Assignment 1

[2015]
Adama
Science
&Technology
[SUBMITTED
BY: GIRMA ABEBE
University
ID. :GSR/02935/07
School of
Engineering
Electrical &
Computer
Engineering
Department
Microwave Devices & Network

(EEng-6307)
[Assignment 1]
[ Submitted to:
Dr M V Raghavendra ]
Microwave Devices & Network 201
Microwave solid-state devices

Microwave solid-state devices
Semiconductor devices used for the detection, generation, amplification, and control of
electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths from 30 cm to 1 mm (frequencies from 1 to 300
GHz). The number and variety of microwave semiconductor devices, used for wireless and
satellite communication and optoelectronics, have increased as new techniques, materials, and
concepts have been developed and applied. Passive microwave devices, such as pn and PIN
junctions, Schottky barrier diodes, and varactors, are primarily used for detecting, mixing,
modulating, or controlling microwave signals. Step-recovery diodes, transistors, tunnel diodes,
and transferred electron devices (TEDs) are active microwave devices that generate power or
amplify microwave signals.
Typical high-frequency semiconductor materials include silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and
compound semiconductors, such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), indium phosphide (InP), silicon
germanium (SiGe), silicon carbide (SiC), and gallium nitride (GaN). In general, the compound
semiconductors work best for high-frequency applications due to their higher electron mobilities.
Active devices
Transistors are the most widely used active microwave solid-state devices. At very high
microwave frequencies, high-frequency effects limit the usefulness of transistors, and twoterminal negative resistance devices, such as transferred-electron devices, avalanche diodes, and
tunnel diodes, are sometimes used. Two main categories of transistors are used for microwave
applications: bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) and field-effect transistors (FETs). In order to get
useful output power at high frequencies, transistors are designed to have a higher periphery-toarea ratio using a simple stripe geometry. The area must be reduced without reducing the
periphery, as large area means large interelectrode capacitance. For high-frequency applications
the goal is to scale down the size of the device. Narrower widths of the elements within the
transistor are the key to superior high-frequency performance. A BJT consists of three doped
regions forming two pn junctions. These regions are the emitter, base, and collector in either an
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npn or pnp arrangement. Silicon npn BJTs have an upper cutoff frequency of about 25 GHz
(varies with manufacturing improvements). The cutoff frequency is defined as the frequency at
which the current amplification drops to unity as the frequency is raised. The primary limitations
to higher frequency are base and emitter resistance, capacitance, and transit time. To operate at
microwave frequencies, individual transistor dimensions must be reduced to micrometer or
submicrometer size. To maintain current and power capability, various forms of internal
paralleling on the chip are used. Three of these geometries are interdigitated fingers that form the
emitter and base, the overlaying of emitter and base stripes, and the matrix approach. Silicon
BJTs are mainly used in the lower microwave ranges. Their power capability is quite good, but in
terms of noise they are inferior to GaAs metal semiconductor field-effect transistors (MESFETs)
at frequencies above 1 GHz and are mainly used in power amplifiers and oscillators. They may
also be used in small-signal microwave amplifiers when noise performance is not critical.
Heterojunction bipolar transistors (HBTs) have been designed with much higher maximum
frequencies than silicon BJTs. HBTs are essentially BJTs that have two or more materials making
up the emitter, base, and collector regions (Fig. 1). In HBTs, the major goal is to limit the
injection of holes into the emitter by using an emitter material with a larger bandgap than the
base. The difference in bandgaps manifests itself as a discontinuity in the conduction band or the
valence band, or both. For npn HBTs, a discontinuity in the valence band is required. In general,
to make high-quality heterojunctions, the two materials should have matching lattice constants.
For very thin layers, lattice matching is not absolutely necessary as the thin layer can be strained
to accommodate the crystal lattice of the other material. Fortunately, the base of a bipolar
transistor is designed to be very thin and thus can be made of a strained layer material.
Combinations such as AlGaAs/InGaAs and Si/SiGe are possible. Field-effect transistors (FETs)
operate by varying the conductivity of a semiconductor channel through changes in the electric
field across the channel. The three basic forms of FETs are the junction FET (JFET), the metal
semiconductor FET (MESFET), and the metal oxide semiconductor FET (MOSFET). All FETs
have a channel with a source and drain region at each end and a gate located along the channel,
which modulates the channel conduction (Fig. 2). Microwave JFETs and MESFETs work by
channel depletion. The channel is n-type and the gate is p-type for JFETs and metal for
MESFETs. FET structures are well suited for microwave applications because all contacts are on
the surface to keep parasitic capacitances small. The cutoff frequency is mainly determined by
the transit time of the electrons under the gate; thus short gate lengths (less than 1 m) are used.
Power devices consist of a number of MESFETs in parallel with air bridges connecting the
sources. GaAs MESFET devices are used in low-noise amplifiers (LNAs), Class C amplifiers,
oscillators, and monolithic microwave integrated circuits. The performance of a GaAs FET is
determined primarily by the gate width and length. The planar structure of a MESFET makes it
straightforward to add a second gate which can be used to control the amplification of the
transistor. Dual-gate MESFETs can be used as mixers (with conversion gain) and for control
purposes. Applications include heterodyne mixers and amplitude modulation of oscillators. The
MOSFET has a highly insulating silicon dioxide (SiO2) layer between the semiconductor and the
gate; however, silicon MOSFETs are not really considered microwave transistors. Compared
with the GaAs MESFET, MOSFETs have lower electron mobility, larger parasitic resistances,
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and higher noise levels. Also, since the silicon substrate cannot be made semi-insulating, larger
parasitic capacitances result. MOSFETs therefore do not perform very well above 1 GHz. Below
this frequency, MOSFETs find application mainly as radio-frequency (RF) power amplifiers.
A disadvantage of the MESFET is that the electron mobility is degraded since electrons are
scattered by the ionized impurities in the channel. By using a heterojunction consisting of n-type
AlGaAs with undoped GaAs, electrons move from the AlGaAs to the GaAs and form a
conducting channel at the interface. The electrons are separated from the donors and have the
mobility associated with undoped material. A heterojunction transistor made in this fashion has
many different names: high electron mobility transistor (HEMT), two-dimensional electron gas
FET (TEGFET), modulation-doped FET (MODFET), selectively doped heterojunction transistor
(SDHT), and heterojunction FET (HFET). The HEMT has high power gain at frequencies of 100
GHz or higher with low noise levels.
A monolithic microwave integrated circuit (MMIC) can be made using silicon or GaAs
technology with either BJTs or FETs. For high-frequency applications, GaAs FETs are the best
choice. A MMIC has both the active and passive devices fabricated directly on the substrate.
MMICs are typically used as low-noise amplifiers, as mixers, as modulators, in frequency
conversion, in phase detection, and as gain block amplifiers. Silicon MMIC devices operate in
the 100-MHz to 3-GHz frequency range. GaAs FET MMICs are typically used in applications
above 1 GHz.
Active microwave diodes
Active microwave diodes differ from passive diodes in that they are used as signal sources to
generate or amplify microwave frequencies. These include step-recovery, tunnel, Gunn,
avalanche, and transit time diodes, such as impact avalanche and transit-time (IMPATT), trapped
plasma avalanche triggered transit-time (TRAPATT), barrier injection transit-time (BARITT),
and quantum well injection transit time (QWITT) diodes.
A step recovery diode is a special PIN type in which charge storage is used to produce
oscillations. When a diode is switched from forward to reverse bias, it remains conducting until
the stored charge has been removed by recombination or by the electric field. A step recovery
diode is designed to sweep out the carriers by an electric field before any appreciable
recombination has taken place. Thus, the transition from the conducting to the nonconducting
state is very fast, on the order of picoseconds. Because of the abrupt step, this current is rich in
harmonics, so these diodes can be used in frequency multipliers.
For microwave power generation or amplification, a negative differential resistance (NDR)
characteristic at microwave frequencies is necessary. NDR is a phenomenon that occurs when the
voltage (V) and current (I) are 180 out of phase. NDR is a dynamic property occurring only
under actual circuit conditions; it is not static and cannot be measured with an ohmmeter.
Transferred electron devices (TEDs), such as Gunn diodes, and avalanche transit-time devices
use NDR for microwave oscillation and amplification. TEDs and avalanche transit-time devices
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today are among the most important classes of microwave solid-state devices. The tunnel diode
uses a heavily doped abrupt pn junction resulting in an extremely narrow junction that allows
electrons to tunnel through the potential barrier at near-zero applied voltage. This results in a dip
in the current-voltage (I-V) characteristic, which produces NDR. Because this is a majoritycarrier effect, the tunnel diode is very fast, permitting response in the millimeter-wave region.
Tunnel diodes produce relatively low power. The tunnel diode was the first semiconductor device
type found to have NDR.
Avalanche diodes are junction devices that produce a negative resistance by appropriately
combining impact avalanche breakdown and charge-carrier transit time effects. Avalanche
breakdown in semiconductors occurs if the electric field is high enough for the charge carriers to
acquire sufficient energy from the field to create electron-hole pairs by impact ionization. The
avalanche diode is a pn-junction diode reverse-biased into the avalanche region. By setting the
DC bias near the avalanche threshold, and superimposing on this an alternating voltage, the
diode will swing into avalanche conditions during alternate half-cycles. The hole-electron pairs
generated as a result of avalanche action make up the current, with the holes moving into the p
region, and the electrons into the n region. The carriers have a relatively large distance to travel
through the depletion region. At high frequencies, where the total time lag for the current is
comparable with the period of the voltage, the current pulse will lag the voltage. By making the
drift time of the electrons in the depletion region equal to one-half the period of the voltage, the
current will be 180 out of phase. This shift in phase of the current with respect to the voltage
produces NDR, so that the diode will undergo oscillations when placed in a resonant circuit.
A Gunn diode is typically an n-type compound semiconductor, such as GaAs or InP, which has a
conduction band structure that supports negative differential mobility. Although this device is
referred to as a Gunn diode, after its inventor, the device does not contain a pn junction and can
be viewed as a resistor below the threshold electric field (Ethres). For applied voltages that
produce electric fields below Ethres, the electron velocity increases as the electric field increases
according to Ohm's law. For applied voltages that produce electric fields above Ethres, conduction
band electrons transfer from a region of high mobility to low mobility, hence the general name
transferred electron device. Beyond Ethres, the velocity suddenly slows down due to the
significant electron transfer to a lower mobility band producing NDR. For GaAs, Ethres is about 3
kV/cm. The Gunn effect can be used up to about 80 GHz for GaAs and 160 GHz for InP. Two
modes of operation are common: nonresonant bulk (transit-time) and resonant limited spacecharge accumulation (LSA).
Impact avalanche and transit-time diodes (IMPATTs) are NDR devices that operate by a
combination of carrier injection and transit time effects. There are several versions of IMPATT
diodes, including simple reverse-biased pn diodes, complicated reverse-biased multidoped pn
layered diodes, and reverse-biased PIN diodes. The IMPATT must be connected to a resonant
circuit. At bias turn-on, noise excites the tuned circuit into a natural oscillation frequency. This
voltage adds algebraically across the diode's reverse-bias voltage. Near the peak positive halfcycle, the diode experiences impact avalanche breakdown. When the voltage falls below this
peak value, avalanche breakdown ceases. A 90 shift occurs between the current pulse and the
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applied voltage in the avalanche process. A further 90 shift occurs during the transit time, for a
total 180 shift which produces NDR. An IMPATT oscillator has higher output power than a
Gunn equivalent. However, the Gunn oscillator is relatively noise-free, while the IMPATT is
noisy due to avalanche breakdown.
A trapped plasma avalanche triggered transit-time (TRAPATT) diode is basically a modified
IMPATT diode in which the holes and electrons created by impact avalanche ionization
multiplication do not completely exit from the transit domain of the diode during the negative
half-cycle of the microwave signal. These holes and electrons form a plasma which is trapped in
the diode and participates in producing a large microwave current during the positive half-cycle.
A barrier injection transit-time diode (BARRITT) is basically an IMPATT structure that employs
a Schottky barrier formed by a metal semiconductor contact instead of a pn junction to create
similar avalanche electron injection.
A variety of approaches have been investigated to find alternative methods for injecting carriers
into the drift region without relying on the avalanche mechanism, which is inherently noisy.
Quantum well injection transit-time diodes (QWITT) employ resonant tunneling through a
quantum well to inject electrons into the drift region. The device structure consists of a single
GaAs quantum well located between two AlGaAs barriers in series with a drift region of made of
undoped GaAs. This structure is then placed between two n+-GaAs regions to form contacts.
How radar works

