC1
ia egr*rncnt with -Examplcs
Noticc rlrat lhc bcat-transfcr ratc is uniform
tot"tio* ia tbc solid under stcady

l-l

and l-2 and

condidons-

i,r"'"Jnito"i

"fr

CoxouqnoxEeurrror

49,

Cyllndrlcal Coordlnales
The conduction equation s.ritten in thc iorn of Eq. 2.6 applics only to a
rcctangular coordinate system. Thc generation and ericrgr stoage tcrrrxl
arc indepcndcnt of coordinatc system, but the net conduction terms
depend on geometry and therefore on the coordinate q6rem. The dcpendcnce on lhc coordinate system uscd to formulate thc problem can bc
removed from the analysis by replacing the net conduction terms with the
Laplacian operator. The form of the Laplacian is differcnt for erch
coordinatc system. Thc Laplacian operation in rcctangular, c,vlindrical
and cphcrical coordinate qrs(ems is gi'rcn in Appedix A. Tlrc esnduction
cquation written in terms of the Laplaciar is

u:r+$:*#

(2-r8)

For a gcacral lransient three-dimensional problem in cylindrical coordi.

nates,
T(r,$,:,tl,. Thc coordinale symbols are shbwn in Fig- 2-2(a). If
the Laplacian is substituted into Eq.2-18, the general form of the conduc-

I:

,tica+$a*ies

js@drC+orair* ttms

la/a71 .taT.d2r.q7 tdr

;?ul'a,)-7 a6r* ur* e -;a
If
that

(2-le)

the transient temperature in a cylindrical shape is one-dimensional so

I(r,r), the special case of the conduction equation bccomcs

I-

+
Furthermorq

il

*tE).+:*#

eza)

the temperature is steady and a function of only the radial

7*

50 Srrrsr-srrrrObnoucrrox
can bc rducc'l to

666rlinale' the conduaion

"q*riL d (.{\*&-o
rdr\'?rl k

(2-21)
'

now a hmction of only a singlc

Noticc ia Eq. 2-21 that thc tcmPeraturc is
Ut writtco as aa ordinary diffcrential
variablc r end &c
"i"

"q*ioo

equation.
-'Wh"o
prcscnt and thc tcmPeraturc rs a
no internal cncrSi gencration is
of thc conduction equation for
forur
function of thc radius ottfi' 6t iroay

cylindrical coordinates is

*(,+)-'

(2-22)

distribudon and hcatExample 2-2. Determine thc stcady PTqcraturc

of two constants of
l'in^tcrrns
ransfer rate in a cytindcr *ith lc;gth
r onl1" and no
radius
thc
of
fuiction
a
is
iri.gtiti.tt The lcmpcratu'c
cylindct'
inre"tnat gcneradon is prescnt in thc
cquadon is Eq' 2-22:
Soludon:The appropriaefwnr tf lhectnduction

{,{\=o
dr[ dt'l
Integraring once with respect to t;f,* tlddt
t,
'-F OI

dl

Lr

drr

A second inte-eration

gives

T= CJnr+' Ct
condi-

oce two boundary

Thc constants of inregration caa bc detcrnriacd
a cj'lindrical surfacc with
across
ratc
tions arc specified- Thc heat'rransfcr
arbitrary radius r is
c

: - u # : - k(znrt)g - -ZtHCt

Nodcr rhat thc heat-transfcr ralc

actoss any c1'lindrical surfacc is constant

for stcadY condirions.

Spherlcal Coordlnales

of the thrcc
For a sphcrical shapc where the tcmperaturc is a funaion
and timc, o, 7-T(r,0'4'lj' thc gencral form of the conduc-

"*Ji*,L

t,.s&,=.

w
SiEr.Dy, Oxe-ourre.rsroxrt Cor,oucnop

Figure 2-2

@)

Spherical coordinare

tion equarion which inchies generation oi energ-v

Wmrour Gei..Enlno$ 5l

sy.srem_

is

;*('#).*7#("",#)
,

I A2T.q;', laT
fsin:daa: k a?t

(2-23)

The spherical coordinate system is illusrrared in Fig- 2-2ft).

Special cases for one-dimensionaf transient conducrion and onedirnen-

sional, steady conduction for spherical coordinates can bc simplificd from

Eq.2-23. The simplified forms are lefr as an exercise.

2-3 STEADY, ONE.DTMENSTONAL CONOUCTToN

WITHOUT GENERANON

will now appl.v the conduction cquation to problems in which the

temperaturc is a function of a single coordinate onll In the rectangular
coordinate system the temperature will be a function of the x coordinatc
We

only, and in bgrh thc cylindrical and spherical coordinare slatems the
temperature will be a function of thc radial coordinate only. The
thcrmal

conductivity is assumed constant and no generation is considered.

The general procedure wc wirl use consists basicalry of two steps. The
-.
first
involves. determining thc tcmpcratule distribution by solving thc
appropriate simplilied form of thc conduction cquation. Thi, prLo,
of solving an ordinary, second-ordcr diffc*eatial cquation. Once
":*il5
thc diffcrential cquatioa it rolvcd, troo bounda,ry ondirions are imposcd
ro
detcrminc the two consrants of integration. -The second step involvcs
solving for the rate of heat transfer through the solid by applying the

rouncr law.

iL

52 Srtery-Srrtt

@rroucrrox

Fectangular Coordtnales

Thc srcady, oncdimcnsional tcmpcrature distribution in a rcctaryguhr

planc wall *'ith no en"'ry gcner:rtion is govcrned by thc simplifica roin
of
the conduaion cquation (Eq. 2-10),

o'T
dxJ

-o

solving this diffrential cquation in tcrms of two constans of integratiorl

C, and Co rcsuks in -

T(xl-Crx+C2
Sec Example 2-1.

Thc- consranb of inregration can bc dercrmined once lwo boundaDr

condidons arc spccificd. Lcr us assumc rhar the rwo boundary conditiori
are dctermined by spccifying the temperaturts at trre two crrr?n* surfactr
of thc *.all as sho*n in Fig. 2-3:

r(0)- r!

t(D-:t:
Appl-nng thesc trrvo boundary conditioas rcsulrs
lempcralure in the wall of

in the dimensionless

r{x\- r, E_ t
Tr-?],

(2-24)

The t:mperature distribution is therefore linear *'ith x. The heal-rransfer

rate through thc wall as determjned by the Fourier law is

q=-k'4#-L4L*

(2-2s)

The hcal-ransfer ratc per unit arca throu-eh the wall is thc hcar flux and
is

T. ltxt

I.

dmrtJln
.o

,tt;-

ftlt.

TaOt- Tt

T.

.t

-{
Frgure

2-3.

Rccrangutar gcomctry and boundary

condidons.

ffi.
ffr:'

SrE^Dv, Orc-ouvexsloxr,r-

Conoucnqx Wmrotn

denotcd by 4'. The double-prime superscript

cvaluated pcr unit area. For a plane wall

. q
c:7=

Garmrnor j3

O".oto that thc quantity q is

k(Tr-T)
L

When Eq. 2-25 is written in the form of Ohm's law,

tR,
the thermal resistance

AT

AT

LlkA

(2-26)

for a plane wall asgoted in Chapter I becomes

6+l
t/

,'

(2'27)

The tlow ol lteat b1r conducri\_@celugh a plane wall is a result of a

temperature difference acrofs the wall and is inhibited by &ermai resisance. which is proportional ro rhe wall thickness and inversell, proportional to the thermal conductivity of the wall and in cross-scctionai area.

'

Ifheat flows by conducrion through several plane surfaces, the temperature distribution and heat-ransfer rale taa bc 4"t.'u,t^rd&y ssumirg
frrat rhe teat llows tb^rolghaa.eqgivalcnt thcrrnz{ cin:rit in *hich ttrc heat
llorvsconsecutivcly through a series olrcsistances,cach corcsponding to a
separate

wall material,

As an cxample of a series circuir, consider a plane wall, denoted by the

subscript l, covered with two different t)pes of insulating materiais,
denoted by subscripts 2 and 3. The geometry is shown in Fig. 2{. The
same amount. oi heat fiows consecutively through each resistance, and
!latcrial l

irrt

i-n,-fr^rlJt
Figurc

2-.1

""r-:'
^,-# ^,.#

Scrics thermal circuit, rectangular coordinatcs.

zt

5|

Srs^Dy-Sr^TE

Gorqorrcrro

thcrefore thc rhermal circrrrit is a scrics circdl If the thrcc

r:ratcriat
propcrtics are known, thc gconctry is givcn aod thc two
cxtrcme surface
tcmperaturcs arc spccifid the hcat-rransfcr nlc can thcn bc derermined
from an cxprcssion similar to Ohm's law, as gircn by Eq. l-14:

T,-7,
,:f4f)
' \ 4/,",,,=Ar-.*.R,+.R2+.R3

(2-28)

i |A

,-

oncc the hcat-rransfir rate through the.compositc *all is known,

interface
temperatures among thc three matcrials can bc dctermincd

by applying
Ohm's law to only one wall. ylerial, For examplg n" rcrnp.ru,uri'{
lhc inrcrfacc berween marcrials I and 2 can Uc Octirmincd fiom
"i

o=
'

Tr- T,

Tr-

T,

'Rr - Lt/kfi

(2-2e)

Frequentll', plane walls arc cornposed of compositc materials

subdivided
so that the hear must flow rhrough scvcrar materials
simuhancously rarhei
&an,cqrsntively- rilrhen rhis ii thc cqsg ttc (hcrmal circuit becomes
a
pa::lie1 circuir- A rypical cxample of a parallcl circuit
is shown in nig. f _0.
The heat flow is derermined by

T'-

n:(+:),", =

T'
(2-30)

^,*(ffi)*^.

Individual resislances arc determincd by the cguation

R,=

klL,

(,:r,z.3,4)

Intermediare remperarures such as

\ y bc dercrmined by Eq- 2-29.
The parallcl circuir assumcs that thc ^
hcat flow is onc-dimcnsionar. and

the

if

resistafices R, and lR, arc significantll, diffcrcnt,

two-dimensional
cffects can bccomc imponanr (scc S-ction

2-|

Cyllndrlcal

Coordlnates

The mos-t common condnction-problem involving a cylindrical

geometry
is one in which bcar is conducred radially through-a
Irig" i,"h;"yii;L',
as-shown in Fig 2-5. The rcmpcraturc olthe imioc
surficc of rh.
bc 2!. and thc rcmperaturc of thc oursidc surfacc t f;"*"
"iil;;;a
:bt.!'
t"T tostcaty-srarc
tempc'rarure disrriburion in rhc consrant DroDcnv
F
gcncradon is prcscnr is givcn ty,h;;;;';iEi
;]".:.1:-::
z-zl. suDJcctcd ll,:ll,
to thc two boundary conditions

T(r)-7,
T(r.)=\

;;l'ii[r{'

Srreoy, Oxe-omgrcroxet Corvoucnow WrrHouT Gexenrnox 55

T=

T(t\

li = constrnt

tu- =o

Figure

2-5

C.vlindrical geometry and .boundary condirions.

The solution for the local temperarure. l.(r), is

r(r)=r,+(r,-r)WA
Sec Etample 2-2. Equarion 2-31 written

(2_3r)

in dimensionless form is

T(r)-r _h(r/r,)
To- T, ln(r"/ r,)

(2-32'

Thc temperarurc distribution in the cylhder is therefore logrithmic with

radius.

Once thc tcmperature distribution is knorvn, the heat flow radially

through the cylinder may bc dctcrmincd by using the Fouricr law for

clli ndrical coordinarcs,

'

*L.t

q--u{4#-..k(?nn#

"

{2-33)

I is rhc length of rhc q{inder-

the tcmperaturc distribution giVcn

-.,Piftu*$",ing
strtutrng
thc rcsult into Eq. 2-33 yiclds

o= 4-7.
' k(r"/r,)/2*l

in Eq.

2-31 and

sub

(2-34)

zq

56 Srrrol-Srrrt

Cd{Dttc?toN

and the denominator

Equation 2-3rl is *rittcn in thc form-of Ohm's.law
cylinder:
hollow
a
of
rcsistancc
tbermal
t"ptl*" thc
ln(r./ rt)
(2-35)

E--

2nH

for-a planc-wall
The principlcs of a scrics and parallcl circuit dcvelopcd
a hollow-cylindcr
to
applied
bc
also
can
systcm
Lordio"t.
,.*irlar
a tubc which is
F";;ple, supPosc that a Jluid flows. through
;;;;
avcrage fluid
Tbc
2-6'
Fig
in
as
shown
rnatcrial
I""*.J uy - insuLting
of thc
tcmpcrature
L"*o ,J be r, an - thc ouside surfacc
;;;;;
sutscrlp.l
tv
designared
is
Td lt
;;J;,t* is T2- Thc tubc marcrial
of thc fluid is givcn $t
;;;;fi;; i, no*u.r 2- Thc convcctivc resistancc
rhc rwo conduc;;. l-ig.-]]r. fluid rcsisrance is connecrcd in series wirh
hcat musr flow
the
becausc
matcrials
solid
r$o
iirl ,.risrunc.s of thc
consccutively through cach rnetcrid'
Thc hcar-flow rate for the problcm is givcn by

/ Ar\
e-{ 4 r-- -

Tr-Tz

i,z-f

tnirr/rJ,frt(ttlrt)
- lrkl
2zkJ

rt --T
T, f'4Al'4
Tr
P\,\,t44r1

R'#;,\^,'#
tnl

R'

ngttrc

2{

Scrics rhermal

,.i',

"-fillr

circuit cylindricat

ScomcrDr'

(2-36)

ffi-r
STEADY,

6*ot'tt'on'

Oxe'orxtrlstoxir

Gersr'rtrot

Wmrorrr

57

the total resisuncc

uscd in Eq. 2-36 nust h
had
The rhcrmal resis,nce
lffi"i*l]'litrt" tw:'known tcmpcraturcs

bctwecn the two

t"o*"

ili"'c -o r,,,': $"iffmru,"1*tr":1i$n1i:

is knownis
;:li*::J:i:f;H;: ;#;;;;"i-i**r"' '*e
';

c:@,r

T,- T,

(2:37)

r'

aluminum pip"

,l',.t1 ''t'
&"i"'-$eam at ltO"C Thc

PiPe

An
of l0 cm and an outsidc
w/m'K) h* ;;;;^i'[i"t"trctGa'l
wbcrc thc ambient
-"l&-185 (o.d-) of tt ;: TiJ;; iiToottain
1'*iir."t.,
Exarnple 2-3'

.xiys: F
lrf fl $fr;"flk:,:Hl?'ffi:::
$itr:?lffi
urunsurarcq
of pipe if
udt

thc pipe ts

length

with a S-cro-&ick

'Ai"a
Zil-;;"d;cc ,ir. t.u, toss from e:_.prfl t, I_:"."'":"*"-":-'r:;f*;;";
rate per
Dercrmine the heat-ransfer
laver of insularion t*-dlO'W7t'I(i'
rlistance
that the convectivc
i"u*t

unit length from the inJuittta'pipt'

ir {'
i' ' ' reiistances

#;;;il*;rc-elieible'

siirificant

pipe the
'to
-only pipe and the convecuve
Solution: For thc uninsulated
ttti"i"tt
lhe
are
hcat llow
:t^.:l:
of thc steam n
"o"j"'ti"t"l
Sint" the convective resistance same as the
resisancq of Ult 'oom oii'
ot the pipe is thc
negligible, the inside su'rf;;;;;t"1;tt
tength in terms of
rate Per
'init
steam tempcr"tu"'
'{t't"at-transfer
tt
symbols shbwn in the figure

- -,.
-.:q
=
'r 1- hQ2/ rr)f 2rkr+l/2trrrh*
ilo-30

@7;V.rrTt7'z"xo'o6x

15

:452w lm

80

(r.57x l0-1)+o-177

and
ot tt'c insulation must bc added
For thc insulated otot' lit tttt:LnJc
th. ."pr.rrion for the heat loss bccomes

T,-Tn

q'=

1=

tttv al . l,

Ztrk,

- Zrk,

2rrthn

l0-30

ffi-m#'m
EO

[i3x

tot'1

+0-482 +o'oe6

138

W/m

5E Srteor-Srrre @loucnox

Air

f,o'L

Ait

inuT-

.the heat loss from tbe steam by

Thc prescncc of the insulation has reduced
of thc aluminum pipe
resistancc
the
cases
both
that
in
pcrcent
Noticc
?0
can be neglected wi&out loss in accurac;* for thc calculation of heat-transfer rate.

Spherlcal Goordinates

ratc through a hollow

for the plane
to
that'outlincd
similar
spherc arc dcrcrmined in a manner
wall and hollow cylinder- Thc stcady, oncdimcnsional kmPctaturc dislribution with no gJcrarion pr*cnt is detcrrnincd by solving thc simplified
form of thc cr:nduction cqnation writteo in spherical coordinates. llhis

Thc tempcrature distribution

and. heat-transfcr

equation is

I d (*{\_t d2(rT):s
t dl
td,\'&l
Assuming that rhc boundary conditiom gpccify that thc inner and outcr
surfacc 6f thc spherc arc at knolvn temPetaturcs as shonm in Fig'2'7'

T(r'l-7,
T(r"l-7|.

--_

vt/

ffi^,
W,i'
v,l

19
Srrrov, oxr-orrnsrcitrer Corrot'crrox wmlour Gei'anrnor

t,/

Ftgute

L7

Sphcrical gcomctlv and boundary conditions'

The ternpcrarurc dierributioe ie

rlr lollow

sphcrc

i'

then

rlnl:
% /r_1)
rI
7=T -'. 1\'

Qtitt

vttlt
The temperature in a hollow sphcre thercforc varies hyperbolicnlly

ll''

radius.

applvirrll
The heat-transfer rate in thc sphere is dctermincd by

Fourier law to Eq. 2-38. The result is

T,-To

c: Wat+"W
The thcrmal resistance for a hollow sphere is

therefore

D-3'i

(/

t',t
I

(t.

'l(, )

4;kror,

Overall Heat-Transfer Coefllcient

tt::1"::,::";'11

As shown in Chapter I' when a hear-ransfcr.problcm

ot tne ,i*-l.i:..ii,,'.
thcrmal rcsistances in scrics' parallcl or combinations
or ovcrrrr u'r'""
convcnicnt to dcfinc ea overell tcat'tranrfcr cocfficicnt
is U' rn<l ll rl
tance. Thc symbol for thc ovirefl heat'transtcr cocfticicnt
defincd by thc cquation

c- ul(A1')-d

Q'4ll

cocfliule'nl '
The rolc of U is similar to that of thc con"cctive-hcat-kansfcr

?6

eo Sre^Dx-SrerE*ry
\iihcn f-q' 2-41 is comparcd to
Thc unirs of both U and tr arc W/ml'tC

{242)

'=t{}-'

total thcrmal rcsistancc of

wc sec lhat U can bc writtcf, in tcrms of tbe

tlc

circuit:

u/-'G;i;

(243\

coefficienL considcr thc tbree

As an cramplc oI thc ovcrall bcat-transfcr
oI Ulor this exanrplc is
vatuc
e-+n.
i"Fls

,i"*"

;#;ffi;

cxarnptc. thc
there can oe liulc

ln rhb

_ffitffi

rhrcc matcrials arc cqual' so

bc uscd in Eq' 243'
should
area
varics' wc mun bc

croes'cctionrl arcer of

rll

*"r*ioilJtt-l'hat
-io
cach rcsisunc: Ittn
"r*
to bc uscd in Eq' 243'
arca
2t
#.*t**."*u"t"g
*n
involving a comP(Fne
pt"tft*At.*tn ttlr"lattt rnrl'b thc inoncecrics'
Thc valuc for Ul
cormecttd
cvlinds in ryhich ,b. t dt;;.tare
Howevcr, when rhc

tir thc circuit ibowa

q:

in Fig 2-5 b

UA{ATl,oor=

UA=

(r,/ r,l
-7--'n - z'*J
l.r*rJr=

T-1i:,./r,t

ln(rt/ rr)
2ek;

ln(h/rz)

ffi,*-frt'zq

Noticc that the product

U varics
ol llA is a consunt. but thc valuc of cxamplq

corrcsponding'arca' For
dcpcnding upon the "h;;t-;;
zre4 A;' as our rqferencc ^te4
pipc
insidc
tIi
suppose that we *o*t

whcrc

Ai:2zrJ

would be
Thcn the {/ value bascd on '{,

U;n@
i.

lf

arca '{o' wherc

U is bascd on thc outsidc pipc

Ao-2mtl

"Srzeoy. Olre-onreNstoxAr- CoNDucnoN Wmrour

Gglantror 6l

then

uo:

rrln(rr/
\
. rln(rt/
-;i0,, ---,
11)

rr)

'

the
Evcn though the values for U, and U. arc differcnt'
consunt:
always

Ul

product is

U,A,= UoAu
Example

21. A plastic (k=0.5 W/n'Q,tlP:.carries a fluid such that

heai-transfei cocfficient is 300 W/'2'IC The a'reragc fluid

of-].T and an o'd- of;Lsrr. If
is
lip"ra** 100"c. The pipc has an i'd' pei
unit length is 500--W/n'
pipe
ii"'t"".,.*fer rate through the

tJcooicAvc

tbc externa.l pipa-timperature. Also calculate the overall heat'

transfer cocfficient based on thc pipe outside surface aree'

ioluf",.

Solution: A sketch of the pipe system is shown

figure- The heat-transfer rate is given b-v

Tr-Tz
I +- ln(rr/ rr)
i,(2rrrl)' 2rkrl

ln(1/r1)

mtrrt -F
or thc heat-transfer rate per unit lcngth is

Tr-7,
| . ln(rr/ rr)

c':+

-\-^--=--

hr2ar, ztkr
-f-

in the accompanfing

ffi

iI

6l

Snrory-SrrcCororrcnot

Jop- I loo-r2'. l^(z/rs\

ffid:oit-.ffi
r:-365"C
Thc overall bcat-rransfcr ocfficicnt based on ,{o is
UoAo-

,,
vo-

1 . ln(rr/ rr)
@rtt-Trk-kJ
|

r, . rrln(rr/

;F,*

rr)

k,
I

.0.02x1n(2/1.5)
tJ>(300 - ---63-

-62.69 W/m2-K

As a check on thc valuc for O, ve can calculate fhelheat-ranSer rarc

bascd on the calcutatcd ualuc of IJ.:

q': U,A,(Tt- T)-62.69x2r

x 0.02(100

36.53)

- 5gg 1v7t

Grltlcal lnsulallon Thlckness tor a Cyllnder

An intcresring situarion ariscs when a c-vlinder with low thermal rcsisrancc is coverid by an insularion layer and thc insulation is sunounded by
a fluid- Tbc gcomctry is shown in Fig. 2-8. Assume thar thc i.nncr surface
of the iosularion has a known constant valuc of temperature cqual to 1..
Suppose that we wisb to dctcrmine thc cffect additional insulation will
havc on thc bcat-transfcr ratc frorn the cylindcr. lt is nor obvious wbc.tficr

Frgurc

Lt

Crirical redius of pipc insulation-

w:
'{i
Sraov. Ore-oryaxstoxl @xoucrrox Wmrour Geterenox 63
addirional insulation will incrcasc or decreasc thc heat-transfer ratc. The
hcat transfer at srcady state through rhc grlinder and insulation should bc
cqual to lhc convection ralc from &c surfacc:

q:

h-,.t.(T.-

T-l

where thc symbols are defined in Fig 2-8.

As insulation is adde4 lo increeses but I decrcases. To dctermine
which cffcct dominates, we can writc thc hcat-transfer ratc as

q=

T'*T*

ln(r"/ r,)/2rk,l+ l/ h"2rr"l

To determine thc effect of variable insulation thickness on dre heat-transfer rate, wc can takc the derivative of q with respect to r. and cquatc the
result to zero to deterrnlge oprimum condilions. The resulting condition for
oprimum heat flow is the condition

E,
'"=l-0
kr

{2tay

g=di:=+asleJass g*enp callcd lb 8fu *'ebr- *

"b
the rario ol condurrivc rcistance in lhc :Olid itrfirhtion-ro'rfit
cenvective rcsistancc in thc fluid. The synbol uscd for thc Biot numbcr is

Ttr q*n*iry.l.<"y'4
represnts

Bi. The Biot nu:nber frequently occurs in problcms involving thc combind
modes of conduCtion and convcction.
The condirion for optimum heat transfer from the c]rlinder is thcrcfore

Bi=

hit"
kr

= I-o

(245)

By plotting the heat-transfer rate as a function of the ouside insulation

radius ro, we could show that the heat-transfer rate reaches a maximum
when Bi-1.0. If Bi<l.O addition of insulation will incease the heattransfer ratc. Oncc thc Bior number cxceeds unitl', additional insulation

will

decrease the heat-transfer rate.

When the Biot number is unity, the outside radius of the insulation is
termed the critical radr'us because of the heat-transfer rate from the
cylinder is a maximum when
k,
' cnt

(246)

h,

By cxamining the order of mignitudc of both &, and i] that onc can Gxpect
to cncountcr in typical problcms we would scc that the critical radius is on
thc ordcr qf r few nitlirnaers. THoce, we shou.ld be asarc ,that
additional insulation on smaltdiameter cytinders such as smatl-gauge
clectrical wires could actually incrcasc the heat dissipation from thc wire.
On the other hand, wc should clpcct that ;he addition of insulation ro
large-diametcr pipes and ducts will always decrcasc thc heat-transfer rate

,y

..
6{ Sraov-srrrr6lotrnor
Exemplc2.5.Ai-mmdiamcrcrclcctricalwircis-covcredwitha2.mm.
thict laycr of plastic insulario (t-OS W/n'K} The wirc is surrounded
iy.i, ",itf, an ambient EmPeralurc of 23'C and i]-10 W/m2'K' Thc
Jr. r"-p"oturc is 100"C
Dctermincthcratcolbcatdissipatcdfromthcwircpcrunitlengthwith
*ti,ou, thc insulatiou Assumc that lbc wire tempcraturc is not

"ra
affcctcd by prescncc

of thc insularion"

Solution: First we calcularc rhc Biot gumbcr:.

Bi

- &k, -

x
lo(2 +o'5]
0-5

lo-t

-0.0,

will
Sincc the Biot number is less than t, the presence of insulation
per
unit
rate
*'irt.
heat-traasfer
The
the
from
ransfcr
bear
incrcasc rhc
length with thc insularion oo *rc nirc is
t*J%-

'

t.-

ln{r./r,) .
72ak,

I
2zrni,
100- 25

ln(2-510-51
++

?rX0.5

10.90W/m

2ex(25x l0-3) x t0

Without insulition thc heat-traasfcr rate is

4: E,!G"-7-):

l0x2'rx(o'5x l0-3x lo0-25)-z'36

*,'

Thc addition of the insulation incrcascs lhe rate of heat transfer from the
wirc by a factor of 4.6.

24

EFFECT OF YARIABLE THERMAL CONDUCTilITY

varies with
The rhermal conductiviry of srost matcrials is not constant but
was
conducrivity
thcrmal
rhc
rhat
assumcd
wc
bavc
far
so
;;;";.
variable
a
the
cffect
**ont ln this sccrion, howcrrcr. wc will dcrcrminc tcmpcraturc distribrhcrmal conduaivity would harrc on the heat florvand
ution in a plaac *ail, a hollow c1'liadcr, and a hollow sphcrc'
lf rlre conctuctioo equarioa for thc rccrangular coordinatc qtstem derivcd
in Section 2-2had bccn dcrivcd asgrrning thc thcrmal conductiviry was a
variable tbe form of Eq.2-5 *ould bccomc

*(-#).*(-f).*(*#).';-*#

Q41)

Errrcr or Verren-s Trcnxrr. @xoucrrvrrr

65

thc tempcrature distribution in ihe rect4ngular solid is steadn onc'di'

mensional, and does not involve internal cnerry gencration, Eq.247 an
bc simplified to

if

*lo"#l:'
Bcforc wc can solvc &is cquation, we must know how

Q4st

$c

rhcrmal

conductivity varies with lemPcrature, lc(I), over thc rangc of tcnperatucs

cncountcrcd in &e solid. For many materials, very little accrrraqr b lost by
assuming thc conductivity-temperature variation is lincac

+
where

is a

constant. *k(r):'to(l

Br)

:
(249'

Integrating Eq. 2a8 once with resPect to x gives

kl)#:q

(2-50)

The heat flow through the wall will be a consrant for steady-statc conditions. The Fourier law applied to the wall is

q':-k(n#
By comparing Eq. 2-50 with Eq. 2-5

l,

4": Substituting Eq.2

(2-5r)

we see that the heat flux is

cr

into Eq- 2-50 followed by integration with rcspect to

x yields

r,(r*o$\-c,x*c,
The values for the two constants of inlegration can bc deternined dy
spccifying two boundary condirions. Assuming that thc boundaries of the
solid are at known tempcraturcs such aq those shown in FiC. 2J' thc
boundary conditions arc

f(0)= 1,
T(L)=7,
'Wt can dctcrmine the values of the constaqts of iotcgration C, a-nd

C2,

which arc

9t

STI DYSTATEOonoucrrox

ia the wall is lhcD

11g .limcnsionlcss tcmpcratrlrc distnlburioa

W-;*{[rr,+r;,;
r,2- r(x)2
^ T,-Tt I
I

Q-52)

wall yth.:"t)n"n thcnnal conductiv'

The tcmpcraturc profile in a plaoe
to thc lincar result
will
eq'2-52
it"
itv is not linear, but *'. ""ol"l
"aul
or
,l"ttJ conductivitv is oonstan! *hca p-0'
;iL:;;;*;'Gi
' ihc b.at flux through thc wall is

Q'- -Cr= -

*lo,-r,)+ +(r:-r,')l

which can bc rcwrittca in the form

c":ro(r.ury)+

ttrtrtnal cosduaivity s'duatod at thc

The quandry in parerthcscs is rtre
of thc *'all' rvhcrc
mean or avcragc temPeraturc, ?-'

r^_!,lrr'
al
The thcrmal conductivity cvaluatcd

1-

is

r-:ro(r-ury)
The heat flux in terms of

k-

becomes simply

_ k^(Tt-

s"

=--T-T2\

(2-53)

convenicat form' It shoss that

Equation 2-53 is written h a particularly
rraries [ryb
conductivity'that
;ermal
rhe hcat flux througtr *"ll';i
thc heat-flux
of
form
"
io uc Jcutatca bv tsig. thc.
ili;;;*

if the conductiviry is
.qiri*'a*i"p.a fo' **^ttwo wall-surface
"ointtuctit;tytempcraturcs
thc
of
o.atuatca at the avcrage
of a matcrial lor which thc
If a hollow cylindcr * ioUo* "pltt" 3nsiss
a similar proccdurc
tempcrature
with
thcrnal coriductivity *ti; li"early
and bcat flux throrrgh

dctcrminltlt i#p"o*"-Rmlilc
ir" tcttior pout!11.at tbe end ol thc cbaper'
cythicr with lincarly varying coniluaiv'
lout*
i
Tbe hcat flux througb
ity ald tlown surfacc tcmPcranrrcs b

vill
tn

allow us to

* r"*i"rt

Thc dctails

q-w,T,-To

f"
'

ErFEcr oF vArt^rLE THERII L

Cot'rDucrrvfrl 67

and for a hollow sphere the hcat flux is

q
--

\-T"

(ro- r,l/4tk^ror,

where the values for &- arc dctermincd by

*^-u(t+r,ff)
sce that the previous expressions for heat flux through a
cylindei, and a hollow sphcre with constant thcrmal
wall,
a
hollow
olane
io"au*i"i' may etill-&c {'"d ro dcrcnninc rh. heat transfcr by simply
r.pl"cing tie constant thermal conductivity with the thcrmal conductivity
cvaluated al lhe avcrage did lempcraturcwhen thc thermal conductivity docs not rzry linearly, the heat llux ca1
bc shown ro be surnmarized bi the Fourier law written in the form of
Ohm's law:

we can now

s:+
A-

where fl_ Iepressnts tlle mtn ihcrma'l resistance of rhc solid tffitfia{the
Regardtess oi geometry, the mean thermal resistance h based upon
by
defined
soiid
r'he
of
conducriviry
mean thermal

r-- l1--] -llJTrf"*g1/fand T2are .ihe extreme temPeratures across thc

where the temperatures T1'Then

surface, or

wali

Ai:I,-?"1

ti..."tt

thermal rcsisance for a planc

is

O:L

k^A

For a hollow cylinder R- is

- ln(r.lr,)
R^=_llFT
and for a hollow sphere
p :
"n

fo-fi

4rk^r"r,,

Exearplc 2-6. .t largc planc wall is 0J5 m thick One surfacc b maintaincd ai a tcmperature uf lS'C and thc other surface fo at ll5'C' Only
two valucs of rhermal conductivity are a.vailable for the wall matcrid. At
0"C k:26W/m'K and at 100'C k=32 Vru'IC Detcnninc thc heat flux
rhrough ttre walt assuming the thcrmal conducti"ity varics lincarly with

'

temperature.

'lq

6t

SrE^Dy-Sr^TE@xoucnoN

Solutiou The mcan tcnpcrature of rhc wall is

T^-Tr!rTr-ry -4s.c,
Thc mean thcrmal conductivity

6q f3 qfuined by linearly

bctwccn tbc two givcn ccnductiviry valucs

32-k^*

32-26

interpolating

100-25

100-0

or

t-=30JW/m.K
The hcat flux through rhe *,all becomcs

3r
il5-35
a,:!_- 7 - qC: d-lsz:os

-6e70 w /m2

2.5 STEADY, ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION WITH GENERATION

umil now wc havc not considcrcd a conduction

probrem that invorvcs

generadon of heat insidc tbe marerial. The.pp.o..h
to a probrem invotuing interna.l generation is idenrical to ,i't^,
in the previous sections.

*.a

Fint" the appropriate form of rhe encrg, equation is sorved ror rhc
tempcraturc distnlution ia dre marcrial. The solution will
result in two

consran$ of integration tbat musr bc deternined

by two boundary conditionr Ncxt' thc Fourier law is used ro derermine the hear nux rhroug
ttrc
solidHcar cao bc generared inrernally in a number of wavs. Chemical
rcactions. both endothermic or cxorhermic. can occur in
a solid marcrial.
An exothcrmic rcaction will gcnerarc hcaq whercas an cndolhcrmic
rcaction will absorb heat from the marerial causing a negatitx source
or a heat
srn&. Elcctric c_.rrenr passing through a resislnce
!.n.rut., h*t th;
conductor- Hcat gencration arso ocq's in fissionablc matcrials
of lhe nuclcar reaction tfiat rakes place within the material.
"

;
* ,.Ji

Eeclangular Coordlnates

{s an clmp]c of a problem involving inteinal hear generadon,

a plane wall with a consrant gcncrarion disrnbutcd urrltororty
"or,rid",
,h.o"gh;;;
fhc-gcorrrion raic pcr unir votumc i, ai",.J Ll-*r.
symbol ge, dic[ in this cxrmple.is a consranr value.
Supposc r# ;;
planc wall hac onc surfacc maintained at a known temperature
I, and that
thc othcr surfacc is insulatcd- Thc geomcrry and boundary
;J;;;
givca in thc problem arc illustrared in'Fig. 2-9.

9:li*,ytyc..

ffi'

#rt
ai. l

SrElDy. Oxg-onrersroxlr

46-

Coroucnou wmr Gri,rtrenox

constrnt

t = coostrnt

lnt0htcd $rrli(

figur! 2-9 Conduction in

a plane wall with uniforrn gcncrrtio!-

The appropriate formbT the conduction equation is

*dx- * #:o

(2-54)

since the problem assumes a stearil; onc-dimeosioa.d

rem{sslrelisrribgr-

tion. Aftcr integrating Eq. 2-54 t*'ice. the ternpcratfic disrributicrnis

I("):- #"t*C1xlC"

(2-55)

wherc C' and C1 are constants of integration that rvill bc satisfied by thc
boundary conditions.
The fint bouadary condition for thjs problern is simply

r(0): r,

(2-56)

The second boundary condition must specify that the surface

rt

r:.L

is an

adiabatic boundary. Since the heat transferred to this

boundary is conducted to the surface, the condition of an adiabaticstrrfacc
insulated

or

would, be

or

q"l,_,_. rffl,_"_o

+ll,- :o
dx

(2-s7)

An insulatcd boundary in a solid material,is one for which thc tcmpcrature

giadient is zero at thc boundary. Substituting borh boundary orditilrns,
Eqs.2-56 and 2-57,,into Eq. 2-55 results in thc ternperaturc distribution foi
thc solid:

T(x)-f, qtxLt. r

T=/.r,t'-7L)

(2-58)

Thc temperature distribution is parabolic with x and its maximum valuc

3g

79 Srsry$,r^ts

C.orsoucnox

occurs at the insulated surfacc, r-r. Thc ooditioa for

a maximurn
tempcr.tun, dT/ dx*0, uras satisfied by the insularcd boundary
at r-L Thc maxim'- tcmpcraturc iatbc ualt is fhcrcforc
".iAit.i

r@)-r^-rr*

otlrf

The equatioa abovc can be recast in terms of dimcosionlessparametcrs,

as
shown in Example l-10:

T
rmr

-...t2
,lCL

4__t_fr

we should also noticc that all the encrgr gcncratcd insidc

the urall musr bc

conducred from thc surface ar x:0. NL lrcar may
bc transferrcd
the righr-hand surface becausc it is insuraled and
no cncrry may bc stored
in thc marerial because stcady conditions havc bccn assumcd
rhcrefor,g
an encrs/ balance on t}e wall at the surfacc r-0rcquircs
that

4lr,-o=

of

,figh

- C;V

-u#1,_,---cTAL
Differenfiarion

of Eq. 2-5g will show thar rhis condition is auromaricaly

satisfied.
Problems involving nonunirorm hear gencredoDr or
on.. with different
boundary conditions. are approached in manncr simirar
ro tlu pro..Ju.i

illustrared above.

Cyllndrlcal Coordlnales

A
. common problcm in c-vlindrical coordinares involving cncrs/ gener&
tion is the case of a solid wirc carrying an elecrric
*ii i. ,i,i,
showa in Fig 2-10. The currenr is l and -thc ctecrrical rcsistancc
"u,,tt

is .R. The cxtcrnal surface remperature of the wire is a

knona
energr gcnaated per unit volume within thc wirc is

"ith.
d;.t

;;;;

Th;

l2R

4c=T

If thc currcnt and elecrrical resistance arc co'stanls rhc internar hear
gcncr:.tior is also a consanl
Thc steady, onedimensional form oJ rhc conductioa equadon
in cylindrical coordinatcs which inctudcs consrant gencrarion
is Eq. 2-21:

+*(#).$-o

(2-se)

SnADY' Orrt-oruexsroxet. Coxoucnox

figurc2-t tonilucfionin

wmr Gorenraox Zt

a cylinilcr wirh uniform generadon

lntegrating Eq.2-59 twice yields rhe rcmperature distriburion in the wire in

terms of the two constants of integration, C, and C,:

r(r)=Crln.-

S*Q

(2-60)

To determine values for C, and C, we musr have tu,o boundarv

conditions. At first glance it apoears that we have only one boundary
condition, which is
T(r"): T"

But we also know that all locations in the wire must havc a finire
lempcrature- If we try to determine the cenrertine temperature of thc wire
by-cvaluating Eq. 2-60 at r-0, we wourd arrivc ar
infioit" rcmpcrature
as long as the Inr term remains. To prevcnt the unrealistic
"o
tempcrature at
the centerline of the wirc we must sct C,
-e.
Alother way of visuatizilg the sccond boundary condition is to realize
lhat tbe ccnterline of the wire as an insulated location:

#l*,=o
The ccatcrline must bc insulated becausc of the fact that it is a linc of
tJ^T.try. This boundary condition provides thc samc result rs before,

Cr-0'

7tt

d
fl

&
4

72

^l
1'

Sreeoy-Srerr C.onoucnox

.t

.i

Whcn thc two bouadary conditions arc rsed to dctcrminc valucs

for C,
and C2, thc tcmpcrarurc disributioa in thc wire bccomcs

ry-#l-(;)'l
to

(2{r)

Thc maxinum tcmpcraturc in thc wirc occurs at thc ccalcr and is cqual

r@1:

r*=

qX?2

+r,

Example 2'7- Determine thc marimum clurent that a r-mmdiamcrcr

barc aluminum (&-2o4 w/m.K) wirc caa cargr withour cxcccding a
tcmpcrarurc of 200"c. The wirc is suspendcd in air with ao ambilnt
tcmperaturc of 25'C and the convectivc heal-transfer cocfficicnr bclwccn
thc wirc p4airis lOW/m2.K. Thc clectrical rcsisrancc of rhis wirc
fr
unir fcqgth of conductor is 0-937 g/a-

. Tlori*, This example is a slighr variarion from rhe siruarion used ro

derire Eq. 2-61. In this problem ihe ,mUient air remperarure
is known
rather than the surface remperarure of the wire. The
apiropriar. uounau,_u
condition is therefore one for which rhe heat conduoed
ro rhe .r,.;o,

surface ofrhe uirc is equar to the hear convected-into

the air. Mathematican),. thts boundar],condition is expressed as

F,irl1")- r-l= -

r#1,-..

(:52)

As bcforc, the sccond boun&ry condirion is

{ltlf l._o =o

(2{3)

This boun&ry condidon imprics that rhe maximum *ire

remperarure wilr
occur at thc ccntcr of the wirc.
Tbc appropriarc form of the conducrion cquation is Eq. 2-59
and rlc
yludg for consrant gcncration is given in eq. Z-60. SuUstiruring;;;;
boundary condidons 2-62 and 2-63*rcsurrs in thc tcmpcrarurc
distribution
in tbc wirc of

w=ffi{,.*-#)
T}c maximum wirc tcmpcraturc is thercfore

r(0)=?.*.-

,**ff(r-*)

(2-u)

Srr.rbv, Oxt-onrrxslos,rt- Coxoucnox wrnr Ge.rrnr'nor ?3

The gcncration term expressed
unit length is

in

terms o! the current and rcsistancc per

o;:+:++:#+
so

r*u=r-+*+(,-+)
2nt

200:25+

72

2',(lo-3/2) x l0

oo3zlr.$$aI1

Solving for the current yields

! =12.2 A

At this point in our development of the princlples of conductiol' we

should again recognize the occurrencc of several dirn:nsironless ros?6
which rccur throughout the chapter. Equation 2-64 is writtcn ia dimeasionless form. Thcreforc, the grouPs

qi;'r"

i,r*

and

L+

arc also dimensionless. Thc first term is actually a dinemionless geaeration and the product of the two is the dimensiontress generation flrst
identificd in Eq. 2-16. The second dimensionless group is thc Biot aumbcr,
which appears in problems involving the combined coaductio.n/convection
modes of heat transfer.
to ,..ogriring lhe existence of the Biot number' we should
tn
"aaitioo
also bc
asarc of its cffcct on thc hcat-transfer process. Tbe Biot numbcr is
thc ratio of conductive rcsistance in thc solid to convectilrc resistancc in
the fluid. Therefore, the physical limits on thc Biot nurnber are

Bi-+O

when

Bi-rco

whcn .R*,-t0

R*oa-+O

or when k-+co, and

or r,hcn A]--e.
. S/hcn &c Biot uunrbcr .approachcs zcrq the solid is practically bothcr'
mal and thc tcmpcraturc varics nost in ihc fluid- As the Biot number
approachcs infinity, thc oppositc is true. Thc resistancc in thc solid is much

lar3er thaa that

in

thc

flui4 thc lluid is

nearly isothcrnal' and the

tcmpcraturc differences occur predominantly. in thc solid.