Whether it's mounted on a plane, a ship, or anything else, a radar set needs the same basic set of
components: something to generate radio waves, something to send them out into space,
something to receive them, and some means of displaying information so the radar operator can
quickly understand it.
The radio waves used by radar are produced by a piece of equipment called a magnetron. Radio
waves are similar to light waves: they travel at the same speedbut their waves have much
longer wavelengths and higher frequencies. Both light and radio waves are part of the
electromagnetic spectrum, which means they're made up of fluctuating patterns of electrical and
magnetic energy zapping through the air. The waves a magnetron produces are actually
microwaves, similar to the ones generated by a microwaveoven. The difference is that the
magnetron in a radar has to send the waves many miles, instead of just a few inches, so it is
much larger and more powerful.
Photo: A typical military radar screen, located in the flight tower at Eielson Air Force Base,
Alaska. Photo by Christopher Griffin courtesy of US Air Force.
Once the radio waves have been generated, an antenna, working as a transmitter, hurls them
into the air in front of it. The antenna is usually curved so it focuses the waves into a precise,
narrow beam, but radar antennas also typically rotate so they can detect movements over a large
area. The radio waves travel outward from the antenna at the speed of light (186,000 miles or
300,000 km per second) and keep going until they hit something. Then some of them bounce
back toward the antenna in a beam of reflected radio waves also traveling at the speed of light.
The speed of the waves is crucially important. If an enemy jet plane is approaching at over 3,000
km/h (2,000 mph), the radar beam needs to travel much faster than this to reach the plane, return
to the transmitter, and trigger the alarm in time. That's no problem, because radio waves (and
light) travel fast enough to go seven times around the world in a second! If an enemy plane is
160 km (100 miles) away, a radar beam can travel that distance and back in less than a
thousandth of a second.
The antenna doubles up as a radar receiver as well as a transmitter. In fact, it alternates between
the two jobs. Typically it transmits radio waves for a few thousandths of a second, then it listens
for the reflections for anything up to several seconds before transmitting again. Any reflected
radio waves picked up by the antenna are directed into a piece of electronic equipment that
processes and displays them in a meaningful form on a television-like screen, watched all the
time by a human operator. The receiving equipment filters out useless reflections from the
ground, buildings, and so on, displaying only significant reflections on the screen itself. Using
radar, an operator can see any nearby ships or planes, where they are, how quickly they're
traveling, and where they're heading. Watching a radar screen is a bit like playing a video game
except that the spots on the screen represent real airplanes and ships and the slightest mistake
could cost many people's lives.
There's one more important piece of equipment in the radar apparatus. It's called a duplexer and
it makes the antenna swap back and forth between being a transmitter and a receiver. While the
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antenna is transmitting, it cannot receiveand vice-versa. Take a look at the diagram in the box
below to see how all these parts of the radar system fit together.
How does radar work?
Here's how radar works:

1. Magnetron generates high-frequency radio waves.
2. Duplexer switches magnetron through to antenna.
3. Antenna acts as transmitter, sending narrow beam of radio waves through the air.
4. Radio waves hit enemy airplane and reflect back.
5. Antenna picks up reflected waves during a break between transmissions. Note that the
same antenna acts as both transmitter and receiver, alternately sending out radio waves
and receiving them.
6. Duplexer switches antenna through to receiver unit.
7. Computer in receiver unit processes reflected waves and draws them on a TV screen.
8. Enemy plane shows up on TV radar display with any other nearby targets.
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Radar is an object-detection system that uses radio waves to determine the range, altitude,
direction, or speed of objects. It can be used to detect aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided
missiles, motor vehicles, weather formations, and terrain. The radar dish (or antenna) transmits
pulses of radio waves or microwaves that bounce off any object in their path. The object returns
a tiny part of the wave's energy to a dish or antenna that is usually located at the same site as
the transmitter.
Radar was secretly developed by several nations before and during World War II. The
term RADAR was coined in 1940 by the United States Navy as
an acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging. The term radar has since entered English and
other languages as a common noun, losing all capitalization.
The modern uses of radar are highly diverse, including air and terrestrial traffic control, radar
astronomy, air-defense systems, antimissile systems; marine radars to locate landmarks and other
ships; aircraft anticollision systems; ocean surveillance systems, outer space surveillance
and rendezvous systems; meteorologicalprecipitation monitoring; altimetry and flight control
systems; guided missile target locating systems; and ground-penetrating radar for geological
observations. High tech radar systems are associated with digital signal processing and are
capable of extracting useful information from very high noise levels.
Other systems similar to radar make use of other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. One
example is "lidar", which uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light from lasersrather than
radio waves.
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor

This name is a representation for a device having transfer resistors. As we have seen a
semiconductor offers less resistance to flow of current in one direction and high resistance in
another direction, we call the device made of semiconductors as a transistor.
There are basically two types of transistors:
1. Point contact
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2. Junction transistor
Junction transistors are more in use compared to point type transistors. They are preferred due to
their ruggedness and small size. Junction transistors are further classified into two types
a. PNP
b. NPN
Each has 3 electrodes called emitter, base, and collector. These are made of P and N types
semiconductors depending on the type.
TRANSISTOR
The transistor was invented by William Shockley in 1947. A transistor consist of two PN
junctions. The junctions are formed by sandwiching either P-type or N-type semiconductor
layers between a pair of opposite types. There are two types of transistors one is called PNP
transistor and other is called NPN transistor.
A PNP transistor is composed of two P-type semiconductors separated by a thin section of Ntype as shown in Figure (a). Similarly, NPN transistor is composed of two N-type
semiconductors separated by a thin section of P-type as shown in Figure (a). the symbol used for
PNP and NPN transistors are also shown with the diagrams.
Basically, transistor has three portions known as emitter, base and collector. The portion on one
side is the emitter and the portion on the opposite side is the collector. The middle portion is
called the base and forms two junctions between the emitter and collector.
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EMITTER
The portion on one side of transistor that supplies charge carriers (i.e. electrons or holes) to the
other two portions. The emitter is a heavily doped region. The emitter is always forward biased
with respect to base so that it can supply a large number of majority carriers. In both PNP and
NPN transistors emitter base junction always should be forward biased. Emitter of PNP transistor
supplies hole charges to its junctions with the base. Similarly, the emitter of PNP transistor
supplies free electrons to its junction with the base.
COLLECTOR
The portion on the other side of the transistor (i.e. the side opposite to the emitter) that collects
the charge carriers (i.e. electrons or holes). The collector is always larger than the emitter and
base of a transistor. The doping level of the collector is in between the heavily doping of emitter
and the light doping of the base. In both PNP and NPN transistors the collector base junction
always should be reverse biased. It function is to remove charge carriers from junction with the
base. Collector of PNP transistor receives hole charges that flow in the output circuit. Similarly,
the collector of NPN transistor receives electrons.
BASE
The middle potion which forms two PN junctions between the emitter and the collector is called
the base. The base of transistor is thin, as compared to the emitter and is a lightly doped portion.
The function of base is to control the flow of charge carrier. The emitter junctions forward
biased, allowing low resistance emitter circuit. The base collector junction is reverse biased and
showing high resistance in the collector circuit.
TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION
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The techniques used for manufacturing transistor are given as below:
1. Grown Junction
2. Alloy or Fused Junction
3. Diffused Junction
4. Epitaxial Junction
5. Point Contact Junction
Grown Junction
This junction is prepared by using either the Czochralski or floating zone technique. The
apparatus used for Czochralski technique is shown in the below Figure. It consists of a graphite
crucible, a quartz container, a rotating pulling rod and the induction heating coils placed around
the graphite crucible. The graphite crucible contains the molten semiconductor material.
First of all, a single semiconductor seed is immersed in the molten semiconductor. Then it is
gradually withdrawn, while the rod holding the seed is slowly rotating. The PN junctions are
grown by first adding P-type impurities to the melt and then changing it to N-type.
Alloy or Fused Junction