3t

71 Srgruv$rrrt@xouclox
2.5

TIEAT TRANSFER FROI$ FNTS

Hcat conductcd through a solid substance is oftco rcmovcd fr'ono thc rclid

purcly by thc convectioa modc- Siacc thc contrcction ratc is proportional

ro tbc surfacc area, the heat dissiparcd at thc surfacc can bc iacrcascd by

mercly extending the surface- The cxrcndcd surlacc is called ain.

A simplc straight fin with constant cross-scctional ale.a A is shown in
Fig- 2-l t. Thc heat is conducred &tot{gb$c.rolid rutmialof $cfiaaadir
is rcmoved from thc surfacc to the surrounding fluid by convcaion. Thc
lempcraturc oJ the ambicnt lluid is I- anil ihe combincd-lreal-transfer
cocfficicnt is 1.. borh ol which are assurned consunL
To dctcrmine the tempcrature distribution in tbc fin, and a,cnrually the
heat-transfer rate from the surface. r must firsf perform an cncrsr
balancc on a differential volunre of fir marsial We cdrnot use the
conduction cquation developcd in Section 2-2 becausc it accounrs only for

sdrsion so&ad<fu=#..mibffiim'fruilrdrsrfut'
for steady conditions Src ratc ol lreat conilucteil into thc c'lemental
volumc at rshown io F!.2-ll is equalrorhc sum of lhe ratc of heat
coaducrcd our of thc roltmc tt r+lt ptus rlrc rate of hcat convcctcd

rlc

from thc surface of the volume:

4rn Qr- t*

4c

Substituting the Fouricr law for thc rwo conduction terms and Newton's
convecrion tero yiclds

lan'of cooling for the single

- *n#1,= -*#1,-,,+r;PArlr(x)-

r*l

wbcrc P is the pcrimetcr of thc fin. Dviding all tcrrns by Ax and nking the
lirnir es Ar-+0 gives a sccond-order differeorial equation for the lcmpera-

Figure

__l.l

2-lt

Fin with constant cross-scctional arca-

HeerTnrxsizn rnou

Fws

75

ture distribution,

#-Hgrx)-r-l:s

(2-65)

Equation 2-65 may be nondimensionalized by defining a dimensionless

temperature and coordinate as

,,v>-ffi
and

^x

l:-

L,L

wherc I is the base (x-0) temperature

variablcs, Eq. 2-65 becomes

aze

of the fin. In terms of the new

_4Pt2 n_o

dEz

kA

(2-66)

The dimcnsionless group (i"PLz/kA) can be simplified to a form resembling the Biot number.The perimeter tirnes the length of the fin is equal to
the total surface area A, of the fin:

A,:

PL

Then

4=+
AA

e-67)

wherc ,{ is thc cross-sectional area of the fin. Equi.tion 2-67 has dimcnsions sf hngth and it can therefore be considered to be thc characteristid

lengih of thc fin

l:
PLZ

7-l
The dimensionless group in Eq. 2-66 can now be expressed as

Fort _n,t
kAk

(2-68)

vhich is similar to the Biot numbcr used in previous problems involving

combined co{id&1iril and onvcctira. Thc Bist nunber is then

Bi-fit -tFptz

Q-6e)

We should havc expccted somc form of the Biot numbcr to appcar in a fin
problem nhich combines the conductivc and conveclivc modes of hcat
transfcr.

+d

76

Srrroy-Strn @rrnrrnq.r

Thc diurcnsionlcss form of thc fin-cnergr cquation (2-66) can now

o in tcrms of thc Biot nurnbcr:

yrtt

be

(2:70)

f;':*'lt=o
Thc solution of ft.2-70 is

,{9 - Cic -(Bl)'/:r.r 6'r"Gi)rnt

(2-7r)
The valucs of the-rwo consranB of intcgration caa bc dctcrmincd once
two boundary conditions are spccified. The most frcqucntly known tcmpcrarure along thc lcngrh of thc fin is thc base tcmperatufc,-4; $ritren in
thc form of a boundary condir.ioo,

T(0-T'
This equation will sen'c as the

fint

(2-72)

boundary condition. The second

boundary condition ma)' t"kc onc of sevcrat dificrcnt forms. Threc of rhc
most commbnb/ used boundary condidons arc considcrcd in thc following
three cases-

Case l: A vcry long fin such rhar thc

ambient tempcraturc of the fluid:

tip tcmpcraturc

rcaches tlre

T(L-el:7*

(2-73)

or

0(r;:s
Case

IL A fin with

an insulated tip ar

-t: l:

{t
el, :o
4l
dt lrr

(2-74)

=Q

Casc trI:
'{ fin with a convccrivc hcat loss from the tip surfacc arca This
boundary condition bccomes

k#1,-El^L)-r-f

(2-7s)

or

-#1."-#^'
Thc boundary condition 2-72, along wirh onc of cacb of thc

thrcc

f#
Heet Ti.er.rsmr mox Fncs 7?

boundary condirions 2-73,2-74, or 2-75, will provide rhree differcnt forms

for rhc tcmpcrature distribution in a fin of consant cross-seciional arcaonce thc tempcraturc distribution in the fin is knowu, &c icer dis
sipated from thc fin can bc determined. The casiesr method of cnaluaa*g
thc hcat-transfcr rate from the fin involvcs determining thc amount of hear
conducted through thc base of thc fin:

--*#1,-o--

#rr,-r-r#lr_"

(2.76)

we can noqr deterrrine th temperature distribution and heat-transfer rates

from rhc fins rhat satisfy thc three given sets of boundaryconditionscase

ution

I: For an infinitely long firu thc

is

dimensionless tempcraturc distrib-

Tl t\ _ 'r'
d(0- j#+-:.-"-VETtr
t b-

Bur rhe length of the fin is indeterminate, so ii .is more convenic.nt ro

llcp*ess rhc *aperar+cdisrci&lrrion in +qrm of *:
T( -\ _.r
A(r): j::1--1-:e :.-Y i,e"1t,r
To- T-

(2-77)

The heat-transfer rate is

(?i

4t:

- r_) - VEi l Go- r-)

irr
j' rrr

(2-78)

case II: For a fin wirh an insulated tip, the dimensionless temperature
distribution is

oG):

,g),,G. _ cosrr[(ei)'/'(r _0]

ir- r-

(2-7eh

cosh(Bi)r/l

and the heat-transfer rate from the fin is

t1=gil/2$(raCase

III:

rJtanh(Bi)t/2

For a fin wirh convection from its tip, the

e-80)

tempcrature

distribution is

g(E)=#*
-

oosh

(Bi)'^( I -

{).] +

(Bi),/r(l / pr)

I
cosh(Bi) /2 + (Bi)t /z(A

sinh [ (BD

r/r(

p L)sinh(Bi;'/z

(2-81)

7a,srrruv-Srrrr

Coorrna

and thc bcar-rrans?cr ralc

lr

q,-(Btnfl(r:-al{

sinh(Bi)tn +(BD'2(z

/z)

cosl(ni)trr

J
J

(2.E2)

\i
i:{'

Exemph

2{. A

stainless sreel

(,t=20 W/n.K) fia has a circular

cross-scctional arca with a diamcrcr of 2 crn and a lcngth of l0 cm- Thc fin
is attachcd to a wall that has a tempcrature of 300'C. Thc lluid surrounding thc fin has an ambient rempcraturc of 50'C and the hear-traasfcr
coclficicot is t0 VrcF- K.,fhe end of the fin is insulated- Dercrminc:
a. Thc rate of hcat dissipAred from tbc fia.
b. Thc tcmperalure at rhe end of thc fin-

Tbc ratc of beat rransfcr from thc walt arca covercd by thc fin

if

thc

fis

b nor uedd.Thc hcat-transfer ratc from thc samc fin gcomcrry if thc suinless srccl
fin is replaced by a ficticious fin with infinirc thermal conducriviry.
; .,
i.
Solutim: T?rc remperature disrribution and heat-rransfcr rarc from thc

fia arc givcn

b-v

Eqr 2-79 and 2-8Q rcspcrtivcl,v. First, wc will calcularc tic

fin paramctcrs:
A

z R2

i,y
"t- rn
-

&l
a Jhe

d(0.01;r

- o * t0-'

m2

roxr(o.o)Xo.r)2 _,.0

2ox; x ro-.

- 2o.oxi_x lo-' =0.06283 w/K

heat-rransfer rate is
ct

@i)'

/'z

+( [ - i'-) unh(Bi)'/2

b-Tbc fi*'tip

(1.0X0.06283)(300- 50) tanh(1.0) = I 1.96

tcmpcaturc is thc tcmperaturc at {: l:

8(t):
T(

L,

.- :
-L - I -0'6+8
cosh(Bi)r/l cosh(l'0) ls4t

- f-

cosho.

+ 0.648( fD

- I-) - 50+ 0.648(3m - 50)

-212'C
c If rrc assume that tbe heat-transfcr cocfficient ovct Lhe surface of thc
wall is the same as that over lhe surface of the fin, the hcat-transfer ratc

k
HeArTRATsFER

rnolr Frxs

?9

from thc srall without a lin attachcd is

o=

i,s$r-

2'-)= tOxnx t0-.(300-50)-0.785 W

llc

prcscnce of tirc fin has increascd tie heat dissipation from thc
surfacc area covercd by the fin by a factor of I 1.96/0.7g2:152

,'d.

If

rhe

fin thermal conductivity approaches infinii, the Bior i,rmb.r

'l would epproach zero. The hcat flow by conduction through thc fin
' r-iddtenal would have no rcsistancc and the cntire length of thc fin would
becomc isothermal at thc basc temperature. The heat-transfer rate from
this ideal fin would thcn bccome
,/,: i.

gro - h,A,(T6-T-)
= l0z'(0.02X0.1X300-50)= l5.Zl

,'.,. t il

The ideal heat-transfer rarc is the maximum possible ur(olunt of heat

that can be transferred hm a fin of equal size. The stainless steel fin

dissipates

,,

.r'

ts-7!:_t_t.96 _24Vo

less hear

than the ideal fin.

Fln Efllclency

Tbc previous analysis used to determine the temperature disrribution

aad heat-transfer rate from fins only applies to fini that have consrant
cross-sectional areas. whcn the fin is tapered, the cross-sectional
area
varics resulting in a more complex equation for the tempcrature
distribu_
tion. The temperaturc distriburioa and heat-transfer rarcs from tapered
fins arc cxpresscd in tcrms of Bessel functions. A complete t *t rr.rrt
on
the subjcct of tapered fins can bc found in References t and 2.
. A convenicnt conccpt that can bc used to provide a value for thi
heat'transfer rate from fins is the fin cfficiency. fre
fin elficiency is aciirrc<t
as thc ratio of thc actual hcat-transfer ratc from a iin to the
heat-transfer
ratc from an ideal fin:

n:ff

4ecnor

(2-83)

Thc ideal fin

transfen thc maximum amount

slzc and basc tcmperarurc. Thc ideal fin has an

of heat of any fin of cqual

inrinite thcnrrat conduciivity' and thcrefore its entire length is isorherrnal at the basc temperature.
Thc actual and idcal fins havi the samc geometry and the samc
basc
tempcraturc. The hcet-traasfcr 14: from .&aidcal fin is

qoa^=h,Ar(Trwhcrt

,l, is thc cnlirc surface

tempcraturc of T_.

area

T-)

of rhc lin

exposed to rhc fluid at a

4tr

f)

SreroY-lrec

C-or'tDucrlox

The hcar-transfcr ratc from thc aaud lia will thco bc

q^--niJ,(Tr'T-|

(2-84)

in a position to dcrcrsrir crprcssions for the fin cfficicncy'

Wc are alrcady-Oc
fin cfficienry for a fia with consrant cross-scctional area
no, ir"-pte
and an insulatcd riP would bc

- fs')t"(u/txrt't=t--arL(Tb-T-\
grcur

r:5fur"*,tai)'z'

(2-85)

Eq. 2-85 is sho*n in Fig; 2-ll Thc figurc shows that rhe
drops rapidly as thc Biot numbcr incrcascs' A fin *'ith a large
"ft;.i.n.y
oiniot'numbcr-dissipates less hcar than onc with a smaller Biot
""fu.
possible for thc
aumber. If rhc cfficicnry diops ro a vcq'low valuc, it is
beat lhan trom
morc
grcsant
rransfcr
rc
lia
witbout
tbc
ryall
the
of
surface
situation. Thc
this
rhe wall wirh fin in piacc. wc could hrre anticipated
rcsistances.
to
convcctivc
of
conductivc
thc
rario
Biot numb.r opro.ns
For largc valuc of Bi thc conducrivc rcsistancc is large compared.^ro rhc
"
resisancc, and rhc tcmpcrrturc drop in the fin is significantconvccrivi

A plot of

Figufc

Ll2

Efficicncy for consrant-cross-scctione}$Ga fiD with innlated tip.

HrerTnexsrrn rnou

Fnc tt.

poorly conducting lin occuSrics al at^:t

Whcn thc Biot number is largc, thc
af*,ively transfer hcat by convccrion, and thc prcence of the fin
i.au".t the heat dissipation lrom thc wall

,i"i"",
'"?in ,*taob

should bc selcaed rhat havc high values 9{ 6:Td

to
madc of insulating
.oniu.,i"i,yr that is, metallic fins are superior fins
cocfficient is
convcctive-hcat-transfer
when
thc
;;,;;;ir. in siruations
i"... ,fr. Biot numbcr incrcascs and the advantage of adding fins for the
t*reasing thc hcat transfer rate is diminished. If rhc fluid
#;;;i

rhe hcat rransfcr cocfficicnt

iil;;; ptros. uy cith-er boiling or co1{gnsr1q,
Thereforc' when thc fluid
l-2'
ia
Tablc
sloi
t-g*
t".oio'quir
^
actually reduce thc hcat
to
rrn
the
possiblc
for
;;;; piasc' it-is

dissioated from the

-'r'r'g"t.

plane surface'

z:iz -ei.'es ihe fiq-efficicncy fora fin with constant cross'sectional

riritras an inilatcd tp. rnc curvc musr bc modified il it is
arca' The
"r.""ii,t.
;;;.."d ," ;pply ro a fin wh:ch loscs heat from is cnd surfacr
an
addin-e
b'v
for
compeirsated
bc
may
i.'r, ,runrt., iiom thc tnd surfacc
is such that the additionai
;;;;i;;t length ro the fin. Thc added length*ca*ss
{ras:bc.lipaea of
*ni." arca *ifl re+{
te ireulatcd.

fin and the errd sufiacc of ttre cnendcdfirmill

(Rei.
3) recommends that thc addcd lcngrh be cqual lo thc {alio
Jakob
lengrh of tbe fin.
of the tin'cross-sectional area to perimacr. Thc corrtctcd

rlrc actual

Figu!.

2,l3

Efficicnca for fia rith'triangnlar

profilc'

tn

'H
':

82 Srrrov-Srrrt oxoucnox

Lr- L + tl2

Ar-

Lrr I
-rI

,2r' Lr, ,,

i.

ri''i
Figurc

1.,

2-14

Efficicncy

,.,

\"'

""rrljlr,'"

wirh rccrangutar profile.

necessarl' ro sarisfl, rhc ins,.rlared dp boundary

condition is

L,- L*

tlen

The crror involvcd in thc approximarion of adding

to the fin lenst' ro
compcnsarc for hear loss from tbc tip is less
rhan ld dien

Ir; .i

wbcrc

l is rhc tia rhickness.

Vt

Fin cfficicncies for scverat other t)pcs

and 2-14' Additioaal fin'cfficicngr

of fins are sbown in Figs.

"uilo -"

Exery. 19'

2-13

avaitaule in Refcrcncc 4.

Dcremnine the hcar-tnnsfer ratc from thc

rccrangurar fia

sfown in rhc figurc. The dp of rbc fin

i,

oor iosJat"d

"oJ-,hJ;;;
$cT{-:onducliviry of 150 W/r:o.lC Thc base i.rnp"ra,*.
b 100.C and
thc lluid is at 20"c rhc bear-ransfcr cocfficicnt
bctwccn rbc

is 30 W/maIC

ria and fluid

Ur,.,

hf"

Heet Trrxsrrn rnov

Frus

E3

Solution: To account for heat toss from the tip area we determine thc
*

corrccred lcngth of the

fin:

L:

L+

-to*ff

:ron,

",n

The Biot number based on the correcred length is then

".

,= ^"!1,'
kA

3ox 9:84

lr9?9e5F

150x0.008

and the surface area of the fin with length

A,:

L, p

l.

-o.ez2

is

: e.2095 x 0.g4 :0.176

rn2

The efficicncrv from.Fig. 2-12 is

\-0'775
Thc heat-transfer ratc is then
q

qF"A

"(7,

*327 W

- T *) = 0-77 5 x 30 x 0. t76( 100 - 20i

Exanple 2-10. Ar aluminum {k:200w/m.K) annular fin is placcd

on
a copper tube that carries a fluid. fie tube is g cm o.d.
Tnc nuia is at
250'C. Thc fin is 0.5 cm thick and ld cm o.d. The surrounding
fluid is at
70"C and the convcctive-hcat-transfer coefficient i, 60-W7ilt.K"
D*
termine the heat-transfcr rate from the fin.

-+l,F-

ttlp
I

&l

SrrroYSrert Corownox

'

'ntr-}

Solufcn: Thc corcclcd t.o$h

,fo*o in Fig

*.a rofli'.lunt t*

2-14

hcat loss frcm tbe tip is

L,-L+j -{r-o)*

T-l:s

"n

Thc profilc arca is

A,

'

;' :(&)' " :

L,t
(

4.25 x 0.5

0'0425 )r/':

- 2-125 cm2
60

200x2.125x

l0-' )'"

:O-33

r*
rt

rtl

L,

7l

r*

+_
rl

r+

af5

-z.oe

t ,ott

The cfficicnc;- from Fig.

,_0.r,
and thc bcat-rransfer rate from thc fia ir
c

- ni,A,\7 :T J- "ril?t7r2,2 - t tyf; t -%)

= 0.89 x 60 x2 x r(D-O825r -D.Of 1pSO -ml
b

:31{

Thc basc temperalurc of the fin is assumcd to bc thc sarnc as rhc fluid
tempcnalure inside thc tubc bccausc thc rapcrarurc drop across tic
coppcr rube

*ill

be small.

2-7 STEADY, TWO, AND THREE-DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION

Wc havc assumed so far that the tempcrature disrribution in the solid was
a funaion of onl;" a singlc coordinatc; that is, thc situarion involvcd only
one-dimensional conduction. However, we now nccd to develop techniques
that caa bc uscd to detcrnrine thc heat-transfer'rate and lemperaturc
distribution yhen tbc tempenturc is a function of two or threc coordinarc

variablc" Thc two- and drecdimensional solution urill bc morc involvcd,

and so wc vill have to usc approximatc and indircct or analog merhods to
providc a solution.

Thc compledty and length of solutions lo lwo- and rhreedirnensional

problcne suggcst that mlutin dth a .ligiral conrputer will be desirable
Thcrdorc, two compuler piognms arc includcd in this scction. Tle
prograe language is FORTRAN IV. Thc tlgc of cxamplc programs
sclect d art relativcly ci*plc. m that tbc readcr can follow thc program
dcvclopmcnt without unusual cffort More complex programs arc suggested in thc problcms at thc cnd of thc chapter.

I
I

Sneov. Twq' exo Trntr-oncrsrone! CoilDtETtoil 85

Analytlcal Melhodt
The most obvious approach to iietermining the tempcrature distribution

in a solitl for which thc temperature is a function of two or three

coordinatcs would bc' to attcmpt an cxact solution of the governing
equation. For the case of steadv conduction in a rclid with constant
thcrmal conductivity and no internal gencration, the govcrning cquation is
rhc conduction cquation derived in Scction 2-2:

912':0
in thc
Th,iscquatioa ie Laplaoc's cquarion- Tlclocnof laptgr,;cl
"TElioa
diffcrent coordinatc systems is given in Appcndir B.
Laplacc's cguation is a linear partial differential cquation. Scvcral standard techniques for sq!'ing it are available. One metho{ separation of
variables, is pardcularly usefrrl

in

heat-transfcr worlc Although this

merhod is not coverEd here, the interested reader b referred to Rcfcrences

5, 6. and 7 for comptete details on this and oths mcthods of soh'ing
Laplace's equation.
?nct the tcmperaturc fistrrturion is dacrmine{ te-rarAess tf ttfuftc hcar flux js dctcrnincd by the Fourier law. ln two- and thrccdirncnsional systems this law is most conveniently exprcssed in vector form as

qherc

4":-kvr

(2-86)

V l" ir thc gndient of thc scalar tempcrature. Thc form of 'thc

gradient in rcctangular, cylindrical and sphcrical coordinates is girrcn in
Appendix B.
The gradient of a scalar quanrir.v such as the temperatur-e rcsults in a
vector quantity which, according ro the vecror form of the Fouricr law (Eq.
2-86), is the heat flux, g'. Usuall;-, we do not consider the heat flux to be a
vcctor quantity since it has dimensions of energy per unit area, ncither of
which are vcctor quantities. Howevcr, it is convcnicnt to imaginc hci.t to
be "flowing" in a certain direction; thereforc, {'ir often rcferrcd to as rhe
heat-fux oector.
An imponant geometric property of the gradient is the fact that the
'heat-flux yector is directed pcrpendicular to an isotherm. a line of constant
tempcraturc, at each point in the solid. As an illustration of ttris properry,
Fig. 2-15 shows several isotherms and representativc heat-flux vcctor at
points l, B, and C in a twedimensional rcctangular rclid- The lcngth of
cach of thc three heat-flux vectors is proponional to thc local temperature
gradient. That is, wherc the isothcrms are closc\r spaccd, the gndient is
large and the heat flux is also large. Where dre isothcrnrs arc *idcly
spaced, thc heat flux is proportionally smaller. In Fig 2-15 the heat flux at
point ,{ ir grcater than at point I, wherc- the tcmpcraturc gndicnt is

smaller.

trt

t6

{l

SrrrotrSrereC.onoucrrox

f. r cmLrt

Flgure

2':5

Hear-flux vccror and its g-comctric rcrarionship to isorhcrms.

since we can visualizc thc hcat flux as a vcctor. it shourd

have properties
like any other vecror quantiry. wc should thereforc bc able ro
resofvc thc
hcat-flux vecror'inro i'' componenr in the directions of the coordinatc
axes. Expressions for thc vcctorcomponcnts can bc determin.o
uy."p"nJi"g t. form of the gradient For a rccrangular coordinar. ,jrr.rn, rt.

heat-flux vecror is

a"--r({i*#;-84
Thcrcforc, thc heat flux in the

dircction would bc

_ .dr
4,- - KE
Similar. cxprcs.sions can be written for thc @mponcnts
of the heat-flux
vrctor in thcy and z directions
Thc hcat-transfer ratc in thc -r direcrion across a ptanc area p
which rics

in theyr plane is then

',--ol^,(E)l,*

(2-87)

,t

t&
BF

Snenv; Two_ ero TtncE-DnancroN^L

CoirDtcnou &f

Thc subscripr p indicares that rhe derivative of thc tempcraturc

m.st be
cvaluatcd ai cach point on the plane beforc integration
over rhc a-rea of the
Plane.

Graphlcal Methods
Exact' anarytricar sorutions to the conduction equation
for tc,o and threc
dimcnsions are often impossiblc to achic,ve- For cases
in which;"ly,i;
solutions are difficurt to obtain, approximate merhds
graphical method is a simpre.techniquc that
can provide"r"answenr for the
hcat-transfcr ratc wirh surprising
The graphical method is based"."u.u"y.
on the geometricar requirement of the
vccror form of the Fouricr raw, which srtcifies
that the isotherms and,
constan! heat-flux rines are ajways perpeniicurar
at points whcre the

r**td ril

two
lines intersect. We can rherfrre,["t"i, tt"
isotherms and consront flux
Iines and conrinue ro revise them until they

sarisfy rhe perpcadicurar

condition-

Thc accuracy of the sketched temperature distribution

wit be dirccdy
relared to lhc carc raken in ttre consttnction-of
ttre lines- T,rittr a little
cxperience we can obtain reasonauty
accurate resurts in a

of

shorr aaount
.time.
The sreps used in the graphical method
can bc outlined as follows:

l:

Step
Draw an accurare scare model of the
materiar
temperarure distribution and heat_transf..
rui. a-re desired.

in which

the

Step 2: Sketch the heat-flux lines and isotherms

on the modet. The llu.r
lines and isotherms form.curvirine"r
rq;r;;.-;t au interse*ioas of the
heat flux and isotherms, the tangenrs
;o- ,h";;;.t wiu bc pcrpcndic.tar.
The diagonals of curvili-rrear squares
bisect each other and are pcrpcndicular' Rcmember ihat adiacent irotr,.*rl unJi""un*
t
fines caanot *,
cach other' Isotherms are pcrpcndicurar
to adiabatic boundarics sincc an
adiabatic boundary is aline oi
oi
syrnmerry arc adiabadc boundaries.
"o*t n,r-, th"t is, g":Q. Atrso, lincs of
Step 3: Continue to redraw the isothcrms
and flux lines by adjusting
thcir locarion undl thcy mcct the
sp"Cncd in Stcp Z
"onaitions
.h:: ygu Tc satisficd with :h:
of your drawing the teopera-turc
distribution is known and thc
"".c,roq
t."t
nu*
is acterminc4 as usual, by
epplying the Fo'ricr o*:
thir;'fo;or",
oroo:d.,
T:
lem of dctcrmining rhe heat-trdnsf.,
,"tc Urriugii .t u"uof I .bcam uscd
m a furnace wall Thc bcam is ,u..ouna.Jri-"in.,
siae

ilil;;

placcd in rhe

wa' of

the

furnace,;;;;i,t ;ti'r-lu."),

{h##
ty-hr"il;;

The

nrfa* of

SS Srrrry-Srere Coxorrcnol

Flur lincs

I
Adbb4i$

surfre

ln3uLliq

2-f5 Graphical rncrhod applied ro ea t bcam: (a) p}ysical modcl;

O) scale dnwiag of bcam and skcrc$ of llru lioclrend isothcrms'

tigurc

tbc bcam on lbc insidc of thc furnacc has a tcmpcraturc of fr and thc
sudacc of tbc bcam ncar thc .xtcrior wdl b ar Ir Tbc thcrmal conductiv'

ity oI Scbcarn

b*.

The ccatcrlinc of the bc.rr b e linc of ry@{ry md it is thacforc an

adiabatic surfaca Constant-flux lincs aad isothcrms skctcbcd on a scalc
drawing of trc bcam arc shown in fig. 2-16(b|
The bcat is rcsuicrcd to llos' in four chanacls limited oa cach sidc by
flux liaes- Thc'rctal hcat transfcr rate through onchalf of thc beam is

ffi
Srerov,

Jwo

er.o

Trneonararixrer Colorlcrron

S9

therclore

c*,-

i*

Thc inset in the figure shows a rypical curvilincar square through which the
hcat-rransfer rate is 4r. Thc Fouricr law applicd to thc single curvilinear
squarc per unit dcpth of thc figurc is

,:r=rorL#

(2-s8)

II car.h curviliacar squarc is skcrchcd such thar it mcets the condition

Ax= 6y, cach tempcraturc subdivision is cqual The tempcraturc diffetence
berwcen two adjacent isotherms can then bc cxprcsscd in terms of thc
overall temperaturc diffeppce across the cntire surface aed, M, the aumber of equal temperaturc subdivisions ia thc figure:

Ti*r-Ti:ff(aT)*,

Tt-T

I{ rle flsi liacs ha* t'etn dfuided irno t/ qtat subdivisiong tre heat
transfcrlhrough cach of the channcls formcd by adjaccnt heat-flux lincs is
cqual. and the total heat transfer through the bcam is

(2-eo)
{..r-lf4
substituting Eqs. 2-88 and 2-89 into 2-90 givcs an cxpression for the total
heat-transfer rate of

(2-er)
when the grid is squarq that is, whcn Ax:rl1.
The heat-transfer rate can thercforc be determincd by drawing a scries
of curvilinear squares and then counting the number of equal tempcraturF
subdivisions, M, and the numbcr of equal hcat-flux subdivisionl iy.
Exa.mple

in Fig. 2-t6
Solunr'on:

2-lI. Detcrrnine thc hcat-transfcrratc through thc beam shown

if Ir-500"C, Ir:200oC and k:?0 \trr/m.K.
For &is cxample

M-13 jy-4

(AI)*I-300"C

Then the heat-transfer ratc through rbc bcarn pcr unit depth is givca by
Eq.2-91:

(-z[Sttarl-"J:

rem

v,o

Thc factor of 2 is uscd bccausc the tzluc of rVras shoyn for only onc-half
of the
..

bcam.

'

,.#
.s
.3

'{

90 Srerpf-Srerribrwcnor

,i

cl

+
+

.6

slh

rFa

+nv
sgrg

v-tdt
\O

rS

.O

T;

l$l

il- E Rl
ci

4
.t
I

---

s.

*-=-

-l

tt)

s
U
d
I
cl

FI

ll=l-

-t
=o
;-e

.5
=ncE+
r!: e

Co

;'

5r
rt=-!!x

Ac
.C

=i
otr

.Es* 3;g t

E
E

E3

F
E

Sttrot Two- exo Txnrs-or*rapsrorrr Cclxirraon gl

3A
-q

lA

\-8
Al

l^

t-

l-J

l*t

sl>
FhFl!
dlv
lv
lc

lv
lc

_,1; ,a
sli tlS
l3 '19
l:

ls

ld

Fl>
tlv

lts

:
I

*y'.--\
I

\./

{
u660
o= c

'c

63

':-'g gaG

tr

g'

c
9x

o
t3

E=E

:x3

o
o

c
a.=

-oc-

q
.o

? E-t

i.E*:E

F5=

9a Srrror-Srere Ooxoucnor.

IEE{

li t-a

lbb't

l$tq
ttg

rA

Ii.(

ON

t.-

lg3{

rl]

dld
lv
lc

!c

ls E*
ls !.F

ts

l:* f

F'

lr;q

lr it
llir
t:;l
72-'
I

l.s;i
lexE
IE?E
[=F-:
.
l-

l3r!
?;i
I

li-l r
l:a

; :-J

*r I
F;: *i.

*;=
E

E?S

i - Eii

a:3{
o
F-a

o
4

-J
.9:;

co

.:N

tr

.:-q '=
o=

E.E

?-i

Eei t3=

o-=
e'-

Ei-i>
=

=-^eC

-.41>

t ee-.E .E.r 5
%ts
tso

r;

SrEADy,

The facror N / M in Eq- 2-9

-fwo-

.[

rso Trnte-onct.rsrorer Corroulnoy fSi

is callcd the conduction slnpe

faaor,

Si

s:-#,
so that rhc hca( lransfer written in t:rms of .S is

y'-

kS(A?n)"_.[

e-g?l)

Thc conduction shape factor for severar shapes are cataroged

in Tabrc 2-1.

. Exgressions for the conduction shapc factor are known for sveral
simple geometries. For cxamplg when iq. 2-26
is arranged in the form of

Eq.2-92, rhc conduction shape factor for piun" wall

is
hollow cylinder of lcngrh I, rhe conductioo ,nifi
"

A/L.

For. a

ra"t* o Zri1tnp.lr,l.

Notice that the shape factor has dimensions of I'.rg*,.

Ana?og

i,lc,lhods

potenrial f in a material with constant resistivity

."1i.^:t_..:t-:flricaf
ano
no tnrernal sources of potendal is governed
by Laplace,s cquation, the
:amc equation rhat governs rhe tempcraturc distribution
in a coastant
propedy solid wirh no inrcrnal cnergy gencrationThe ,t .quudc; io;
transport ol hear (Fourier's law) and- ttte transport
of charge tbrt^" r"*l
are also similar, as shown in the table. Owing
to ttre siiritarity of th.
cquations rhat govcru thc two phenomen4
the" transport of chargc and
hea! arc said to bc analogous.

lglgous

Equations for Thermet and Elecrrical Sprems

ErrcrnrclrSvsrev
Conscrvation cquation
Ratc cquation

v2E-0

-AE
'::n--

Tsrr-Ver
Srsrev

grf-0
:1f

'&

potential in the clectrical systm is anaiogous

ro the
,,I:-l]i:lionlcss
ormensronless tempcrature in a thermal
system. It is to our
use this analogy bccause voltages
"d';;;" ;
are easii,o n,."rur. than tempcratures.

By measuring

the rocation or ti.,. consrni;,.;,i"r rines with

a vortmeter,
ye can determine rhe locations of thc isotherms.
The analogy is carried out as forlows- e-*"r"
model of thc thermar
Scometry is cut from a comrncrciary avairablc irecrrically

ilil;

e bancry.b conncccd o ttc p.p.r !o previde

the overall
l1f:,,t"d
cnung
porcnriar across the modcl Thc crcerricar
uiu"a..y;Jil;;
on thc paper must bc
. ,fr. io.rponding boundary
lTOg::O
"n"fogou,
in rhe rhermat problcrn.
noi UOermat UounAaricr the conduct:_":1r,1*t

ng papcr must have a boundary of

constant potentiaL Thir

_n ."rity

a''

4t

Sreroy.,Srrrt C-onoucnor

achi*cd by- coating rhc oo-undary with a hie*rry conducting paint and
co-nnccring ir ro a bauery. Tbc thermally insuiarcd bouoa-ary
b.
sia-utarcal in the clccrrical qnrcm by an cicctricaily insularcJ
which is simply rhe cdgc of thc papcr.
Qrcc:thc oonsrant potcntiar rincs arc rocated with a probc conaecrcd to
a voltmercr, rhc boundary conditions may bc swirched and the
o.ti,og*"i
linel or thc lincs of constanr currcnt, may bc located. 'llhcsc lincs clrrc-

;n
6;;;:

spond ro lines

of

consrant hcar

flur- By using this proccdurc tn. *n

curvilinlr squ"r., in the moder.

accuratcly gcncrate thc compretc sct of

and a value for thc conduction shapc facror

dercrmined with

ercatcr accuracy than by the graphical rcchniquc. ""n

Thc analog mcthod has thc advanragc rhar rocarcs rhc isorherms
and
flur lincs without rhc rriar-and-crror proccdure of rhc graphicat ;.,h"d,
but ir has rhc disadvanragc thar it rcguires rhc purchasJoi ,p.A^i.qJi
mcnr T:hc -sraphical method requircs only pcncil. papcr. and p"rj;;;.
Botb merbods. howcver. arc pracricatl'rimiri to rwodimcnsionui
g.o-.-

rrics and simplc boundary conditions such as isothermar aad adlabatic

boun&rics. A morc 6lar-il+'cl ,l:.,rroioaf *hcanelog,nethod can
be found
ia X,cfcrcnccs 8 and 9.
Numerlcal lrletbods
Numerical solutions are po*'erfur and versatire rechnigues
when applicd
slca.dy conducrion probrems. Numericar merhods
."n *...Jr',uty,
applicd
prgblems rhar cannot be sorved convenienrty
uy ort.ii."i'1o
liCuo.For examplc, numerical merhods can be used ro J,u. proUt..r,,

to

invoh'ing radiadve boundary condirions or inrcrnar

.n.rg' gJn.iui;".
Graphical and analog rechniques cannor be conveniently
,-,iOlo pr;;i;;
solutions to thesc rwo t)?es of problems.
Tlrc finitcdiffcrcnce numericar merhod invorves dividing
thc sorid inro a
numbcr oI da- An cncrgl' barance is appried to cach
nolc o,hich r.suhs
in en- algcbraic cquation for the tcrrp.ratur. of cach node. A
,.p;;r;
cqution b dcrived for cach nodc tooted on thc,boundary
,h;-J;
Thc rcsult of thc finitediffcrencc rechnigue is z argebrai.
"i r* ,hi
.qL,io^
a nodcs in thc rclid Thc, algcbraic equations ,ipt"..
*,1 sirgl. p;J
diflcrcorid cquation and thc applicablc Lundary conditions
If tbe numbcr of nodes in thc sorid is reraivery smarl wc can usc
standard mathcmaticar tcchnigucs ro sotvc the rcsurting
algcuraic
tions As tbc numbcr of nodcs incrcascs, thc rimc rcquired
"qu.to achicvc
an
cxact solutbn becomcs unrcasonabrc. Approximate solurions
bccomc
adrraotagcors ir thesc cascs Wc will firsr considcr
- ";p;;;;;;
mctho4 a,llcd re I axa t io n.

A p.-o*ber of equations grows large, the application of programma.

blc calculators and digitar contpurcrs biomes i.por,.nt.
Two computcr
.

i
Sreeov, Two-

ero Tnrer-onrrr.rgorget Coxoucnox 95

programs are includcd later in this section to illustratc thc typ6 0f

sodimensional conduction probrems that can bc b.*t rctvcc by digitar
computers coupled with numerical techniques.
Thc finitedifference rechnique wiil be iirustrared by considering a twodimensional conduction problem. Firsr. we dividc thqsolid into aiumbcr
of equal-size squares- The sorid within each subdivision is imagincd to be
concentralcd at the ccnter of the square and thc conccatratcd. mass is thc
nodc- The_interior rcgion of a typical two{imcnsional sotd is *own in
Fig-2'17- Each subdivided square has a rength in the x dircction ofAr and
a length in they direction- of Ay. Thc node designatcd by thc subscdpt
zcro
is shown surrounded by the four adjacent noaes. Each noa. ir imag:ncd to
bc connected to adjacent nodes by a smalr conducting rod- Heaican bc
conducted only along rfu: imaginary rods. That is, inducrion bctween
node 0 and node l, which actually occurs across an interface ofheight ay,
in the continuous material is imagined to rake plage through thc inrlginary

rod connecting nodes 0 and l.

For steady conditions an energy balance applied to node 0 whcn there is
no encrgy generatiorr gives
4

Figurc

2-17

9i-o=0

Q-e3)

Arrangemcnt of nodcs for an interiorscciioa

of

twodimcnsionel solid-

'40

'1U,fl

s
fi

96

ji

Sreroy-SrenC-orcDncnox

:l

Ncx! wc apply the foi." law to cacL of tlese temu to

tlre
"xpr.r.
cquatioo in terms of aodal tcEpcraturies Thc frnt tcrm would
bc, for
cxanplg

o,-o--.#=k$ra1.J-:l3whcrc drc tempcraturc gradient is cvaluatcd at thc midplanc bctwecn the

two nodcs and d is the depth of thc twodimcnsional gcomclry measured
into thc planc of thc figurc. Similar cxprcssions caa bc c/ritten for thc three
remaining terms:

q.-o-klxt

-',r

fr:

nr-*=x4'aff
T

-',r
e,.'-kh,xdfrf
If rbc suMjvisiors arc drawn so rbribg/:rc.aI squarg At:Ay and
cach heat-flow cguation becornes indcpandanlof the gpornetry. Horrcvcr,
thc accurary of replacing the temperaturc gredicnr by lbc frnitc dillcrcncc
of two tcmpcraturcs is dcpendcnl upoo lbd ciu- of cach squarc. As cach
squarc is madc smaller, tbe approximation for thc tempcraturc gradient
becomes more accurate.
By substiruting the four finitediffcrence rquations into Eq- 2-93 we see
that thc energr balance for nodc 0 is simply dcpendent upon the remperature of node Q and the temperature of thc four adjacent nodes when the
grid is square and the thermal conductivity is constant:
Tt+ T2+ Tr* Tr-4To-O

(2-e4)

Aa cquation similar to Eq. 2-94 wiI apply to all interior nodes: thar is, ir
applies to all nodcs that arc not locarcd on thc boundagr of the solid and
arc surrounded by an cqually spaccd squarc gridA scparate cnergl balancc must bc applicd to cach nodc lhat is locarcd
on thc boundary of the solid- Consider, for cxamplg a nodc dcnored by
tbc subscript 0 located on thc boundary of e did rhat is in conract wilh a
fluid- Thc ambicnt fluid tcmperarurc is I and rhc convccrive-hcat-rransfer coefficicnt betwcen'the solid tnd rhc flull b i.. Thc geometDr is shown
in Fig- 2-18. Each nodc is located at the ccnta of iu rcspecrivc suMivision.
Nodcc rhar cach boundary no,ilc rcprcscnrs only onc{alf of thi mass
rcprcscntcd by cech intcrior nodg
Nodc 0 on thc boundagr cao cxcbange hcat by oonduction wit} three
adjaccnt nodes ia thc soli4 and il can also rransfcr hcat by convcc{ion
with thc fluid- Thc cnergr balancc applicd b node 0 is &crcforc

4r-o* 4z-o* 1ra* g---o:0

Sraoy, Two ervo Trnre-onreNsrorer.

(l*ougron 9I

l<._-

r-rt'E

2-rs

.[i,frffif:l#f;
:T"1j:*imcnsionar

Thc first threc tcrms represcut. conduction in the solid and

thc rast term
represents lhe convection ratc to node 0 from the ambient
fluid dcsignatJ

by the symbol o. Subsrituting finitcdifference. approximations

for the
Fourier law for the first three terms and Newton'i iaw
for the last term

yields

kA.vd!#+*faIfi+*f a!3
+ i,d,ya1r_Once.again Eq.2-95 can bc simplified if we
choose
Ax:A.v. Equarion 2-95 may bc rewriuen in thc
form

ro11:g (2-95)
rq*d grid. or
"

i(r,+rr*r,+(+)'--['.(+)]n-,

(2-,ou)

Thc tempcrarures.at the boundary are functions

of the tempcraturrs o[
thc n-eighboring nodes and the parl.mctcr i,i;77.
we should rccogrize

this-dimensionless group as the iiot

number.
The finir+dilference method is illuaretcd

in.thc,following cxamplc.