The alloy junction technique produces PN junctions, which have high (PIV) peak-in-voltage and
current ratings. Such junctions have large capacitance, due to their large junction area. In the
alloy junction technique, a small dot of aluminum is placed on the N-type silicon water as shown
in Figure (d). It is ten heated to temperature of about 150C. At this temperature, the aluminum
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melts and dissolves some of the silicon. Then its temperature is lowered and silicon refreezes to
form a single crystal having a PN junction as shown in Figure.
Diffused Junction
This technique gives us a precise control of impurity concentration for manufacturing PN
junction. N-type silicon wafer called substrate (or base) is exposed to a gaseous impurity of Ptype as shown in Figure (e). Then the wafer is heated to a sufficiently high temperature at which
the impurities diffuse slowly into the surface of the water. After the diffusion, portions of the
surface are protected and the rest are etched out as shown in Figure.
Epitaxial Junction
This junction differs from diffused junction only in one aspect that the junction is fabricated not
on the substrate but on the epitaxial layer grown, above the substrate. The epitaxial junctions
have an advantage of low resistance.
Point Contact Junction

It consists of an N-type semiconductor (silicon, or germanium) wafer, whose one face is soldered
to a metallic base and the other face has a phosphor bronze (or tungsten) spring (called Cats
whisker) pressed against it as shown in Figure (f). The whole assembly is encapsulated in a
ceramic or glass envelops to give it mechanical strength.
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The PN junction is formed by passing a large current (about 200 mA) for 1 to 100 millisecond
duration. The junction is formed at the contact point because of the melting of silicon surface and
diffusion of the whisker material into the surface at that point as shown in Figure (f).
The point contact junction has very low value of the capacitance. Because of this, such junctions
are very useful for operation at the frequencies as high as 10 GHz.
BJT Modes of Operation

There are two junctions in bipolar junction transistor. Each junction can be forward or reverse
biased independently. Thus there are four modes of operations:
1. Forward Active
2. Cut off
3. Saturation
4. Reverse active
FORWARD ACTIVE
In this mode of operation, emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector base junction is
reverse biased. Transistor behaves as a source. With controlled source characteristics the BJT can
be used as an amplifier and in analog circuits.
CUTT OFF
When both junctions are reverse biased it is called cut off mode. In this situation there is nearly
zero current and transistor behaves as an open switch.
SATURATION
In saturation mode both junctions are forward biased large collector current flows with a small
voltage across collector base junction. Transistor behaves as an closed switch.
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REVERSE ACTIVE
It is opposite to forward active mode because in this emitter base junction is reverse biased and
collector base junction is forward biased. It is called inverted mode. It is no suitable for
amplification.
However the reverse active mode has application in digital circuits and certain analog switching
circuits.
FET & JFET

FET stands for "Field Effect Transistor" it is a three terminal uni polar solid state device in which
current is control by an electric field.
FET can be fabricated with either N- Channel or P- Channel, for the fabrication of N-Channel
JFET first a narrow bar of N-type of semiconductor material is taken and then two P-Type
junction are defused on opposite sides of it's middle part, called channel. The two regions are
internally connected to each other with a signal lead, which is called Gate terminal. One lead is
called Source terminal and the other is called Drain terminal.Construction of FET
P-Channel JFET is similarly is constructed except that it use P- type of bar and two N- types of
junctions.
Source:-It is the terminal through which majority carriers are entered in the bar, so it is called
Source.
Drain:-It is the terminal through which the majority carriers leads the bar, so it is called the
drain terminal.
Gate:-These are two terminals which are internally connected with each other and heavily
doped regions which form two PN-Junctions.
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Working / Operation FET or JFET
Gate are always in reverse biased, hence the gate
current IG is practically zero. The source terminal is
always connected to end of the drain supply, which
provides the necessary chares carrier, in N- Channel
JFET Source terminal is connected to the negative end
of the drain voltage source. The electrons flow from
source to drain through the channel from D to S is
started,
the current ID increases as VDS is increased from zero on ward. This relation ship between VDS
and ID continuous till VDS reaches certain value called "Pinch OFF" VPO.
When VDS is equal to zero and VGS is decreased from zero, the gate reverse bias increases the
thinks of the region, as the negative value of the VGS is increase a stage cones when the two dip
lections regions touch each other, in this conduction the channel is said to be Cut OFF.
JFET as Amplifier
One of the application of the JFET is an Amplifier, it amplified the weak signal connected in the
Gate terminal , the input is always reversed biased, a small change in the reverse bias on the gate
produce large change in the drain current, this fact make JFET capable of amplifing the weak
signals
Working / Operation
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When negative signal is applied at in put of the amplifier, the gate bias is increase, duplication
layer is decrease, Channel resistance is increase, ID is decreased, Drop across Load Resistor is
decreases, and the positive signal is present at output through C2.
When the positive signal is applied at the input the action will be the wise versa
This seen that there is phase inveration between the input signal at the gate and the output signal
at the drain.
Application of JFET
JFET is used at large scale in amplifiers circuits, analog switches; it is also used in AGC system,
voltage regulators, buffer amplifiers.
FET & BJT ON THE BASIS OF APPLICATIONS
Bipolar Junction Transistor
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Field Effect Transistor
1) A bipolar transistor requires a small

amount of current flowing to keep the
transistor on. While the current for one
transistor may be negligible, it adds up
when
millions
are
switching
simultaneously. The heat dissipated on
bipolar limits the total number of
transistors that can be built on the chip
1) Once the gate terminal on an FET has

been charged, no more current is
needed to keep that transistor on
(closed) for the duration of time
required.
2) A BJT will consume more power in the

on- state.it cannot switch with less than
a 0.3V voltage drop.
2) FETs are preferred in Wide line or load

variations & have low power
consumption.
3) BJTs function as regulators of currents

as small current is regulating a large
current.
3) FET function as voltage regulators as

applied voltage on gate control the
output characteristics.
4) The bipolar transistor is liable for

thermal runway(over heating) due to a
negative temperature co-efficient.
4) FET have a positive temperature coefficient, stopping thermal runway.
5) BJTs are preferred for low current

applications.
6) BJTs
have
low-medium
impedance(~1k -3k ohms).
input
5) FETs are preferred in Low-voltage

applications ( less than 250V).
6) no current flows through the gate, the
input impedance of the FET is
extremely large (in the range of
1010,1016 ). the large input impedance
of the FET makes them an excellent
choice for amplifier inputs.
7) FETs have low-medium gain.
7) BJTs are used where we need high gain