Exaopte 2-12- Detcrmine thc stcady tcmperature

distribution aad hcattransfer raks from all four surfaccs
oi tt"
thc figurc' Two of the boundaries
i,*,rt"*ia,'"- ,rri.a is insurated, and
the fourth transfers heat by convcction-

"*

woOi*.*i.rii*fii,h;;
---'

#
'jt
";{

98

SriE^D"SrlrtCoxnJcnox

Surfrcr 8
- l0O"C

Ia

I
i.:

Sorfa:
50

t in::l(

t_ - -io"C

t - I lvtn.li

4a"=o

l0 cm

./

Surfecc C

inqht..l

Dcprh

I
I

L--:o(m----J
Surfrcr D

In'
t-j

J.:

r-----i

lr

1t.:l,i

rl
--r-----rUi

Jr
!'

100'C

--i--_-_1,__

_tt
'l6to

Solurion: Tbe solid is fint subdivided inro a square g,d as sho*,n in the
accompan-ving figurc. The nodes are numbered from t.o 9. The grid is
square with A.x:A/= l0 cm. Thc only nodes with unJcnoqn t.-p.rutur.s
are nodes 4 5. and 6. Node 5 is an inrcrior nde. so Eq. 2-94 applies.

T.*

T2+ T6+

Tr-4Tr:{1

Node 4 is on a boundary rhat rransfcrs hear by convecrion, so Eq- 2-96

applier

l(Tt + T) + rr +(Bi) r_ -

(2

+ Bi) 7.: 0

where

h.A,x*-T:,
Bi,*-T-

j0x0.t0

Nodc 5 is on aa insulared boundary, so thc appropriatc enerry balance is

qr-..| qr_"* qs-=O

or

k+dfi++k^yd#+*faW.-s

ffit
is

Sneov. Two- l.tD Trnre.Do,lelsror.A.t. C;olroucrrox-

or

i(4+rr)+?'j -ZTr=s
Thc remaining six boun&ry nodes are mainrained at knosn tcmPcratures'
so energy balances are not nceded at thesc nodes- The six boundary
lemPeratures are

Tt=Tz:4-200"C

T7:Ir: l'r:100"C
Substituting these tempcraturcs into thc encrry-balancc cquatioru for nodes

4,5, and 6 Yields

M+Tt-7Tq:0
300+ i"r+ T^-4Ti=O
150+ fi-2f6=0

(node 4)
(node 5)
(node 6)

for the temperatures ?i, fr, and Io may be daer:nined

neously solving these three equations- il'hc solutions arc:
Values

"

tt sfuirutta-

T+-75'5"C

T':128'?"C

Ie= t39.4'C

To determinc thc heat-transfer rates pcr unit depth at each surfacq we

will use the finite-differcnce form of the Fourier law when heat is uans'
ferred by conduction and Ncwton's law when hcat is traasferred by
convcction.
At surfac

the heat-transfet rate per unit depth into the

il:fl-a+4*-t+4*'t
- lT -T.
il:lUl\r+Q--r')+
-t
: _621.5w/m

did is

T--Trf

-T

That is, 627.5 W/m is convcctd away frorn thc solid al th surfacc l' The
negativc sign indicatcs that thc.heat is rcrnoved from thc solid. At surface I the hcat-transfer tate per'unit dcpth iato thc solid is

qL=

q\a+

qlt-s+

q!a+ qi*

rt, t *"1"+f rr;r'1

=*6r(l
-^-^\tTt-aY '2 AY I
+f'.$1n-

r-l

:538.8 W/m

5n

'#t

q
+il

fOo Srrrov-Srrtt

I
$
n

CorcDncrroN

Surfacc C is insulatcd, rc

(c-0
At

surfacc D

I I Ts-Tc _ Tr-7, _ t D- ?:
I
*T-i
1f ^y
)
^y

qL* k Axl
+

F,!e,_r)

-88.8 W/m
As an ovcrall chcck on our heal-raasfer rateg wc k:row rhat for srcady_
sratc conditions, thc nct hcat-uanslcr ratc inro the solid must bc ,tro:
q'"^: q) + q's + q'c + q'D= - 627-5 +538.8 +0+ 88.8

:0.1

vm

Tbc sizc of .the net heat flow inro rhc solid givcs an indicariol of thc

accuracy of the finitcdilfcrencc mctbod for this panicular.problcm-

Selarallon Technlgues

In Example 2-12 thc solid r'-rcrial r.as rubdividcd into a gid ia *'irictr
thrcc nodes had unknowa remperarures. Thc solution rcsulted in thrce
algcbraic cquations for the tlree unkno*n tcmperatures. If rrc had wanted
to incrcase thc accuracy of rlre solurior by dccrcasing thc grid spacing wt
would havc had more nodes with unkaown tcmpsratures and addirional
equations to solve. In general cach node with aa unknonm temperature
resuls in an algebraic equation that must be solved simultaneously with
thc other nodal equations.

Wlrcn the number of nodes is relativety small. as ir was in Framplc 2-12,

we havc lirdc roublc solving tlrc qmcm of simulraneous cqrurions. \\hen
thc n'mber of cquations becomcs largg borlever, it bccomcs ncccssary to
usc an approximatc mcthod to solve tlre eguarions- A tcchniguc occasircnally uscd in hcat transfcr is thc rclaxarion srethod- whilc tbe relaxation
mcthod has limited applications ro practical heat traasfcr problcms, it is a

pcdagogcd tool that can illustratc lrow numcrical tcchnlues can be

applld to simplc problcms Tbc conccprual Echcmc of tbc relaxation

nctbod will also belp us undcrstand rhe morc praaical nurnerical mcthods
which follow latcr in thc chaprcr.
Tbc prposc of thc relaxation method is lo cstimatc thc tcmpcrarurEs of
cach oodc ia the solid such tbat thc cncrgfba,lelce eqrntlrnr rrt rp
proximately satisficd. lnstead of scning all cnergr-balance cquations such
as Eqp 2-94 and 246 cqual ro zcro, c/c coutd cquare thcm toi tcrn
callcd

a rai&nl- The remperatures arc rhen qnrematicary changcd uatil rhc

rcsidual is rcduccd to a smalt valuc- Thc size of tlrc residrut wiu indicarc

ti

Srtrov. Two- rrrD Tt{r.EDncrrfloNlr. Cor.rorrcrror l0l

thc accuracy to which the tcmperatures

of all the nodcs have been

residuals for
nodat cquadons arc reduccd cxacdy to zero,
rhcn rhc tcmpcraturcs arc cxact solutioasio the cncrry balancc cquations.
To illustrate the rclaxation metho4 we c:ln apply it to thc thrce cquations used in Example 2-12. The three nodal enerry balanccs in the
cxample werc
cstimated-

If

ill

4ffi+Tr-7Tr: R,
300+ L+ T"-4Tr: p,
150+

?i-2Ir3

R.

The right-haud side of cach cquation [as bcen replaced by a rcsidua! .(,
wherc thc subscript indicates the respcctivc node. Our job now is to
determine values of Tr, Tr, and. ?, so that the residuals are reduced to
reasonably small values.The magnitude of the residuals will dctcrminc &e
accuracy of thc approximation of the tcmperaturc. We notice, for examplg
tbat an crror in thc tcmpcraturc of nodc 4 of otre degree will produce a
rcsidual of seven degrces. The dimensions of the residuals arc tcmperature.
Oncc r&c rodd cacrgyta.bace cqsarioas levc bcca derjvcd, &c rcla;ration
tectmiqw according ro tfic foltwing four stepsStep l: Thc first step in the relaxation method is to assumc values for all
unknown nodal temperatures- We should use our knowledge oi heat
transfer to $ress tempcratures as closc to the actual values as possibte. In
Example 2-12 we must guess values for Ta, T', and f6. The cxtreme
tcmperaturc limia in the problcm are the 50"C fluid and thc 200.C
tempcrature on thc upper surface of the solid. Thereforg thc guesses for
the unknown steady temperatures musr lie between thesc limi.ts We would

2"o to bc thc lowest of thc three tcmperatures ana f6 to be the

highcst because it is on an.insulated bou.ndary. Suppose we assume that
the thrce initial values for the temperatures

cxpect

are

Ir:80"C
Is:100'C'
Ic = l50oC
Step 2: The next step involves substituting thc initial tcmpcrature

gucsses

into the residual equations and calculating each rcsidual The

'tesiduals for this example

"t" *.=
-60-c
frs- 130'C
Re

-50"C

Sinct thc rcsiduals ar non,rcno, we must @ntinuc to change the. ternperatures until each rcsidual is rcduced toqard zero-

H
102

;{

SmrmSrrrt*:

:i

Srep 3: To reduce thc residuals we changc the tempcratuic corrcspond-

ing to thc abaolutc valuc'of rhe largest residual until that residual
reduced to zcro. Thc convcrgcncc to the correct set of tempcratures

is

is
thc residual is nor

often hclpcd by changing thc nodal tcmpcraturc so that

rcduced cxactly to zcro but is changed to a small value with a sigr oppositc
the sign of the rcsidual prior to change in temperaturc. This process is
called o*nelaxation.
In our cxamplc thc lar-eest residual conesponds to nodc 5. The residual
equation for nodc 5 shows that if wc increase I by 35'C rhe new valuc
for thc rcsidual R, will be reduced by 140'C. thereby changin_r ir ro a low
valuc with an opposirc sign. Norice that a change in I, will also affecr rhe
valucs for R, and R.. A summary of the new values for the three
lemperatulcs and corrcsponding rcsiduals are

?"r:80'C R.: -lJog

l":: I35'C Rs: - IQ"C
Ie- 150'C Ro: - l5"C

Step 4: Tbe next srep in tbe rclaxarion process is to repeat the prcvious
until the desircd degree of accurac]' is achicvcd. The largest residual is
no*' R.. so we chan-qe 7. by an amount to change .R. to a small positive
value. Assume that we decrease
b1, 4"C. The new temperature values
aad corresponding residuals are
srcp

I.

Tt:76"C Rr:3"C
l"s= 135"C Rr: - l4"C
Io:150"C Re: - lS"C

Repeating this step twice, first changing Io. then 1'5, results in the follo*.

ing values:
Dccrcasc

by l0'C:

Tf 76"C

Rr=3oC

l"s=135"C

Rs=

?.e

Decrcasc

I40"C

-24'C

Ro:5"C

7j by ?"C:

Tr-76"C Ra- -4oC

It= 128"C fis:4"C
Io:140"C fie:-2"C
Irt four rclaxation stepc Orc tcmpcraturcs arc all within I oC of thc cxact
valucs dcrcrmind in Examplc}-l2.The preceding steps arc besr organizcd
in a rablc similar to the one shown in Table 2-2. By organizing thc
rclaxation srcps and rccording rbe
ripeatcd work is rninimircd.

&ta in tabular forrn,

thc amount of

m,*'

ffi"
.i

Srreot Two- rxo

Tzbie

2-2

Summery of Tempentures rod Residuab for

T1

SrrP

Iniial

Tnnee-os{rNsror,r& e.oNDuclloN

gucss

R,

100

80

-50

-t5

-10
r35

150

-14

t35

l4tt

-24

76

R4,

r50

-25
76

T.

t30
135

16

2.12

150

-60

Initial rcsiduals
tncrcasc i"5 bY 35
New residuals
Dccrcasc 7. bY 4
Ncw rcsiduals
Decrcasc fr bY l0
Ncw rcsiduals
Dccrcasc 2'r bY 7
Ncrr residuals

Tr-

R.

EO

Exrnpk

t40

128

-4

-t5
_t

The finite-difference apfioach using a relaxation methd can be exlended to cylindrical coordinates. and the resulting differencc cquations
arc described in Reference 5.
lf internal generation is present in the solid, the relaxation technique can
be used without any complicarioa- Suppose rlat ar a particular rrode the
energy generation ratc per unir volume is a'f,. Thc cncrry balancrc for an
interior node 0 in a two-dimensional systcm with four neighboring nodes
as shown in Fig- 2-17 is
Qr-a* 1za* 4t-* qr-u+ qo:0
Replacing each heat-flow term by the finite-difference fortn of the Fourier
law gives

k^yd!J:&-+k^xdf+*Uaff
+

If

r*aff

+q,f,

ax6yd=o (2-e?

the grid is squarq Eq- 2'97 becomes

fr + f2+ Tt+ T4- 4To+ O'; @X\' :O

Whencver a nodq is located on the boundary of a

(2-e8)

rcli4 the rcsidual

cquation depcnds upon thc type of boundary condition at thc surface. For
cxampte, t-he residual equation for a surface node on a flat surface in
contact rvith fluid is givcn by Eq. 2-!16. Residual cquations fior other
boundary conditions arc $unrnrarizcd in Tabh 2-3. In each casc the
eacrgy-balance cquation is witten for the node dcnotcd ty trc mbccript O
To this point wc have considcrtd problems iin which the temPerature is a
function of two coordinates only. Ho*cvcq thc tcchniqucs we haw developed for two-dimensional problems can easily be extended to thrcedimensional problems. For cxample, if wc considcr a typical node 0 in a cctnstant
ProPerty solid {,ith no gencration rurroundcd by six nodcs as shown in

4.

lol

Srrrov{rrru Oolrpucnorl

Trtfc 2-3

Residud Eqrnriotrs
Sfsteos,

Conorriox

rr

Bo.ndery Nodes

&t!$c Gri&

Gtoranny

(&-Af,l

rn

Tno-Dhrnsio;ret

Noorr.Eeuenon

o'E *ti- ro-&

Fbt surttcq
isotbcraal
bouodary

(7i-

12-

13, beat

input at surfacr
pcr unit rrca - g')

Fler surfacc,

i(rr+ :rJ)+4-2To-

iasularcd

boun&4r

7-

lr

ti&+

Ar

Flar nrlacc
ia conuct

virh floid

Encrbr corncr,
both surfaccs

i(r:+ rr)+ I,+(Di)I-f2+Bilfo- Ro

(Bi-itx/k)

i(r'+ rJ- r"- &

ilsuhrcd

,Errcri:r orncr,
borh surfaccs

in contao
witb

r lluid

i(r,+ rr+{BDr-(l +Bi)ro- no

qsi_fiAx/k)

W
Sceov, Two- exo Txesr-orMEr.srorrlt.Gor.{Drrcroil fGj
hlcnba corncr,

i(f,+fJ+f2+f,

both surfaccs

-3Io-Rc

iasulatcd

Intcdor coracr.
both surfaccs in

i(4+r.)+fz+llt

contact with a

!--'r-'l 'r

fluid

+GDT-

-+BDfo-no

.:$

Figure

2-19

Arrangcment of nodcs for an inrcrior

of a thrcc-dimcnsional rclid-

scction

&

106 SnorSrrrt
Fig

Corsoucnor.r.

2-19, an cncr5f balancc applicd to Dode 0

will givc

(2-ts)
?r-a* 4z_o* 4r--o* g.+* grs* ge_o-0
F4uation 2-99 caa be cxprcssed in tcrms of tempcraturcs of cach noC: by
replacing tbe heat-flow rerms wirh Fourier's law:

xlv*!J+tarA, rtl ro +ksyuzru

+

*d.xdzff+rlxa;,-L-5

*,p4r4.,

If the grid is drawn as a serics of cubes, or

simplificd to

r.- ro

A-r-A/-A.r,

=6

(r_r0o)

Eq.2-t$Q can bc

Tt+ T2+ Tr+ T1+ ?i+ 7:- 6 Io-0

(2-r0t)

Thercforc, the nodal equarion in a thrccdimensional problcnr, *irh

no gencration when the node is in the intcrior of a solid and each nodc is
at thc ccntcr of a cube. is simply thc sum of thc rcmpcratures of cach
neighboring node minus six rimcs the temperarure of the ccntral nodc. The
form of Eq. ?-l0l is similar ro rhc nodal cncrgr balancc in a twodimcnsional problcm, E4. 2-94.
If intcrnal energy generadon is prescnt in a rhrccdimensional solid at a
ratc pcr unit volume of qi'. thc nodal equarion for an inrerior nodc is

T,+

.Tr+ Tj+ T.+ Ts+ T6-6T0+

q't'94'

-o

(2-t02)

Thc residual equations lisred in Table 2-3, which apply when $re node is
locatcd on the surfacc of a t*'o-dimensionat solid. can be cxrended ro
three-dimensional problems. The derivation of the new residuat cquarions

is lcfi as an cxercisc,

Matrlr Technlques
Tbc rclaration tcchniquc is a suirablc merhod for solving bcar-rransfcr
problerns lhat involvc relativcly few nodal equations. However. the rclaxarion mcthod is not particularly adaprabte to computer mcthods because it

rcguirts a sclccrion

of thc nodat

cguarion with thc largcst rcsidual. A

computer opcratcs scquentially and the proccss of detcrmining a maximum

valuc from an aray cannot bc accomptishcd cfficicntly. Mcthods other
than rclaxation arc used when a computcr solution is soughtWhcn incrcascd accuracy or a lergc gcorrctry dicrates a targc numbcr of
nodcg the usc of a compurcr bccornes desirablc. A convcnient,nerhod of
dctcrmining thc tcmpcrarurc disrriburion in a lwo- or threc-dimensional

solid which is casily adaptablc to a computer is the raarri.r- inzrcion

methd- Thc matrix mithod is bascd on rcprcsenting thc encrry-balancc

ffi
Streot' Two-

er.ro.TnreE-DMENsToNAL

Cor.rouqnox

IOZ

cquations for each nodc in the form of a matrix. lf wc subdivide thc solid
into a nodcq for cxampte, cach nodaLcquation can be cxpresscd as

arrT, + arrTr+.. . * ar^T^: f,

arrTr* auT, *.. . * auT^- b,

o,iTr+o^rT,

* ... * a^7,-

(2-r03)

b,

where the au's and D,'s arc known constants and the lj's are the unknown
tempcratures.
Equations 2-103 can bc condcnsed and wrirten in matrix notation as
where A is a

AT:B
!
zXz cofficicnt matrix defined by
. ar.l
I orr ar2

o., de

or.

o:{I ,
t"", aa2

(2-r04)

:l

(2_l0sa)

;,^)

while T and B are cotumn raatrices consisting of n ctements each:

(2-105b)

To calculate the unknown temperalures, we must determine the inverse of

the matd:g A-1, which satisfics the equation

T:A-rB
If

the elements

ol

(2-r06)

the inverse of marrix A are givcn by

ctz
[.r, c22
I ":t
._':1
C=l-'

.,".|

cul

ihe unkno,*,n nodar rempera*.f1":r.

(2-r07)

!ll* ;; *""i1",,"".

crr6, +c-Dr+c,rDr+ .. .
c'D,+c,,Da+ cobr+ -. -

*c,"d -

7",

i,

*c2nb,-f,
(2-108)

c^ib, + cobr+

c"rbr+...

cub^o

q
il

108 StEeoy.Srerr
Cor.lqrcnor
Since tbe ralucs
for all

cxamplc.
,#$:

--'r-'wr ucsloo ts'illustraled

U ,n. f"ff""ili

yffi '*',^fi,:+ft'mfi ,hff "-'"',.:'fi :.j".,",,::-.:*urionin*re

Y' d & a' r"
iT, |;n*:: T "':'r';-;:T ;:
';i'r;'*.:i
ExampJc2-12.
-eri

wi

t.*Dk
lluid
= SO

I- .
1-,

..

r|

50.c

n:.t

sorurion: The sorid

ftsure. Each

-0'

l.
4,:^

tir.X

'O

losubrcrJ

,.

into a ssuar
-li''r;.-+
il. ;r; l'" i:-Y'"d'o

*n]r**;#i}ili#Hffi:#.,#*,:,i:$,*
J'ffirfi,$fr

cs that are uscd

,,* ,]i'_
(Bi)f =251502+ Bi=4.5

5oxo.6
=2.5
t25oC

il

the

mi:

tri
&

Streov, Two- rxo TrnsE-ouo.rsroper.

or*oucncx

ld

p-rr-l

l-:J---1---

tL, loi61o;
r : | ; i r

--T---r-T---- i-t -T
;i e i s i g i,; __{_Ar
__?___F_1F:_+_l^

l-

Li
3i3igi,
-T---i--T--i

The 15 nodal equarions

*,,],, ," the marrix form of Eq. 2-t03 are then

l: - a.5 ?., + Tr+ lTe = -225

2: T,-4i,+ ir+'ri:
-2oo
Node 3: Tz-4Tr+Tr+Tr: -2gn
Node 4: T3-4T1+ Tr+ fr:
-2gO
Node 5: Tr-ZTr+ |Iro= 100
Node 6: lf r-a.Sf"+ Tj+
ITtt= _ 125
T2+l|6-4T7+
a+ f,.=O
I{. 1: rr+
rr-arr+
Node

Node

ri+ r,, =o
:)"9. !' T,+Tr-4Tr+T*+r,,:s
ljo{e
!:
Nodc Io:
iTr+ Te-2Tto+'l r,r:o

l!: lfr-+.Sfr+ Ir:= _ 175

jl{e 12: T7+Tn-cir+r,r: - 166
Nodc 13: fr+ f rr-lf * fi.
r,
-Node 14:
lode

f OO

Node

Te+ Tn-4T.+ Iu = _ 100

15: lTro+Tn-2Trs- lSO

The clements of thc two matrices A and B can

now be detcrmined by
examining the cocfficicnts in the 15 nodal equationsThe constants on the
right. side-of each cquation arc the
tf,"t make up thc column
matrix 8' Many of the ctements in matrlr A
arc zeio and the nonzero terms
arc gathered closc to thc diagonal.

.f*.Jr,

'

Thc ncxt stqp is inrcrsion of matrix A The clcnncnts

of dre invened
rnatril ate rhe elemcnts co in Eq. 2-102. fo ior.rt-a
matrix of ,hi";; ;t
hgd is quirc time-consirnils-.'nor,un"-t ty, ,t-a*a
6.ari,
subroutinc are availablc and iircy
U"
in a "oqrp"rc,
short d;;;
rcl1c for the 15 unknown tempcraturc.
""o ".pLy.a

The followingprogram is ancxample of a FQRTF.AN

program rhat will
_
solve for-the nodar tcmpcraturcs.
It is r,rrirrcn in a gencral forrn so that an

tnterestcd uscr can copy

it and apply ir to an ;niriauU problcm wruch

lI0

Sraroy-Srer Coxoucnor.r

may o" dilfercnr from thc cxamprc

problem considcred
{c iV, tbe numbcr of nodcs wi{ ,"il;l.;;;"urcs
rgr,C, and thc.lV elcmcnc oi matrix B.

hcre tnput varucs

rhc.lV2 valucs of

Th.e
lxamgfc progam.uscs a subprogram called
matrix A.
A listing of MATINV t

MATIW ro inverr
Cir.i;"'npp""dix lv{. Orher suboro.

grams arc availablc to invcrl

,"trii 1,. *,,iroufi;.tJil
computer ccnler ro d.rd::.i11-subprogram
"
caa bc
duplicaring rhe subprogram MATINV.
".orr"J
A lisring of thc program is:

il ;;
-wil;;

Program Llsilng lor Eramplc 2-!3

DtMENSION A(50.50).B(so).c(50,5O),T(50)

FSAO . N

FEAD, ((40.J).J-1.N).t-t.N).(B(t),t_ l,N)

CALL MATINV (A.N.C)

DO20I-l.N
SUM - 0.0'
OO !0J-1.N
10 SUM-SUM+C0,J).8(J)
20 T0)-SUM
wRtTE(6.40)

walTE (6.50) (t.r(t).

40

STOP
FORMAT (1H

.....

r.N)

sTEAOy TEMPEfiATURE DtsTRtBuTtoN

tN DEGFEES'./,
Byl MATRT' ,rre"io"'iJc* NtouE
...,,/
/)

us
50'cELsf
FORMAT (4(,r
'=TERMTNED
(.Q..) -,.F

S-2.2X'))

END

The program inpur is shown below.

The firsr linc contains the sinele
value for ,,\', which is rhe number
of noa., fo, rf,i, p*l.ri",
ncxr y'y' rincs rist ths elcmcars. au of
marrir e. r."l-or the 15 rines of
data
conrain 15 talucs and cach rinJ rcprcsenrs
of rhe subscript r.
Thc lasr rwo lincs of dzra are $e i5
"arii-,f,..otumn
g.

p.;i.;:iil:

ri*J"ar.

""fo.,

Progrrm lnflrt lo? Erample 2-13

r5
--4.5,_

1.. 0.. 0.. 0., 0,5, 0.. 0.. 0.. 0., 0.. 0.,
o.. 0.. o..
t., 0.. 0..0.. 1.. 0.. 0.. 0.. o. 0.. 0.. 0..

o_
1.. :...
0.. 0.. 1.. 0.,0.. 0.. 0.. 0.. 0.. o_
:. 1.. -... r.. 0..
.r..0..
o.
-...
0..
r..
0.. 0.. 0.. 0., 0.. o_
l. 1. 0..
l_ t..
0.. 0.. 0..

-2..
0.. o_5. o- o.. o_. o.. 0..
9.._o:
o.5. 0., 0.. 0..0.,
-4.5, t.. 0.. 0.. 0.. 0.5. 0.. 0., 0..0..
r_ -4.. 1.. 0- 0.. 0.. 1.. 0.. 0.. o_
:..:" 9..
9..-0..
.t.. _...
t..o..0.,0..
r..0..0..0.. r.. 0.. o0r.. 0., 0-. 0.. 1-. _4.. !.. 0.. 0.. 0.. r..
:- 9..
o..
05.0.. 0.. 0.. 1.. _2.. 0.. 0.. 0.. 0.. o.s.
t.9..9..o..
a.
0.. 0.. o.5. o.. 0.. 0.. 0.. _4.5. 1..
0., 0.. 0..
9. 9.,
0..0..
O.,0.,0., O_, r..0.. O.. 0.. 1.. _.t., r..0..0..

:..:"

matrix

Steeoy,

o.. 0_ o.. o..0.. 0.. o.. ,..

Tto-

er.ro

Trngt_olgnstoxer Copoucnox

o.^ o.

I i;i: qi I i r,[ * :,";:::',

L[
-26.. -2A..
-l0o"
o-.0..
_20O.. _2OO-^

-roo.. -roo.,

-il: :il-

-12s"

o.. o..

-rzs..

The progran output is shown

below.
Progrrm Ougrn ior Eremple 2-t3

'..sTErorTrPEFArlnt
_._ , . ,,vv r.vN rR rrEcREE.:si
--'lSfll|BLtTrONlilOcREES

cELStt
:LstrrsnffiD'.
s DETERm!{EO Ay

(1r-

A i{ATRtx tl{vERstoil

ss.57 r(A-r3s.e,

T(s)-156.p6 (6)-

T(9)-l3s5i

T(3)- 1 5s.55
T(7)- 196.51

69.36

T(r01-1a6.91

T(t3Ft10.69 T(rtt-

T(1r)-

16.9,

I(r5)

TECHHTcluE

...

(r1-155.3s
T(41-129.91
T(12)- s5.83

66.11
16.56

This exampre is idendcar ro Exampre

- that the3rid
2'12 except
is srnrr*r.A
cosrp:risoq af r&c cquiraftrt
rhc gnd

sir.rns

on

r"il* ii'li

r,. *"lu.. "*;

f*6:l;;;;;*',lr.J

Tabk 21

Cooroarlson

of

.t&c influenc-e

itrar

Temperatures

Resulting fmar Coarse

eod Fioe Nunerical
Grids

TevprnrG

l0Xl0cm

Erid

letuar-E:ltZl
j'r = 75.5"C

Ts-12E.7"C
]"e= 139.4"C

Te.vpen.rruE

5x5

cm grid

lerrvnr-e 1-t:y
?"e

fi

69.3"C

= l29.O"C
?^ro- ta0.9'C

The program wrincn for Erample

2-13 is completely general.
simplv copicd cxacdv tna
It can bc
;
or steady conducrion
problcms' It can solvc for "ppriJio
tbi temp.ra,*Jiirrrii",ron in
a one-, rwo-, or
problcra ri,"t
Itle;airncl{onal
vari.ct' of boundary conditions."onr"lnr';

il. ;ilt"r
;;i
Th;;;;;;;:T?"ff:.fi,[: ;:::i
,
equarrons and dctcrmine.the
etements
;;;;
A and B. Thesc etements
along with rhe numbcr.r:*r^ll;il;#.d
"f
as input

.as

illustratcd in lhe exampre progxam.

Thc matrix_invcrsion o,og"u,,,lf,ould

data cxacrtv

not be used urhcn

"ln#.*"n drc numbcr of

i"rJ;-lffir
j0 nodcq a rnorc
rritr,oa ,""i *

nodcs cxcre& 50. whn.

sophisticared numerical

p:"Ul:,

rhe sct or simurtaneo*"-:..::-!1JR:r..19)

{royto.lc *"d i;;t
mcthodismoreeconomicaror"o*iu,..,i-#il:":tfj[lfitr+T$r;

l'ff.'#l'ffi,':-::1.- ;;;;

i"':*l'il'"1*

and rhereby mini-

lll

ll2

'

,l

Sreror-Srrrr C.oroucnox

- To help in thc usc of lc

ro tbc prograrn atong wirt

gro.slg

rhe

ublc

bclow lists rhc grmbols

used
il;1;;;;TJ"#,o,
.,"o-

Splopls thed tn ho8rlrl

for Exernple 2-13

Sn*ror

DEFDlrnoN

A0.J)

IJrrr

Twodimeasi

rilrh .\ ;?ilJfL:!-rhc.cremcn6

B0)

o*tst3ionjl

.
c(r.J)

,**1TT,i1{

in

of rlc clcmcnrs in
marru B. dcfincd1T.-"ir Ec.2_t05b

arn-y of thc ctcmenrs

in rhe
marnx c _ A _ r. dclincd
in
Zi-lOt

h.

It

lntcgei valuc equal rc thc

numbcr of nodcs

r(t)

One-dir

'';;?ilibiltffir,'d;ld""n"

in

'u"i'

'c

--_

llerallon Technlqcs

numcrical mahod
i:
solurion is an ircration nahl
lho, p:"lplarly welt-suircd for a compuler
h*A-"i tf"jng ...1, nodal equarion
cxpticirly for rhe rempera::r-.
if wc consider an
crergr-balance eguation
{'l,;;.'#._1.r0,..
"f inrerior
for an
the result is

If

wc solve

!r1

-siven

ior

cguadol

in

q.

"ra.'1"T. two-dimensional

Z-X

".
Tt+ T2+

T:t

solid.

Tr_4To_O

the temperature at nodc

?Jro, we eet

oo,*,1r:lt"-#

il:l a sorid wirh conshnr

;il ililirfl,rirjiLr'r; Ti
simitar;d;;.;;;.i'l,no,.,

1,
properdes subdividcd
inro a squarc a"ra *itfr-no,
procedure or sorving
ror rrrc.temp."ail

boundary

wi, resutr in a
on a toundary U,.t
cauadon ror u. r..firrurc
ro

5::1

*"*iil;;; ;;;i

if

thc nodc zcro is

"n u. a.t.*i..j";r.":r{:};,,,""i.,r.
_ i(rr+ rr)+ r,+(Bi)r-'o-----75;----=

'?;lrTr':;"""1.H,?:H;:Hn:;'6i,vbcdaerminedby
cquauon for thc

oJ cach nodc may bc

rrrittcn in
ot-^n
lh.e kmpcrarures of
.lhc nAgf,Udng o.,aJ-il,

tcmpcrature

cguals thc numbcr of

nJ.s with unknown
The irerarion proccdure

*"

b.

,***r,l[ber
ll;;;'r'n.'r[,ir,.0..

terms

of eguarions

Steeov-

Tro rxo THRf,E-DrMENsroN^L

co*oucnox

Step l: Fint deriva nrv{.r

-_, -.
ror cach
cquations cxplicitly ir
t .,o" .1,ilT_lttp"faturq solvc

el)

"*;;-:,'ily ffitr i:J:*yrs *os barancc

of th"

cncrry barance

"."h
;ir[:'H":-'11,frf;1:_;-.-* tl" ""d";;;;

;:::ffi .:::ffa;ffi

help ia determiaing

;"

ff,n#,trJJ#Hi}:ffit

Step 2: Ncxt, assu

ffiffi1#';3tt#tftifr:Hfi#ffi*F$
step 3: Next calcu'ilte
new values for rhe
ter
;luatigns .derived in. step l- on."';' ;;:l*tturcs

using thc nodat

;:I;:'Tg"'.lH:l:,iou"ru.,i,i.i:"".fiff"T;.#*'":,ffi*

jtTii*:.:T,1ffj:"nr.:jis-;:#m.tr1.

;""1T;
o:ud/
particulr or.'J1;:-t-T'.temperarures witl be a.*.rLri-rr",
_. ..Jrarron technique
is

method-

oftcn

Step 4: Repeat Steo ? rrnrir

;,1.,;;;ff

*I"a

rr^ ....

whjch is 1"Tt-ns

i:iH,H:,."

i*Jsl"ali

',:il0:,,::":.,,:::_q:#,T,f,::H",::,h:i1;"fr,il

in rhe foil
r"Il i'"'"1T;fi'*T.: j: ilrustrated
ontr.u'*tlolm,riH:

eq.uarrons,

,rr"

*HiTlfiJ;

r";rt*_t""k ## r:ffi,ffi!..ffii

;ff{,,[ #,r#-xru.S#i*#[t;
#*{?iffii;**,:,,TtrH*ffi

l*i{-fr;3',*'i'

:ff

,ffiH:

r rtcpc outlincd for the ftcration

me&od.

...g

ll{

STEADy$rArEOoxpucnox

-9
,{

Sep f: Solvc cxplicitly for tbe rcmpcratwe

of cach aodc.
Nodc 4:

.r;#**

s
5: r..444 *
Nodc 5: ,r# *

T,

Nodc

T,

Step 2: Assrimc initial values for the

nodal tcr
An intelligcnr
go.s. fo, the iniriar vatu.s ror &e
threc ,","*-rlfr1ltTJ

r.-80"C
?"s- 100"C

Ie-

150"C

Thesc arc the samc initiar vatues

wc uscd
of rhe thrcc equations.

in rhc rcraxadon-rnahod solution

Slep 3: Calculalc ncw

rals*sr+remprraurcs using tlrc cxpticif

form
of nodal cquations As sooa as
a Dcw tcmpcnturc is calculated, use
it in
succcssivc
stcps-

a=

#*#

-?1.43'c

_5-_ 3ffi .11.43+

'
7. -;-

150

T:130.36"C

r,:+-ry=t4o.r8'c
Srep

4: Repcar Step 3

rltit

sugcessive tcmpcraturcs

convergc o within a
spccifid rolcrance level. As.sumi-ng
,il;JT;;c
tempcrarurcs for all
nodcs ro diffcr by lcss than 0.1"i
for *o ,o'iG". ircrarion srcps, wc
rcpcar step 3. A rable surnmarizing
tir. ,orrt, i,

Jov,,n below.

lrrnenox Srrp
lnidd

gucss

In four itcration

Tt(C)

rc("9

80.

r00.
13036

t40.t8

I
2

71.43
?5-77

7557

in

Tr("C)

steos-

15.y

t2899

t28.n
r2E.7l

r50.
r39.50

r39J9

t39Jt

all the tcmpcrarurcs wcre within

0.r "c of oe uarues

"offi no;#;;.
for *;;*.

Srcp 3, so thc orb".o l,

valucs are idcnticar ro thc
cxacisorutions

ncaresr 0.t.C, rhese

eguations g'en in

Srrlov, Two rlro Tsnrr_ouENsroNA! Coxoucnox

lil5)-*

E*".{..2-I2- lvc shouH also notrte thai for this p-articurar cxamprc thc
retaxation technique was able to converge to within-only l.c of rhc cxact
tempcraturc valucs in four iteratioo steps, starting wittr thc same initial
valucs for l[c tcmperatures- Thc relaxation results are given in Tablc
2-2.
The exact solution of thc nodal equations, the relaxation-solution aftcr fow
stcpq and thc itcration dution aftcr four iteration steps provide tempcraturcs for thc three nodes that dilfcr by lcss than loCtxemple2-iS-Determirrc tcmperarures for the 15 nodes in Exampre 2-t3
using the itcrarion mcthod.,comparc your resulc wirh trros" out
ty
the matrix-invcrsion method.

iiJ

sohtl,o' The rolutioo of t5 cquations by hand using drc iteration

rncthod is rcmcnrhat dme-consuming, making a computer solurion rcasonablc. Thc four steps in the iteration method ire as follows

r'? rlc f5:rtdzl cquarions are simply rearranged lorms of thc aodal
cquations derircd in Examplc 2-13. They are:

7,:50+0:22f2+0.1I I ?:
Tr=50+:(rr+ Tr+77)

Ir:50+ ilrr+ 1+ rrl

Ir-50+ !{rr+rr+rr)
?"r-5o+

lrr+

!r*

Ta=2lJ'tg +0.l l l Tt+Q.22271+0.1I I ?.il

Tr= l(Tr+T6+Ts+Ttz)

rr=l(rr+
Tg:

T7+Te+Tf,)

!(rr+ rr+I,o+

?",0)

r,o-jrr+iT"+lT|'
Ir

- 3&ggg + 0 -l I I T6 + 0.222Tt2
Ttr=25+l(f?+ Irr+ Trr)
r

llr-25+t(I, +Tn+Tt1)
T'.-ZS+:(Te+ Irr+ rr:)
fij-2'+12",o+ i f,.
These cquatioas appear between statcmcnts.

lrstmg shown bclow-

2l

and, 22

in thc program

s4

."tn'rl

. -''
116

Sr?^Dy-Sr^rD CoNDucnoN

Srep 2: Thc initial nodal rcm.peratur*

arc all sct cqual to zcro. Wc
arc
aware that thcsc arc not intcni-ecat
iri,i"t-;;r* for tbc tempcrarur*
considcring rhe given bTo.ry
irro,r"* ri.Lc reguircd ro rcach thc'
cvcnruar solurion will undoubicary
bc incrcasJ bccause of this gucsr
But
zero is a convenient value to
p.ogr_ *O thc added rim6

l6quireal
to obtain a solution is of ::t-,
liule "
solution' Thc initiar temperatures
arc sci ro zcro rn statmcnt 15 in
rhc
program listing.

J"6"**-.*f,*-G;T];1ffi:

Step 3: Tbc steps required to calculatc

thc new rcmpcratu 6 of the Ij
nodes arc achieved in rhe srcps
b;;;"
;;ents 2t and 22 in rhe
program lisring.

Step 4: Thc ncw values of eacb

nodal temperature are compared with
thc old varuc and if thc diffcren..
b.;";."*"

ress than a rorcrancc

inpy! rhc ircrarion ;;

is tcrminatcd and rhc
:::1
:Pccificd.upon
rcmperarure'r'arucs
are pfiarcdcutreni
the lemperarures arc
srorcd in tu
".ir* "rrhc
*-p.r"i"r*'f?"rn
1T"r: T(l) an1t9'oc
previous iteration
TTtu nt t"t''^oti'J..t i. p.rro**l;;;:
"'"n
fit'.l|.1|ttrLil.ff
Thc program listing is:

Program Ltsflng lor Erample 2-15

r0

orMENsroN rtrooirr(Gj
READ. N.TOLER
WRITE (6,10)
FORMAT (1H .3X,'... STEADY
TEMPEBAT1.;RE DtSTRtBuTtON
tN../.
DETERMTNE' By AN o.i^lion
,ecHNrouE

t&.ff-.:;*srus

ts

..: ./ /)

T(l)-0.0

20 rr(t)-?0)
DO 7O

t-1,50

2r T(l)r!e.Q

a 6222.T(2) + O.r r t.T(6)

-so.o+ o:so.61ry* 1e1+rfr1
T(3)- 5o.0 + o2so.6r1ey* r1l1* r1eli
r(.) -so.o + oeso.otsy + r1s1 + rlsii
T(5) -5o.o+ o.soo.T(4) +o.25o.TO
o)
T(2)

T(6) - 27.28 + O. 1 r 1 . T(.r

) + O222.T(D+
]91-92so.cr(z)+r(6)+
]gl- 5ro.cr{3p r1-4 * rp1 * qr qi
Igl:o2so.o{4) * r(a) * r0 o) * r(, ll)

r(8)+Rr2)ir.Tfl':"')
O.r

nr o1-62*.t t) + o.5m.T(9)+O:ss.rOS)

r)- 38.8s9+ o. t r t.T(6)+ o ar".T(12)

r(12)-2s.0+ o2so.6rg4*11.l
r1*r1is1j
T(1

l!13)-es.o*o.zso.6r1ey+r1rz1*

_^
22

rlre;

]j::lT.o* oeso.cr(e)+ r(1 at* ro sii

TO 5)- 25.o+ o2so.T(1b)+
DO 3O

J-

o.5oo.r(r.)

1.N

Srneov, Two_,txo TrnraomnrsroN^L CoNDucrIoN

rF

(A8SOT(+T(J).GT. TOLER) GO TO

30 COMNNUE

llz

50

wnlTE (5.40) (K.T(K),K- I,N)

40 FoRMAT(lH ..7(..r2..)-.,p.s.21
STOP

50 OO60J-l.N
60 TT(J)-I(J)
70 CONTINUE
wFtTE (6.80) TOLER
(1 H'..TEMPERATURES OO NOT
COI{\/ERG TO WfTHITT .F6.3./.
1.OGRES tN so ITERATION STEPS)

80 FOFMAT
STOP

ENO

The input co$ists of two values on a singJe line, which should appear iq

the following ordcr:

N:

rhe number of nodes

TOLER= rhe tolerance level in oC betweea two diffcreqt

iterations steps. If the di.ffereaces in the temperatures of each individual node ia succcssive itcration
steps are all less than TOLER the iteration procedure stops and the aruwers for the temperatnres ar

printed"

If

the differcace in any nodal tempcrature

for successive iteration steps is greater thaa

the itcration procedure continuis.

iOfEg

The input to this particular program is:

Progrum lnput tor Enmple 2.15
15, O.t

The program ourpur is shown below.

Program OutF,t lorErample 2.15
"..STEAOY

AN'TEAATPN
'MFERATUAE.OISTII'"UTION
TECHNTOU...