& fast response.
8) BJT's have a higher cutoff frequency
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8) FETs are preferred in High frequency

applications ( greater than 200kHz).
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and a higher maximum current then
FET's.
9) To operate BJTs at high switching

frequencies & high current, we have to
prevent the devices from going into
haerd saturation as this will increase
storage times( making it difficult to
switch off quickly) but then cause the
device to dissipate more power due to
higher Vce-sat.
9) FETs are low switching devices.FET is

therefore used for power switch design
and high power functions ( less than
500W output power).
10) FET are smaller in size.so area

consumption of FET is less so Ics made
by FETs provide higher packing density
as compared to BJTs.
10) BJTs are relatively greater in size than

FET of same rating.
11) FET is more stable to temperature &
therefore it is used in high temperature
applications.
11) BJT is temperature sensitive at higher
level.
12) BJTs have high switching speed but

they are noisy also.
12) As FET introduce lower noise level to

the system so where sensitivity to the
noise is very critcal and cannot be
neglected,JFET amplifiers are preferred
over BJT.
13) JFET
used
for
micro
wave
communication such as VHF, UHF
receivers.
14) FET's are easy to fabricate in large scale
13) BJT Have small duty cycles.
and have higher element density the BJT's.
15) JFET is mostly used in digital circuits.

16) Switch mode power supplies (SMPS): Hard
switching above 200kHz
17) Switch mode power supplies (SMPS): ZVS

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below 1000 watts
Gunn diodes
Gunn diodes are also known as transferred electron devices, TED, are widely used in microwave
RF applications for frequencies between 1 and 100 GHz.
The Gunn diode is most commonly used for generating microwave RF signals - these circuits
may also be called a transferred electron oscillator or TEO. The Gunn diode may also be used for
an amplifier in what may be known as a transferred electron amplifier or TEA.
As Gunn diodes are easy to use, they form a relatively low cost method for generating
microwave RF signals.
20
5
Gunn diode basics
The Gunn diode is a unique component - even though it is called a diode, it does not contain a
PN diode junction. The Gunn diode or transferred electron device can be termed a diode because
it does have two electrodes. It depends upon the bulk material properties rather than that of a PN
junction. The Gunn diode operation depends on the fact that it has a voltage controlled negative
resistance.
The mechanism behind the transferred electron effect was first published by Ridley and Watkins
in a paper in 1961. Further work was published by Hilsum in 1962, and then in 1963 John
Battiscombe (J. B.) Gunn independently observed the first transferred electron oscillation using
Gallium Arsenide, GaAs semiconductor.
Gunn diode symbol for circuit diagrams
The Gunn diode symbol used in circuit diagrams varies. Often a standard diode is seen in the
diagram, however this form of Gunn diode symbol does not indicate the fact that the Gunn diode
is not a PN junction. Instead another symbol showing two filled in triangles with points touching
is used as shown below.
Gunn diode symbol

Gunn diode construction
Gunn diodes are fabricated from a single piece of n-type semiconductor. The most common
materials are gallium Arsenide, GaAs and Indium Phosphide, InP. However other materials
including Ge, CdTe, InAs, InSb, ZnSe and others have been used. The device is simply an n-type
bar with n+ contacts. It is necessary to use n-type material because the transferred electron effect
is only applicable to electrons and not holes found in a p-type material.
Within the device there are three main areas, which can be roughly termed the top, middle and
bottom areas.
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5
A discrete Gunn diode with the active layer mounted
onto a heatsink for efficient heat transfer
The most common method of manufacturing a Gunn diode is to grow and epitaxial layer on a
degenerate n+ substrate. The active region is between a few microns and a few hundred micron
thick. This active layer has a doping level between 1014cm-3 and 1016cm-3 - this is considerably
less than that used for the top and bottom areas of the device. The thickness will vary according
to the frequency required.
The top n+ layer can be deposited epitaxially or doped using ion implantation. Both top and
bottom areas of the device are heavily doped to give n+ material. This provides the required high
conductivity areas that are needed for the connections to the device.
Devices are normally mounted on a conducting base to which a wire connection is made. The
base also acts as a heat sink which is critical for the removal of heat. The connection to the other
terminal of the diode is made via a gold connection deposited onto the top surface. Gold is
required because of its relative stability and high conductivity.
During manufacture there are a number of mandatory requirements for the devices to be
successful - the material must be defect free and it must also have a very uniform level of
doping.
Gunn diode operation basics

The operation of the Gunn diode can be explained in basic terms. When a voltage is placed
across the device, most of the voltage appears across the inner active region. As this is
particularly thin this means that the voltage gradient that exists in this region is exceedingly high.
The device exhibits a negative resistance region on its V/I curve as seen below. This negative
resistance area enables the Gunn diode to amplify signals. This can be used both in amplifiers
and oscillators. However Gunn diode oscillators are the most commonly found.
Gunn diode characteristic

22
5
This negative resistance region means that the current flow in diode increases in the negative
resistance region when the voltage falls - the inverse of the normal effect in any other positive
resistance element. This phase reversal enables the Gunn diode to act as an amplifier and
oscillator.
Gunn diode operation at microwave frequencies

At microwave frequencies, it is found that the dynamic action of the diode incorporates elements
resulting from the thickness of the active region. When the voltage across the active region
reaches a certain point a current is initiated and travels across the active region. During the time
when the current pulse is moving across the active region the potential gradient falls preventing
any further pulses from forming. Only when the pulse has reached the far side of the active
region will the potential gradient rise, allowing the next pulse to be created.
It can be seen that the time taken for the current pulse to traverse the active region largely
determines the rate at which current pulses are generated, and hence it determines the frequency
of operation.
To see how this occurs, it is necessary to look at the electron concentration across the active
region. Under normal conditions the concentration of free electrons would be the same regardless
of the distance across the active diode region. However a small perturbation may occur resulting
from noise from the current flow, or even external noise - this form of noise will always be
present and acts as the seed for the oscillation. This grows as it passes across the active region of
the Gunn diode.
Gunn diode operation

The increase in free electrons in one area cause the free electrons in another area to decrease
forming a form of wave. It also results in a higher field for the electrons in this region. This
higher field slows down these electrons relative to the remainder. As a result the region of excess
electrons will grow because the electrons in the trailing path arrive with a higher velocity.
Similarly the area depleted of electrons will also grow because the electrons slightly ahead of the
23
5
area with excess electrons can move faster. In this way, more electrons enter the region of excess
making it larger, and more electrons leave the depleted region because they too can move faster.
In this way the perturbation increases.
Gunn diode operation - electrons in the peak move more slowly

The peak will traverse across the diode under the action of the potential across the diode, and
growing as it traverses the diode as a result of the negative resistance.
A clue to the reason for this unusual action can be seen if the voltage and current curves are
plotted for a normal diode and a Gunn diode. For a normal diode the current increases with
voltage, although the relationship is not linear. On the other hand the current for a Gunn diode
starts to increase, and once a certain voltage has been reached, it starts to fall before rising again.
The region where it falls is known as a negative resistance region, and this is the reason why it
oscillates.
IMPATT Microwave Diode

IMPATT diode , IMPact ionisation Avalanche Transit Time microwave diode is used
for many microwave RF applications where it is one of the highest power microwave
diodes.
IMPATT diode theory basics

Like any other diode, an IMPATT has a relatively standard IV characteristic. In the forward
direction it will conduct after it has reached the forward conduction point. In the reverse
direction it will block current.
However at a certain voltage the diode will break down and current will flow in the reverse
direction.
24
Graphical representation of the IMPATT diode IV characteristic

The IMPATT diode is operated under reverse bias conditions. These are set so that avalanche
breakdown occurs. This occurs in the region very close to the P+ (i.e. heavily doped P region).
The electric field at the p-n junction is very high because the voltage appears across a very
narrow gap creating a high potential gradient. Under these circumstances any carriers are
accelerated very quickly.
As a result they collide with the crystal lattice and free other carriers. These newly freed carriers
are similarly accelerated and collide with the crystal lattice freeing more carriers. This process
gives rise to what is termed avalanche breakdown as the number of carriers multiplies very
quickly. For this type of breakdown only occurs when a certain voltage is applied to the junction.
Below this the potential does not accelerate the carriers sufficiently.
In terms of its operation the IMPATT diode can be considered to consist of two areas, namely the
avalanche region or injection region, and secondly the drift region.
These two areas provide different functions. The avalanche or injection region creates the
carriers which may be either holes of electrons, and the drift region is where the carriers move
across the diode taking a certain amount of time dependent upon its thickness.
The two types of carrier drift in opposite directions.
25
Charge carrier movement within an IMPATT diode
IMPATT diode operation

Once the carriers have been generated the device relies on negative resistance to generate and
sustain an oscillation. The effect does not occur in the device at DC, but instead, here it is an AC
effect that is brought about by phase differences that are seen at the frequency of operation.
When an AC signal is applied the current peaks are found to be 180 out of phase with the
voltage. This results from two delays which occur in the device: injection delay, and a transit
time delay as the current carriers migrate or drift across the device.
26
IMPATT diode voltage & current waveforms

The voltage applied to the IMPATT diode has a mean value where it is on the verge of avalanche
breakdown. The voltage varies as a sine wave, but the generation of carriers does not occur in
unison with the voltage variations. It might be expected that it would occur at the peak voltage.
This arises because the generation of carriers is not only a function of the electric field but also
the number of carriers already in existence.
As the electric field increases so does the number of carriers. Then even after the field has
reached its peak the number of carriers still continues to grow as a result of the number of
carriers already in existence. This continues until the field falls to below a critical value when the
number of carriers starts to fall. As a result of this effect there is a phase lag so that the current is
about 90 behind the voltage. This is known as the injection phase delay.
When the electrons move across the N+ region an external current is seen, and this occurs in
peaks, resulting in a repetitive waveform.
IMPATT circuits
IMPATT diodes are generally used at frequencies above around 3 GHz. It is found that when a
tuned circuit is applied along with a voltage around the breakdown voltage to the IMPATT, and
oscillation will occur.
27
5
Compared to other devices that use negative resistance and are available for operation at these
frequencies, the IMPATT is able to produce much higher levels of power. Typically figures of ten
or more watts may be obtained, dependent upon the device.
One of the main drawbacks of the IMPATT diode in its operation is the generation of high levels
of phase noise as a result of the avalanche breakdown mechanism. It is found the devices based
around Gallium Arsenide technology are much better than those using Silicon. This results from
the much closer ionisation coefficients for holes and electrons.
In many respects, the IMPATT diode structure is very similar to that of many other forms of
diode, and in particular the standard PN junction diode or the Schottky diode.
However the differences in its construction and fabrication mean that it is able to operate in its
avalanche mode whether the transit time provides the negative resistance.
IMPATT diode construction

There is a variety of structures that are used for the IMPATT diode. All are variations of a basic
PN junction and usually there is an intrinsic layer, i.e. a layer without any doping that is placed
between the P type and N type regions.
The structures use a PN junction which is reverse biased so that avalanche multiplication occurs
within the high field region. In most structures a Schottky barrier can be used as the injecting
junction.
The most common method of fabricating an IMPATT diode is to use a vertical structure where
there is vertical current flow.
.
IMPATT diode vertical structure
28
5
For this format of diode, the layers are generally grown epitaxially. Where very high frequency
devices are to be made layers can become very thin. For these layers, techniques including MBE,
molecular beam epitaxy, or MOCVD, metallo-organic chemical vapour deposition can be used.
For a typical Read diode the n-layer may be only 1 to 2 m thick, and the intrinsic layer may be
between 2 and 20m thick. For very high frequency operation, these dimensions are reduced.
The dopants needed for the different layers may be introduced using one of a number of
techniques including diffusion, ion implantation or even in-situ doping during the epitaxial
growth process for a given layer.
Apart from the vertical or mesa fabrication, a horizontal structure may also be used using more
traditional planar technology.
IMPATT diode horizontal structure
Packaging
The devices are normally used as microwave power sources and as a result, heat dissipation is a
key issue. As a result the devices are mounted into packages where the heat can be transferred
away from the active areas of the devices as fast as possible. To this end, the devices are often
mounted in what may be termed an upside down fashion where the active layers are closest to
the heat sinking provided by the package.
Often the package is coaxial in format so that the correct transmission line properties are
presented to the RF signal which may be at many tens of GHz. As a result the package is often
quite intricate and accordingly very expensive, especially when very high frequencies are used.
The most commonly used materials for IMPATT devices are Silicon and Gallium Arsenide, but
other materials including Germanium, and Indium Phosphide or Gallium Aluminium Arsenide
may also be used.
29
Electric field profiles