T(1)-

r(2)r(3)T(.)-

r)T(5)T(7)-

88.48
r38.78
'158.41

OGREES CELSTUS OS'FMINEO BY

r(e)'

138.r2

T(10)-

140:76

r('t1)-

58.04

t68.25

T(rz)r(13)-

69.19

fl0.59

T(1:llL

rsrtrfacc

1r6.82

. Explain

66.1 6

1ott.36

96-Il

,,i*L"
'V

,'. 'ff1
'il
_{

l+:

Il8

,a

.Sreroy-Srerr

Corrpucnor

Examph 2-15 is wrinca in a gcncrar

form so
appricd'to e widc varicgr orstJay;;;rt"; that it caa bc copicd and
probrcml The'sansr
spccify oaly two inout valucs. ni
fi"i;,
tiJ
numbcr
of nodeq N, fc
which thc t"1no...r

nrr. is unknocq il il sccond is

thc rolcranog
TO_LE& ro which rhc calcularion *ifi
*-*ai*""
The prqgram is limired to
_tgl rya.s Uy tl.lu_U.. of srorage locationr
allocarc4 altboueh rbc DIMENSION
;;;
can be chaaged ro pro
vide for rDorc sbrage- Ifrhc ausrber"'i";;,i*
sreps cxcecds 50rvithour
thc tempcratures converging, tb. p.ogrr;;ili'p*,
diagrostic sraremcri
b{9a,i"g a lack of convcrgenec"

-^.Y,1* !.. nr9er."- f

to a differenr problenr, new nodel

cquauons rcust be dcrivcd and
solved cxplicitly for ihe inaluJual
tcmperarurcs. Thesc N equadons
must bc'inscricO
and 22 in the programapplicd

nJi
Uer*.enlu;;;;

REFERENCES

Han rtaufa.Addison-r*'cstcy

i;Iffiftffi;

Z D. Q. Kcrr, aad A. D. Xraur^Erczlcd

:.

"
t

Book Company, Nco,

ll. l"t1\

SurJace

yorh tgZL

Heat Transler, McGraw-Hill

si;cll

6?, pp.

Hcar Transfer' Addison-wcslcv Publishing

co.. lnc-

"iff;"ff',l'#

6'Y N' Ozisfu' Boundary varuc probrems or Heat conduction

Group,

tu

Eeat TmrJcr. vol lalohn Wilcy & Sons.

Inc_ Ncw york. 1949'Erriciencl or Exta'a"a
Trorc' AsME.vol.

trl*ffSil

Z G-.

pubtishing

No, york-

196g.

Inrcxr pubrishcrs

Myc4 Amtytica! MaMt ia Condvtiq

Hcar Tmaslcr. McGraw-Hill
Ncs l,orlq t971"
t- C. F. K.za!, -An Elcctrical Gco]1,:trical
Anatogue

Book f-ompany,

_ Jroy.,tsMf,.

vol. 67, pp.

t3_7t( tgaj.

for Complcr Hear Ftoq-

C. F- Kaz:a" -Hcat Tnnsfcr Tcmpcrature patterns

of a Muldcomponcnt
Strocorre b Companri,,c M+S1.
fi.
)iil'".r.
?t, pp. 9_t6, t949r0.M. L remcs, G.
9.

".tu\:lo_:-Ciiil",i7iii,o
with F2RTRIN aadcsilii'i"i'

?Wr**.ion

r(
22 T(

Mcthds

"a-Crowc{ Ncw

te

yorl

':--..':::......i ' '- --i+'+4' t{

SF':i'r

H'i'
h;ir.

F'.1

IJ'

!,r,,

PROBLEMS

Tbe p'ro&tcms in &is <daoter are organized

in the manner shown
Four problens ruggcs,
sohd;. Tl,cy proU-t"rn.

in thc table.
2-7e 2-7l, 2:72, and
nceded for sorrruions

;c
p *titr*ler-fo;;;-t
'
thc chrpro '''"'

"oarol*
2-73, Nq original programs
o".d.
r..
are dcvelopcd in the examples within
mrlfBRs.

SECIONS

2-?,3

Z-l to

2-211o217

21

E rcct o, varirble .lhermal conductivity

2-281o?-3a

2-S

Steady. on-dirnensional conduciion wtlh

Eenera.

2.6

Heat lranster,rom ,ins

e^d21l

2-T

Steady, hflo- and three-dimensional conduction.

anatytical methods

2-58

Z-T

Steady, two_ and three-dimensional conduction.

FAOELM

2-1 lo

2-35 lo

247

2-49 to

?-46

Z-3

."rura",

Steady, one-dimensionat conctucti.rn withost

fenralioa

lion

graphicat mthods

2-73

2-59 lo

2-t

Steady, two- and three-dimensionat cooduclon.

numerical methods
I

plaac

.r..ttt,

Ji"**",

(k-0.65 {m.K) tbar

*,l*^y:ush-a
has on cxterioi
;,"E;T;:{}
*?l
te'pcraturc of 25'c c-arorratc
"Jp.r"**-"r
u" o"rr'J-r.J;;;;t
rhc wat pct unit area-

,, l-rt
is
t5 ;|*.11,",*
cm rhick and

Calculatc thc ccntcrlinc tcmpcratur.

of thc brick wall.

2'2

Thc hcat nux throueh

*
trfr,.:t

ol* ii rr r$'c

l0-crn-thick aluminum plate is

iil;d"l.t-ffi'*'.

or

*"

10. tV/u2. One

otr*r JJacc oi

^rl.N,

zn su$sc

rhar the atuminum platc in

hobtcm z-2 k r:{*;by a type 304
rred platc of thc samc thickncss. A*r;;
,fr", ,f,o hcat flux ead .oac
surfacc tcmpcraturc are thc
samc as in probrem 2-2. De tcrminc
rhc othcr surfacc .
stainlcss

[]ffi;??:?T,Hl;

ffi:frl

Hffi

;ilHbH;f #,ffi ,' ; n--L

h

*-

lZ). Snrur-Srrn Coloucnox

g'il* i.'# ;:il.F"nyir;,'x' # sS: :Iiffitrr,il.t

durilg rbc eilrerand tbc i::sidc

walr

r"tr"* i.ii""i

Dercrainc rhe capaciry

of rrc
!1tia_f nhnt ia *arrs recssary ro makc
fo hcal lost ihrarEh thc c.atl
- uo
-P rvt
c"t",rt"ti ihe bcat nuJurorgr, ;. ;;.

\rrt
paac of gtass is 4
thick and ho.
rhc bcar'tra'nsfcr ratc rbroug*r
o. gr"* ir
Calculatc tlc hcal ftux thrJugn
"";
o'. _J"rr.---

2-5 A figle

--

al

,il'.-i;.c
"* -'

f.

arca of 2
Dctcrmine
and thc otbcr sidc is 20"c

2-6 Conparc rhc heat_flux valucs for problcms

2_4 and 2-5. Is more hcar
rrandcrrcd through rhc war or
rhrough *;-g;
for simirar rrapcrarurc dif_
fcrcnccs? Suqgcsr r.ay5 ro rcducc
,rr. i.iir*, fiilrn rhc glass2-7 A c,vrindcr wirh diam-crer of 20 cm aad
,cngth 50 crn is insutarcd arouod
pcrimcrcr. Onc cnd of the c-vlinder_
irs
is-11;
of 300.C and a ptanc 25 cm
lrom rhis
cnd of rhc cvtindcr

i,

i;;;"ilc
Til;eHjt
;;;ffi.

I00.C.

conducdvityi 2 W,/n.K.

Dcrermine rlc bcar-uatfcr

rarc arong-rhc
aad rerqpcrarurc of rhc cyliadcr.

c,vrinder aad carcurarc thc

A long alurrinum wirc wit}r diamcrer t

.2{is covcri
cm can.
,rirc
*;o i-.-_,r.,,"i' r,,,;i:

.i,i,i;:iff I'SfrijH"t,*:

" ouuidc surface

Thc rcmpcrature of rhe
of

rr.;-i;;lon is 30.c Dercrmine

,J.*"L $e wire po.unit lcnerhrhcis

insidc insulation tcmDcrarurc.

The clecrrical r$rr@'cc
3-7

xro-. g/m.

"f

with c-rrcnor rcmperarurc I20.C

and oursidc.tiamerer of l0
rayer of asbesros (,t:o.r-i u,/rn.K)
insrlarion..rf rhe
ou*idc surfacc of thc insuladonis ar
35'c, *lrrr"" ,i. hcar-uansfcrrarc
from rhc
srcan pipe pcr unit lenqrlr of pipc.
calcutaic o. ,r,..-.r rcsbrancc
of rhc
insuhrion for a unir lengri of pipc.

_t-,i
1 "y-.pjp.
cn
s covercd
wirh a J-cm

d*"1",

r^ .11
E'Npc'rurc
^

d"!,'L;";'|or

:;oml:stjon gascs f.roo a furnacaTbc ducr bas

of 500"c and an ousidc
aiu-"t.iJ oirn- Dcrcrmin $c thickncss
of iasubtion (* -0.2 w,zrn'K) Oar is
the ousilc surfae of
.n""ess"ly;;;"o
rbe inrla$oa ro a levcl fr",.
y:gd_ig, injur.
_io

tases

iarr r specific hcar of

"nyo*

loucbes tbe surfacc. The

l/xe.K,; ;;;r.;
t.0 kg/s ead cxpcricncc
GDpcrrturc &op of l0"C over a'auct
tcugtl-ot OO rn. *ur. rhar
rbe thermal
rc$sraDo? of thc duct is smat
co-mpared ,i o"r oi the insutarioo
}iShcsr tcriFEraturc
and thar thc
that one wrq
could bc
w suoJecreo
subjected to
withr
ro wtthout
injury is 65.C.
,, ,.
.r
r

t000

i. ,

'L'u
sPbcte

Deerraine thc rhcrnret r'.,isrencc

*ilh en iacrnal diT:g of 5 on,and hear-rransf.cr ratc truough e holron,
*,"-Ja;.mccr of t0 crq and a
.-rndlcdvig of 20 w/rn.K.
"n
n.tm,.i"i'""i'
-thcrnal
crlcrnal swlacc kmpcrarurcs arc rm-c

-isoldrcspccrivcry.

hor.'rds l2l
2-12 Thc wart of a

r.

F*""T,*H:Tff"fr

cxtcrior surface of thc

,i:JxffiHi*F::,t's

embicnr.,"*;;;;/:fi a";l*i.,f

Calculare va.lucs for

rhrous:h

rhc,,*.;

r".'Ji;:

*'Jfli*#yziixinlLT:
crcur
ideatify ell
ead

*,._,r l]-,-::::,_;ilt:fr#;:*h:ffi*:#,**#::,'
"fl

2-13 Dcrcrmine thc thickness

of iasutarioa

ii *. ti*..iii'il"

Assu EG th a r t hc prcscncc

in

(ft:

rcsisanc<

z-ri'uri;i#/frm*Trffi:
-o#''"",t"rr*,
i*ri.,il"

probrem

cocfficicrrt. Calculare thc "r,i,.

tcmpcraturcs.f U",f,

Q;j

,"i*_

the ou tsidc hcat_transfcr

of thc iasulation.

n stvrofo". A:9.635 wrzm.K)

icc chcst is

-2-I.<
cvlindcr.
Thc inside

io tbc forn of e iollory

ai".... t. 70'50.m'.thc
il':".: "5t
: Td.
outside
cramerer is 0-60 m. end.
* n" lilllll'.is
tbc
., 0"c.. il. ilr,.L
eround rbc,,y."r.; ; j;
i|::
:::"rTt=lf
'il,)51,1*,".
Dctcrminc tbc timc
the air and sq*rofoarar"ng*, is r:o

il
.."r:*#iiffi
:lr.,#ff ;:f1;,."i.:T.,n"r""''*e'i";ffi
r:fl
t"i.n,
it'" r*T*T ff
oi-r,iil;i;tJl"i,l"ijr?,t;;;T.-'*
rcqdrcd for rhc

ic

to

corno,.,.fut**

rhc ends

n."-,

"

2-15 A manufacrurcr builds

two models of a hot w:

3j;"r11':.,1"ff

LJt.o."o*_;;;;.",";:fi lJ:::#**:,:J:

;J:f 'il:;,",H*":i:1,$[:#,1';*trff f lf;yi,f

yI* .,ij,1; il:;,',l"" :;,=;rTffi*jru:tli:.,:,

ff

fj

3li

*:+*gffihl'r=tl:'*{fr'"'ffi#
l",l;::Jff;'r1,,ff l'-,.i-"o.,il-il",i,l

prcen! eacrs/

,t'.

*"rr,,r,",

r*1[4"''rli,:*Hfl_:.f-4

pr*. n",

..pi"i;Tfi lfr

g11tr*1:l*;iJ/f,
da)

(b)
(c)

cm in diemetcr has a surracr.

tcmperaturc or

itT"lfr :iH,]1ffi

#tr*fi xffi J'*.

,1Tr#i:"ff

ffi

Dtaw rh thermal circuit

rnd labct all rcsbuncc*
Dcrcrminc oc
rod pcrnnit leagrh.
Dcterminc o. .rr"rlo.
both ios'laton

tot"t.hcat-ran"ll;rff;*

surt""l';;;:;,

ln

2117

Srreory-SrenCoNDucrro*

for

conductiviry,

thc compocir rra[ sho*n in rhe figurc, dcrcrminc thc thcrmal

*,- Abodttcrnrinc

rlrc intctfacc tmpcrairurcs

Fbid

.t F:0nfl:-{

l-. ?oo'f

r.

J@'C

l5

Z;

-a f;.

{;n.li

.-

2-lt Air ar 120'c flows ovcr dre rop of a rargc horizonrar s-cm-rhick s."injcss
sccl plarc wbmc uppcr su-rfacc is mainaincd .l z]o"c
lt. .on".criu.-i;;;;
fer.cocfficicor is 30 w/nalC Thc uppcr srf:cc of rhe
plarc r** zm wTriJy
radiatioo to tbc air. Dccrminc rhc sicaay kmpcralure
of thc roiu surrace of thc

plare.

A boc&ey arena in e_sruhifuncdon building has r surfacc arca

of 1600 mr.
ls loairbiDcd by cooring coits thar circurare'througrr
rhc icc as iuusrrared in
Jlcjcc
the figurc A ba-*crbar floor is raid over rhc icc,
having a t5.cn ai,

_Ll9

r**.n

9p
rhc icc and 6c floor- Thc cffccrivc convccrivc{cat-rrajnsfcr
cocfficiclr in thc air
gap ir 5 w/n2'rc rbc surface of rhc baskerbal
Roor is in onracr *irh 25"c air
end fbc onvccdvsbcat-transfer cocfficienr is 3

{m2.K Tb. *, odi"";

h:g rbc ligtu b 2SO W/m2. Th ffid lri ,lr*rrr", eondncrivity "r;;
ni
of 0J
W/D'K rad lor ica *-2-O */m.lc Thc tos,c6uaio
-ry bc assumcd ro bc
ediabadc- If rbe b*kabat floor is rcfi in prae rii l, csrimare the rninimum
emoun! of caig
rhat must bc rcmovcd trorn

o"

;cc to

t<ccp thc icc

fmm mclting.

l'RoBrric lB

t-

Jcm

,,

l-5 cnr

I_J (nt

C@ling coils

Adiebrrk

iwfist

Estimatc thc cost to opcnrtc thc coolitrg systcm for 24 b. Assnae that ttc
a cocfficicnt of pcrfonnrncc of 2-0 aad clectricity cosa

rcfrigeradon unit has

50.06/kwh.

2.20 A largc flar fall is cxposcd to a fluid rhar has a temperarur. of 200"C
The wall is covered wirh a 5-cm-thick layer of insulation with ,t=O.j
The
tcmpcraturc of the interfacc berween rhc insuJation and wall is loo"c Dctcrurine
thc value of convectivc-heat-ransfcr cofficicnt which must bc naintained oa thc
cxposcd surfacc of thc insulation so that thc surfacc will not excecd a tctrrpcraturc

{m.IC

of 150'C

*it[

2-21 A tank consisrs of cylindrical ccntcr sccrion

two heraisphcrical cad
rcctions. Thc tank contains a hcatcd fluid that rr6inrin5 thc imidc surfacc
tcmpcrature of tlle tanl at 350'C. Thc task is st,inl6s stccl with a constant
thictness of 2.5 cm. The ousidc diamcrer of rhc cylindrical scction is 2 m and it is
2 m in lcngth. The air surrounding thc iank has an ambicnt tcmpcraturc of 25"C
Thc convccrivc-hcartra$fcr cocfficient bctwecn the air and task is ?
Determinc thc amoun! of heat that must bc addcd to rhc fluid in the tank to
maintain its tcmpcraturc. Assume only radial conduction tbrough itrc tank

{m!.IC

7-22 A 2-mmdiameter coppcr wire covercd with a. l-nm-thic,k insulation

(&*0.18 w/rn.K) has a tcndency to ovcrhcar whcn uscd in a laboraroryrdo,icc.
Thc hcat-rransfcr cocfficient bctwecn thc insulatioo and air is 34 w/m:.K Would
thc additioo of thicker insulation incrcasc rhc hcat dissipation from rhc wirc? If so,
what is the maximum pcrccntagc incrcasc in cncrry dissipation that caa bc rcalizcd
by adding insulation? Dctcrminc thc critical thickness of insulatioa that maximizcs
thc hcat-transfcr ratc from thc wire.

2-B Using thc proccdurc ourtined in Scction 2-3 for dctcrmining drc crio'cal
.insulatioo thickncss.on a cylindcr, show that thc critical insulation ttickness on
sphcrc is givcn by

tri- t'o
-zo
k1
of
2kt
h,

67r

tU

Strroy-Srrrr Goyoucnol

2-2a. Dcrcrai* an cxprcs;io

-,
through r

fT .n" f--p.orurc distributioa ead hcat flur

rhar [15 e varietion
ticrmal cooducti"ity of
Tbc $all bas e *iltb
and tbc boundar conditious arc r(0);
rall

il
tf+.f}
t
aDd {r)- ?i rbc
rynbots } ud c,cpr6cDt
pleoc

(l +

qi;;;

r,

"o**,J

2-25 Dcrcrmioc aa cxprcssion for thc srcady tcmpcraluc

distn'bution in a rong
hollow.cylindcr uo
ffica-s'tao ,.-p.,",ur"r'it ,1. *..."r conductivity of
the cylindcr varics lincarly wirb
i i1f._
F-pcrarurc

1ra1

Un.

srcady rcnperature distribution for four planc

surfaccs in cooucr is
shova in rbc figure Lisr rhe four rhcrmar
ia
order of rowcsr firsr
and thc highesr t lasl Erplaia tbc reason ""nau"iiriar
fo, y*"0""irilo.

.*1T,-T:

l_,
.{

t)

2'27 The srcady tcmpcrarurc distribution in a planc

surface is sho*r in thc
-.
figurc'
Docs rhc rhcrmi conduoivitv
ri,. iri.i"i'i-n.r*. or dccrcasc wirh
tempcrature?
"r
Explain thc.rcasoa for

_vour dccision.

2-28 A currcnr of 200 A k passcd through a srainlcss

srecl wirc which has a
2-mm diamcter and a t-m hagth. The clccrical
,.rirt"n"" of thc wire is 0.125 O
and irs rhcrmer condrrctivity is- .r 7 w
/ 'K- Thc lcmpcrarurc of thc ourcr surface of
Ibe virc is mcagrrcd at t50.G
(a) Shrc tic govrraing cquarion for thc srcady-srarc rcrnpcrarure.
thc

(U.)

(c)
(d)
(c)
'

I(r). in

wira

_Surc

rbc

gorrraing boundary condirions.

Solvc.tbc diffcrcatiel cquarion

Calanlarc rhc wirc ccnrcrlinc Empcraturc.

Assumc rhar

yor nish

ro add iluhtion (e_0-15 W/n.K rc rhc

surfacc oI rhc ryirc end thar rhc convcctivc-hcat-ransfcr
cocfficicnt on
rhc iasularion is 60 W/m:.K. Could thc currcnr
in
rbc yirc bc
incraascd, or woulld jt have o bc decrcascd.
assuming that thc ourer
surfacc of thc wirr is at a constant tempcrarurc
of 150"C?

Pnou-rr.rs t25

in e

distilutio3
2-D Show that thc stcady tcmpcraturc pcruoit
Tolunc
gcncration 9'i
uaifonn
with
tyfina"t
r,oili

consrent Psqpcro/

is

.['-t;fl
W - #"t[' I(r)--(;ljffi
I{d[

Thc bousdary coriditions are

and

-ffi

T-

constaat &ermal olductivity'

2-3o Thc watl shown in the tigun has a

i}"

is iasulatcd and thi sutfzct tt,'Lir.naioainoda,cr'pcfitotrc

."i"1" t,
e constant hcat-gcncratioa ratc pcr. uait volumc 4f, b distributcd
emoutrt of hcat that can
throughout thc wall' bctcrrrinc thc rna;irnum
stcadv tempcraturc
the
tha-1
suc!
volumc
".ifirtly
unit
ttc *att qcr
ft - 15 w/m'IC Calculatc thc tcmpcranre
no, cxcccd 120.C *hen'f-0-t
of thc insulatcd surfacc of thc wall'

.:o
i"iy J*a"
;;;,J;t:ldc
i".i

rt

*.r ri:*i;{
- r -60'C

/<' The
2-31 A plane wall of width L bas a consant thermal conductivitypcr unit
gcncradon
heat
Thc
surfacc tcmpcraturcs arc t(o)ftt "oa r1f1=7t'
to thc exprlsion Qt:8x7. Daerminc thc
volumc in rhc wall
""rio ""'aoraing
following quantities in tcrms of k, B, T6 Tv and L:
Thc steady tcmPcralurc distribution' I('r)'
Thc tocation of thc planc of maximum
beat flux lcaving thc wall at thc surfacc x =

in
O)
i.j n.

temPrature'
L

(r*0) i"ry]lf-d^*$'
Aplanc wall is 1.0 m thick and it has onc surface
tcmPeratur'
constadt
a
at
is
maintaincd
(,r
surfacc
the othcr
genetatr'o ryt Y*'
thermal conductivity of thc :r'all is 25 W/m'K ao! a lniform
Determinc e dimcnsionlcss
thc
wall- Dctcrminc thc maximum
cxprcssion for thc tcmpcratut. aituiiutio" in thc
plane whcre the sraximum
thc
of
b""tioo
2-32

l)

;;il;;";.ovJ
;p.J*

"ll10:1 T:

;;;-,h'""ch'rit

1!-

in thc wall ;t,h;

tcmPcratuc occttf,s.

t rd

ouside

2-33 A long solid cylindct har I consrrnt &crna! conductivity

*t*!^ !l
ratc ryt
r- Crcacration cxisu wi6ia tbc ciin&r a! Imaintaiacd
adiue
-t*it
-il;
a coilrtrnt
rt
b
cylindcr
thc
of
surfacc
stcrior
thc
tt
ia thc
^ri 11, dcrivc - .ii*ioiftt tl" ttoay tcmPcranrc distribution
lenpcnorc

cylindcr in tcrms ol k, r.,

f,'

and

,{'

through ft in an
f
Atoag holtow cylindcr has a constaat crrrar oassi4
f- nt insidqsurfacc of thc cylindct'
exial dirtction Thc tcngth; th";;;t

2-y

lN

SreADy-SrerE

r-ri,

is insularcd and

Corouclox
t

r:'-'"* "ia";rlc il+tT:";*:J.-';:illiffr :1.1;h.*f#

rylindcr- Yo'.rnJr;;';.-.d
ia tcrms ir t, n,' *. t-,,,
ffJi:
2-3S A

t
ry
j

stainlcss srccl pan p!."a on thc

srovc. Thc paa has a diamcrcr
of 30
rhickness of
Tlrl pan i;
boil qrarcr and the disrancc
3
bctwcea thc watci and thc rin or
oi-pan
Thc hcat-raasfff cocfficicnr
bcrwecn rhc air and 6.^fT
3m
ir,ilr.r"g. air tcmpcraturc inside
ard oursidc rhc pan is 50;c. Bdmarc
;h.

qtr and a

;; ;
irI-"i
w7;-[
,;;;;;*.

cross+ccrionar arce

."Ho1"tr:;i:: ilff,"

of rhc rim of thc pan.

of diamercr,/ and.rcngrh

is

i#l lI: *H* i:;"Ti.:: f r*: ;xf ::;i:-,:'; f :;

j:"= gl ;t'ri" ".* ;,) ;rf,j(,:;,i*.nn:
Bior numbcr_Bi - F"rt2 *t _0.r. r. rO.
:,:."'*f

uncrion or

:i'

di men sionrcss

"r."*il!'"I

ir,rur"r.a rip area-

2-3? A fin with trianpurar profilc is

attachcd ro a surface with a tcmpcraurc
r+c

e*.c-

"la-nrqer;J

t i*,ar,*,;J;;;;.

drid.*.*'!f { cm. T}c.

;::IT?Jrf#rn:.K.
1-39

'{

stainress srccr

sutmunding nuid

i.*"

oI

of t0 ca rad e base

u ar r,o.c end the ircal-rransfcr

DaenninJfl,. rl.,u,,Tnjlr r",. f,o_
rhc fin pcr unir

rin *ilrr trrickncsr

rurrouads e t<m-outsidt_a;ryrcr
rube. T?n

*'irh a convccrive-hear-rransfcr cocfficicnr

rnn end ouri&

diarnercr

cm

"_*.* nrii ,;,np.*,*. i, io:l

"i;o v;j. K. The tube_*., rcmDera_

turc is 150.C. Calcularc thc hcat_ransfer

r",. trorn'rt,. fin.

2'39 A copper fin wirh circular cross

secrion widr an arca of 0.25 cmr
and lenerh
of 2.i cm is arrached

.: Tlt-yl..rnp"r",uo.i rzs.C ir"';;ffi;i,.,

Hf:::il:;:[?;*.t-35 w'lm:'K' carcurarc rhc hcat-rransrcr rate and dp
(a)
(b)

rhc fin has an insularcd dp. and

hcat is convccrcd from rbc dp surfacc
arca.

tf rT vcrl' rong alurninum *ires wirh diamercr

of l cm arr ro bc sordercd
rogcthcr. The wircs arc locarcd;
L tlr;-ZO-ii,7-t.61 wirh a rcmpcnrurc
25'C. If rhc solder has a meldng
*rnp.rai*. of :-fuIC. a.,".rninc tbc amount of
bcat input rcquircd ar the intc*acc
of
or *,. ,". *i* whcn thc lcmpcraturc
disrriburion in thc wirc
is srcady.

2-41 A solid circular rod of lcngth

cxrtnds berwccn rwo wa[s rhar

2L

diamercr D. end thermel oonductiviry

arl u.,r, .l"J".J

ambient,"Ilp.ra,u.. suiounairig
rh.

;-l;';_ ;;

"i'
;:

:Tff::;;l_3"r3:

cocfficicnr is f,' Dcrcrminc an

cxprcssion for thrdimensionrcss
srcady kmpcrarurc
disrribution in thc rod and an
cxprcssion for thc roat hcar-transfcr
ratc from rhc
rod. Your answcrs may bc cxpresscd

in rcrms

;at;: fi, r-,

ana

r"-

ffi

sl
ii
al

hoBLnG ttT

742 Al

caginccr wishcs

ro malc acorratc ncasuremenb

of thc hcat llur
spccim"" ;;;-,"d ;00"C and
iB rcmpc121tup
noailorcd by I thcrmocoupt co*irting
oi*.'J.I *i,t, diamcrcr of I nn aadis
thcrmal coo.uctivity 75
lcaving a

r6t

spcci,_Dca- Thc rcst

{rn-K- n
tcrnperature b 20.C and
rhc convcctive-hcaGrarsfcr coefficicnt
".tUiitlU..",.o
b.,*;;;;;
and rhen'ocouprc dres is
25w1m2.K.If rhc cnginccr monirors tt. t""iri,i
ilo* n" spccimcn, dacrmine
tlc possiblc crror.in thc hcaGrrnsfcr."**"..oi
u*scmenl ju,
duc to conductioa thmugh the
tlcrmocouplc lcads.
243 A

singlc-cylindcr^air-coolcd

larrn mower qngjng opcratcr uadcr

stcadv
Thc cvrindcr rcmprature cannot crcced
:-m;c]ir Lti.' .i'j""J
enaular fins are placed arouni thc
cylindciTh;;-;
oJ cn rhict ald arc 2 cra
roag from basc to rip' Tttc-tins^ar-e
casiir"* n.i""roe.diamctcr
coadi tions"

s linder at the basc of

the fin

on.'

;;;:

of the cngiae

;;;

;h;"*" operarcs
rnd that the hcat-rransfcr cocfficient
* ,h;;l*;;;iip or the tu b t2in 30.c air
Brimare rhc hcar-ransfer ratc from
{nr.K.
a ;"r,;;;.;'i:rmine the number
aecded to coot a 3-kW cnginc
to ,h" gr"-"n';;;;"r" if thc coginc of fins
Let an
cfficicncy ot wo
and 5@o

dissipared rhrougi thc fins.

ir

*rc

n'-

,";l f*;';;:;ori

o,

*"

cngine

ectury

i5

2{4

one ead of a circurar.poker is praced

in a fire. Thc poker is madc or
r,..r
ir ha"r r.ai",,,...r Jilo;;: m:
il of thc pokcr in thc fire is
350'C' rhc air around rhc ooker
j^;.'k;;il
t+=zs i
rempcrature of 60.C. and
tbc lengrh of rhc poker bcrwecn
the fii"
{canpcrarurc of thc handlc
"rra,fr"ni[ is 0.6 rn Btimetc thc
of thc poker.

k-ss w/m'&and

2{5

A fin rith consrant cross-scctional

arca

uniform hear-generation ratc.pr

unit notumc of
s surrounded by a fluid rrith constant

l,

perimeter p, and lcngth

ilr,rrr""gr,"", is rrorumc-

f_

"aUi"ot"a_p.-rature
l"fi lTXf":Ticicnr {- srro*,h"d. il#;;"i:'.0;,,*,",ure

'(f)=(,-Q")(t'+.ffi).n,
where

e1g;-

1fl-rTt- T-

g.-=_#A-_

(dirncnsioiless gcncration)

4P(T|_T_)
B

i-

h'PL2

kl

Thc boundary conditions

arc

0(0)d0t

1.e

4L-,-o

(insulated rip)

l,

has a

Thc fin

.end consrant-

distribution in

128 Srr^Dy-SrAr@rorrc.r:onr
sLcw-rhat the Eoperaturc oo*t u* reduccs
to thc onc dcrivcd in Scction
for a fin :'i& insulard tip whcn rhe gcncration

t Jr..O

2-46 A popular styh of sol&ri1S

clcmenr of rhc gun is sbown ;n oc

long aad

W/n.K.

it

bas

q. b* a powcr rating of 50 W. I}rg hcal;e,

Lrch. n-. .r.-"1, r approximarcly l0 cm

;;;;

rhar rlre soldcring gun nol

.r p."llili_cS for the rempcrarurc

1".#:l;ru"uously?

Thc rempcrarurc disrribution in a rc[d q/ith

T(x"'-)=avza6'2+cx+d. whcrc thc

is given b;

K/cm:: c=1.0

of rhe heal-flux vecror

"n;;;;.

2-t{l For rhe remperarure disrriburion gvcn

hcar-rransfer ralc pcr unir dcprh across

*-2.5 W/m.K

iii i* i. and borh x and.r. are in

"r" a_1.0
Kr/cmr: D=1.5

cenrimercrs Values for drc constanc

arc.
K/cm; r'-3gg K. Dctcrmine O.air..iioi
ar (:..y) locarions of (0.0). (1. l). and (3.0).

r*0 ro.r-5

in

problcm 247. dererminc

the

thc'sfia;';;g

cm.

,at .T::

from

r=0

ro

),_3

cm

steam pipcs are placcd in conact.

as shown in rhc figurc. and
surrounded by asbcsros insutadoa ro
rcducc *" f,o, f"rri-m rhc pipcs.
Thc pipcs
havc an cxrcrior diamercr of t0 cm
rr,. our.ia.
or thc insularion is 30

55

iH.eH*":i:.;,,:,"yS:X.#..":$i

bc rcachcd aficr srcady usc. Do your c'*h;;

Usc rbc rcsutrs

and-y=0 from

2{

a 3-mm-square crocs scction wirh tbcrma.l conductiviry

of

Thc ambicnt air

rcmpcra,urcorrbchcarcr".!ffi

247

to zcro (Oc_0).

-a

;;;.;.,

housc flt
co. Thc pipcs carD/ ste.aa wirha tcqpcreructf IJO.Crte Oorntof OC*g/r.
Thc crtcrior surface of thc insulation avcragc 35'c Esrihrte thc hcit-trrDsficr ratc
6roug! thc irsrdation per unit lcagth of pipc. Esr;mrtc thc cooductiostapc.factm
for rhc.insulation- Estimatc thc lcngth of pipc in which thc stcam tEpraolrc will
drcp

5'C

2.50 Hot vatcr

pipcs are located

on OJ-m ccotcs ia

{n.K)

oolcrctc

(k-15

slab as shown ia thc figurc. If Oe ousidc surfaccs of ric coactuc uc.at

30'C asd tlc watcr has aa avcragc tcnpcraturc of 90"C cstimatc thc hcat-raldcr
rac lrom cach pipc per unit dcptb.

30'c

2-51 The cross sccrrbn of a t-ll glinnay shown in thc figure has at insidc
rurfroc ttnpcraturc of l70oC and an cxtcrior tcsrperaturc of JO"C. Estirnatc thc
bcat-transfcr ratc rhrough thc chimncy pcr uoit lcngth

il &-2.0 W/rn.lC

2-52 The long stccl (&-a3 W/rn.K) anglc shown in thc figure has ooc surface
at l00oC and the othcr surfacc mainraincd at 200"C Estimatc rhc hcat-transfcr
ratc bctc/ccn thc two surfaccs pcr unit of lcngth.

J
3cm

-T-

-")

,'-q

130'Srrrr-Srrrr Corousnor

b 3m'C f;
1 2.$ fA squerc ducr srics hor grscs ruch that its surlacc tcnPcraturc
\Tbc duct gasscs rhroqi r hng lela of circular asbcstoe (ft-O25 w/n'K) :
iii6tio" rs sbowr io rbc figura Thc outsidc rurtacc lcmpcraturc of rbc esbcstos is

45'C Enimatc Sc bcat+ndcrrarc

fro,rn tlhe gascs pcr

uait lcngtb ol ducu

2-54 Radioacrivc sastcs arc scalcd in a sphcrical conuincr and buried in tlrc
A l-mdiamctcr sphcrc is buricd at a dcpth of 25 m' whcrc thc soil thcrmal
coaarc$riry js .10 wrb.lc Tbc surfacc ol rlrc carr! has a conslant tcmpcraturc of
l5'C. Tbr*zste marcrial trncrarcs htrt rte nrcof l00O W- What tcmPcraturc
canh.

docs thc conraincr have to bc dcsigncd to withsrand?

1'55 A buried pipclinc traffPons oil with an avcta8e tcmperarurc of l5'C' The
pipc has aa ousi<ic diaroctcr of 05'm. insidc diamctcr of 0.45 m. and it is buricd at
a dcpth of 5 m.-lf lhc surfacc of thc canh is 5"C. estimate thc stcady hcat-transfcr
rau lrom thc oil pcr unir lcngth of pipc. Hou' far can the oil bc transported until irs
avdagc rsmpcrarurc dropc ro l2"C if rhc spccific hcat of the oil is 2000 w's/kg'K
and its flow rarc is J0 kg/s? Thc thcrmal conductivity of rhc soil is 1.0 rA'r/rn'K
2-55 An chcrricat poncr cablc is buricd in thc canh at a depth of l-5 m. Tlrc
cablc dienrcrcr is l0 sn. The thcrmal conduaivity of thc soil is l-5 w/m'K and
the rcmper-aturc of the surfaca of thc carth is 20'C Thc clcctrical rcsisancc of lhc
cablc pcr unit lcngth is l0-. 0/m. tf thc insuladon on the wire is limitcd to a
tcmpcralure of 120"C cstimatc thc maximum currcnt that can be ca:ricd by thc
cabl,e.

2-5-, A small clccrrical furnact is in thc shapc of a parallclepipcd- The furnace

wall is construOed of esbcsros insuladon thar is l0 cm thick on all surfaccs of thc
'furarca Tbc intsrd cavity of thc furnecc is e crbic shapc 0-5O m on a sida
Dcrcrsrbc lbc powcr consumption of thc furnacc undcr stcady oPerating condi'
riom if rbe inarnal grrlacc of rhc asbcstos is 220"C and thc ousidc surfaca is at a
rcrnpcratur: of 45"C

PRoBrsfir

l:ll

pipc buricd with iu cqrtcrfmc 6 m beloqr thc

mcallic pipc has I l-n o.d- end OJlm i.d. The thrmal

t-sS Oit is traasporrcd ia e

surfacc of thc eanb- Thc

of lhc soil is l-s Vm'K- and thc rcil dr iatcdacc tcmpcraturc is

thc hcat inpul to thc oil pcr kilofretcr of pipc tcngth rcccssary
Decrminc
-20"C.
ro maintail thc avcragc oil tcmpcraturc rt 20"C if thc orl llory ratc b 90O kg/s.
cooductivity

2-59' Thc fin shown in thc figurc has a basc tcmpcraturc of 200'C A sourcc of
cncrgr is incidcnt on thc rip of thc fin with an caerry flu.r. of 5000 W/m2.,Thc
cxtcrior surfacc of thc fin is insulatc4 Use the relaxation mcthod to cstimatc thc
tcmpcratur6 at aodcs

r.

I through 5.

100'C

Enrt

,r-

lra .0.1 m!
5ooo rv/m:

2-60

If

thc tcmperaturcs of nodcs

I through 8 in the

figure in "C are assumed to

be 50, 51. 52, 53, 54, 55, 56 and 57, calculate the rcsiduals at nodcs

l, 2, 4, and

5.

Numerical valucs for thc symbols in the figure arc i],:5 tff/m2'X,,f.t=19
w/m2'K, I--40oC, L-5 cm, k:20 w/m'K. By changmg the tempcraturc
corresponding to thc nodc with largest rcsidual, dctcrrninc lhc tcmpcraure of that
node which will rcducc thc rcsidual to zcro.

,i

r' r-

jI

2-61 Thc:figurc show: a rclid wall that har thcrrrtl cocdrrtirity *. Thc
surfacc is extroscd to fluid witil ambicnt tcmpcrantrc
Derivc thc rcsidual
cquations for nodcs l, 2, md 3 in terms of thc tcmpcraturcs of nodcs 4 througb 9

^n6

gi- F,t/k

I-

lj12

Srr^DySl^TECoxoucnor,s

Fluid

fr..

I-

-L--O

.F,
2{1

Vcrifr.all rhe relaxation cquadons givcn in Tablc 2-3.

26

Usc thc rclaxarion mc$od |otd*rllcfiltqmr*sns

TLr talues
the unknowas arc all berwcen 0 end 10.

for a!

r+51'-ft^vt
6.y -l: +r -35
2:-Jr.-l4n- -9
3r-4:*3r'* -ll

2x +

2g,

-{x'- 20u = 9

rhe rwo-dimcnsional srcady rempcralurcs of

nodal

-,
througlr 4-9l.Iare
in tbe figurc-

poinr

surface rempcraturcs arc shown and thc sorid

has a thermar
conducriviry of 2 W/m. K. Calcularc rhe rempcrarures
undcr two condirions:
:00'(
lil
_+____+_-__J

rlt:;

ioioi
lr

-_+_____l
r,:lJi

roioi

i----i----1'iofc
(a)

(b)

No intcrna! cncrry tcncration is prcscnr

A.pnt*! cncqgr gcncra_tion pci unir volumc cxisrs rhroughour rhc

solid cgual ro tmO

W/rd.

q1;
hosl5ts
245

Rcpca.t

hoblcm 2.64 using an ircretin

rctni$n

J-

24

t33

C'k-'t"c rnc rcqecnrs,cs of rh

iod6 rtorll il
rclaxatioo tcchniquc.Thc rhcrmal conduaivityof rbcsollt b 30

dc figurc. Usc thc

{a.lC

-lruleat

1-67

Rcpcar Probtcm 2-66 using

rn ircrarioa tcchniqu-*

tquid nitrogca dcvar ii slpportd b.v two staidess sreel

in thc figurc. Thc lcgs 62ij1r-in thc Aacing b.t*..a inncr rad outer
walls of thc dcwar. Thc rcgion scpararing rhc *zlk ir crracuarcd and fillcd with an
insulating matcrial. Btimatc thc boil-off ratc of rhc tiquid niaogra drrc to bcat leak
through thc lcgs by using two differcat mcrhods:
rcctaagular

legs as shown

(a)

Nodal cquarion using tlre rclaxatioa slcihod-

lsf.&n
$dqam

t2

.a

lll

SrreotiSrrrt Comucrrorr

(b)
Support

Crraphicalncrbod.'

dcuil:

T
li

inr

__l
li'r

2{9

The tong. recun-rular ber sho*n in rhc figurc has two adjrccnr
surfaccs
raainuiaed at consuni rcnpcra&rc ahd tu.o a jaccnr surfaccs
that
rra_sfcr hcar.[' convcnion. ]iumerical srlucr arc & 30 rf'/m .
K. {, _:O WZii.
{. -:O $'1$i l(. iad !r- * l00qC. Uring r noA"t ,uMlulsion as sho*n in rhe
figurc. dctcrminc ilrt srcad-t rcmperalur* of rhc l-s nodcs b1.a rerararion
mcdrod

thrt .rc

h,.T

-iUiit------E;+

-'.jr,'(

'

,:0'(

l-70 \orl

hobicrn l-69 br a mauir-inr.crsion rcchniquc. Derive th3 gnc?g

f'r cach nodc aod dcrerminc rhc clcmcnts of maricts e and-btbc pto8ram gscn ia Eramplc 2-13. Comparc vour ansB,crs u,irh thosc
lsc
dacrmiacd in hoblcm 249.
balaacc cguadons

l-?t Worl Problcm 2-69 by an ircrarion rcchniguc. Modify rhc compurc,

prograh ia Frample 2-15 aad usc it ro dercrminc vatucs for rhc t5 nodal
r=mpcnutcr comparc Jroui anrwcrs riri thosc dctcrnr.incc in problcms 2{g and

2-70.

tr
hort'Ms

t3S

2-72 A loag stccl clrenncl (&-15 {ra-K) k shown in thc figurc. Thc op
surfacc is iroecrn f rt . tcmpa.turc of 100'C whilc thc bottom rurface k et
300"C Onc sidc & crposcd to .k (4 - lO0 V"i f) er {0'C ead thc othcr sidc is
insulatcd. Thc intcrn:l portioa of $c chennd i: in contaa with e lluid rdth I
rcmitcrarutl of 2fi)'C end i-Zt */aeC Dctcrminc thc stc-edy cmpcrntwcs of
thc 20 nodcs rith unknown lcmpcnrucs. Usc thc matrix tcchniquc end rhc

computc Fotrarn in Eranpk 2-13.

t, .

f-.

r(xlwrn:.K
ao'C

l_

:nr.\

"w

2-?3 Work'Froblcm
gram in Examplc 2-15.

2-72 wirh

,i ':5 i';-:.x
l-'loo"c

lod. C

rn itenubn tdniquc. Usc drc @rnput r PrG