One major element of the structure of an IMPATT diode is the way in which the electric field
profile occurs. The diagram below shows the electric field profile an also the areas of highest
electric field represented by the grey areas show where the avalanche breakdown occurs.
Electric field profiles for common IMPATT diode structures

The diagram shows the main types of avalanche diode. The p+ n, i n+ diode (leftmost on the
diagram) is the Read diode and the rightmost diode structure, p+ i n+ is also known as the
Misawa diode.
Applications
IMPATT diodes are ideal where small cost effective microwave radio sources are needed. The
main drawback of generators using IMPATT diodes is the high level of phase noise they
generate. This results from the statistical nature of the avalanche process that is key to their
operation. Nevertheless these diodes make excellent signal sources for many RF microwave
applications.
Typically the device is used in a number of applications including:
Alarms
Radar
Detectors using RF technology
Discovery & development

30
5
The original idea for the diode was put forward by Shockley in 1954. He thought of the idea of
creating negative resistance using a transit time delay mechanism. The method of injection for
the carriers was a forward biased PN junction. He published this in the Bell Systems Technical
Journal in 1954 in an item entitled: 'Negative resistance arising from transit time in
semiconductor diodes.'
However it was not until 1958 that W.T. Read of Bell Laboratories proposed the p+ n i n+ diode
structure which was later called the Read diode. This diode used the avalanche multiplication as
the injection mechanism. Again this was published in the Bell Systems Technical Journal in 1958
under the title: A proposed high-frequency, negative resistance diode.'
Although the injection mechanism and diode had been postulated, it was not until 1965 that the
first practical operating diodes were made that enabled oscillations to be observed. The diode
used for this demonstration was fabricated using silicon and had a p+ n structure.
After this, operation of the Read diode was demonstrated and then in 1966 a p i n diode was also
demonstrated to work.
IMPATT basics
In many respects the IMPATT diode is an unusual diode in that it is able to provide high power
RF signals at microwave frequencies using a structure that is not that far different from the basic
PN junction. However it has been developed to enable its different mode of operation to be
utilised properly.
Theory &operation: The IMPATT diode relies upon a negative resistance effect caused
by the transit time of the carriers. This negative resistance enables the diode to act as an
oscillator, creating signals at microwave frequencies.
Fabrication & structure: There are a number of structures and fabrication methods used
for IMPATT diodes. Each one has its own advantages and disadvantages
Practical operation
The main application for IMPATT diodes is in microwave generators. An alternating signal is
generated simply by applying a DC supply when a suitable tuned circuit is applied.
The output is reliable and relatively high when compared to other forms of microwave diode. In
view of its high levels of phase noise it is used in transmitters more frequently than as a local
oscillator in receivers where the phase noise performance is generally more important. It is also
used in applications where phase noise performance is unlikely to be of importance.
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5
To run an IMPATT diode, a relatively high voltage, often as high as 70 volts or higher may be
required. This often limits their application as voltages of this order are not always easy to use in
some pieces of equipment. Nevertheless IMPATT diodes are particularly attractive option for
microwave diodes for many areas.
M-type microwave device with slanted field

emitter
Microwave tubes can be broadly classifies into two categories
1.O-TYPE Linear Tubes (Travelling tube amplifiers,Klystrons)
In O-Type tube , a magnetic field whose axis coincides with the electron beam is used to hold the
beam togetheras it travels the length of the tube
2.M-TYPE Tubes (Magnetrons and cross field devices)
32
This is just a rough classification of the microwave tubes. Basically there are only main two
types of microwave tubes
1. Tubes with electromagnetic cavity(klystrons and magnetrons)
2. Tubes with slow wave circuits(traveling wave tubes)
The present invention relates to M-type microwave devices and is aimed to improve
effectiveness of using a working surface of field-electron emitters, to improve their reliability
while increasing stability of field emission and service life of the device. These objects are
solved in the design of a M-type microwave device, comprising an anode encircling a cylindrical
evacuated cavity and a cathode assembly disposed co-axially inside the anode, said cathode
assembly comprising a cylindrical rod with its surfaces having elements in the form of planar
(film) field-electron emitters and secondary-electron emitters that provide a primary and a
secondary electron emission, respectively. In doing so, the normal to planar field-electron
emitters is not parallel and makes therewith an angle of more than 0 degrees. An end-face of the
field-electron emitter is protected by a tunnel-thin dielectric layer containing impurities of
various materials and materials having a low work function.
Description
RELATED APPLICATION
33
5
The present application claims priority of Russian Application Ser. No. 98/10/0560, filed on Jan.
5, 1999, entitled M-TYPE MICROWAVE DEVICE, which turn claims priority from Russian
Application Ser. No. 98/10/0569 filed Jan. 5, 1999, entitled MAGNETRON, the disclosures of
which are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.
1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates generally to the field of electronics and, more particularly, to
vacuum electronic devices intended to generate microwave electromagnetic radiation using an
electron-transit time, namely to devices known as M-type microwave devices.
More specifically, the present invention relates to structural elements of such devices, namely to
cathodes requiring no preliminary incandescence to perform electronic emission.
2. Background of the Invention
In the M-type microwave devices, there are widely used cathodes (which, due to complexity of
their structure, would be more accurately identified as cathode assemblies), which make use of a
combination of secondary electron emission caused by return to a cathode of a part of electrons
traveling in the inter-electrode space along epicycloids, as well as ion bombardment with respect
to the cathode, and field emission, that is the phenomenon of electron ejection from a conductor
surface under the action of a fairly strong electric field, with the latter emission initiating and
maintaining said secondary electron emission.
Methods of improving secondary-emission properties of the cathode are generally known and
include fabrication thereof (or its surface coating) from materials such as oxides, in particular
oxides of thorium, etc.
A required quantity of field emission is primarily afforded by the shape of corresponding
elements and selection of their material, which governs operation of the electron release from a
given material into vacuum. Among other things, planar elements (films) having microscopic
points (roughness, unevenness) on their lateral surfaces are used as a field-electron emitter. So,
the use of such field-emitter located on a focusing flange of the device is described in USSR
Inventor's Certificate No. 320,852 granted Nov. 4, 1971 to L. G. Nekrasov et al., for Cathode
For M-Type Microwave Devices, Int. Cl. H01J 1/32.
Location of field-electron emitters made in the form of washers along a cathode assembly rod is
described in RU Patent No. 2,040,821 granted Jul. 27, 1995 to V. I. Makhov et al., for M-Type
Microwave Device, Int. Cl. H01J 1/30. The RU Patent No. 821 is the closest prior art with
respect to the present invention.
A need for improving effectiveness of using a working surface of field-electron emitters is still
popular in the state of the art, since a field-emission current value is proportional to an emitting
area of the field-electron emitter. In view of the fact that a magnetron anode constitutes a
34
5
cylindrical surface cut by cavity slots, a primary current of the magnetron is dependent upon the
location of field-electron emitters relative to an anode cylindrical part having a minimum
distance to a working surface of the field-electron emitter.
The increase in primary current to a required value is possible by two ways: either by decreasing
a film thickness of the field-electron emitter, resulting in the stepping-up of an electric-field
intensity near the surface of an emitter end-face, or by the second wayat the expense of
increasing an area participating in the emission, by enlarging a number of field-electron emitters.
In doing so, the first way is characterized by augmentation of an effect exerted by
electromechanical forces on a field-emission cathode, resulting in the decrease in its mechanical
reliability and degradation of its volt-ampere characteristics, whereas the second way is
characterized by the fact that a cathode structure of the magnetron becomes more complex, less
adaptable to efficient manufacture and less reliable.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The principal objects of the present invention are: to improve effectiveness of using a working
surface of the field-electron emitters; to improve their reliability while increasing stability of
field emission and service life of a M-type microwave device, comprising an anode and a
cathode having a cylindrical rod with field-electron emitters located on its surface and fabricated
as planar discs, and secondary-electron emitters located in the plane perpendicular to a cathode
axis, the said emitters providing a primary and secondary emission, respectively.
In accordance with the present invention, these objects are achieved in the arrangement of a Mtype microwave device, comprising an anode encircling a cylindrical evacuated cavity and a
cathode assembly disposed inside the anode, said cathode assembly comprising a cylindrical rod
which is co-axial with the anode, a field-electron emitter made in the form of one or several
planar elements mechanically and electrically connected to the cylindrical rod and extending
therefrom with a working end-face towards the anode, and a secondary-electron emitter made in
the form of one or several sections having an increased secondary electron-emission coefficient,
said sections being located on the cylindrical rod surface, the above objects are solved when
locating said planar elements such that the normal thereto makes an angle of more than 0 degrees
with an axis of the cylindrical rod.
In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a field-electron emitter in the form of a
planar element is located at an angle of more than 5 degrees with respect to a radial plane which
is perpendicular to the cylindrical rod axis.
In another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the field-electron emitter in the form
of a planar element is located on a spiral path having an axis extending in register with the
cylindrical rod axis.
In still another preferred embodiment of the present invention, the field-electron emitter in the
form of a planar element is located such that the normal to the surface of said field-electron
35
5
emitter is perpendicular to the cathode axis. In other words, the planar element surface is located
in the plane parallel with an axis passing through the cylindrical rod axis.
According to the present invention, planar elements constituting the field-electron emitter may
be isolated with a vacuum gap from those regions (cylindrical rod coatings) which constitute a
secondary-electron emitter.
In the preferred embodiments of the present invention, material of field-electron emitters may
include impurities of electropositive materials, or impurities of material of the same kind, or both
simultaneously, where impurities of material of the same kind are advantageously located at a
depth greater than that of the electropositive material.
It is also preferred that a working end-face of said field-electron emitter be fabricated from an
amorphous material.
For a number of practical applications, a planar element constituting the field-electron emitter
may have cavities in which a film of electropositive material is received. It may be also
fabricated with its end-face in the form of a multilayer metal-insulator-metal structure, with each
layer having a depth of 2-10 nm.
The field-electron emitter may be fabricated from either tungsten, molybdenum, tantalum,
niobium, titanium, or hafnium silicides. It may be also fabricated from amorphous conducting
metals and carbide-based alloy, including impurities of electropositive materials.
It is preferred that the working end-faces of planar elements of field-electron emitters be coated
with a tunnel-thin dielectric layer also containing impurities of electropositive materials.
Essential distinctions of the proposed M-type microwave device consist in the presence of
elements affording primary emission, the elements being disposed on the surfaces the normal to
which is not parallel with the cathode axis and makes therewith an angle of more than 0 degrees.
This distinctive feature gives rise to the solution of objectives in accordance with the present
invention. In doing so, a primary current increase is attained at the expense of more efficient
usage of the working surface of field-electron emitters, since, in accordance with the present
design, emission occurs from the larger surface of the emitter.
An additional advantage of the present invention consists in a device simplification at the
expense of possibility to reduce a number of field-electron emitters used.
The third advantage of the present invention consists in the stepping down of operating voltage
of the device, which makes it possible to expand types of devices used and structural capabilities
of field-electron emitters and to employ a wider range of materials and alloys providing stability
of volt-ampere characteristics and an extended service life of the devices.
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5
Additional objects and advantages of the present invention will be set forth in the detailed
description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by
practice of the invention.
Single conductor multi-coil multi-beam microwave device

O
A traveling wave tube is provided with a low-wave, electron beam interaction means in the form
of a single wire conductor coiled into at least two parallel series of aligned turns; in each series,
the turns are of identical size and configuration. In one form, all the turns have rectilinear
stretches of equal length that are in a common plane; an electron beam source, a collector, a sole
electrode and electric and magnetic fields direct a sheet beam alongside the rectilinear stretches
outside the turns. In another form, the turns of the single wire conductor are almost entirely
circular and in figure-eight configuration viewed endwise; electron beams are directed through
either one or both series of turns. In still other forms of the invention, the slow-wave means
viewed endwise has more than two turns and the axes are coplanar or in a circular distribution.
OUTPUT SINGLE CONDUCTOR MULTI-COIL MULTI-BEAM MICROWAVE DEVICE
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The most common form of slow wave means for a
traveling wave tube is the wire conductor coil of identical aligned turns with a constant pitch,
though coils may be designed with a pitch that changes along its length to compensate for
slowing of the electrons in the beam as they give up energy. The geometry of the coil as seen
endwise is related to whether the traveling wave tube is designed for O-type linear operation or
for M- type crossed field operation. For O-type operation, the geometry of the slow-wave means,
viewed endwise is a circle; for M-type operation, the geometry of the slowwave means viewed
endwise is a loop that includes a rectilinear stretch. Regardless of the type of operation, the coil
has been formed as a single series of aligned loops. In O-type operation, the electron beam is
projected through the wire helix and the focusing field resists spreading of the beam eletrons
laterally beyond the interaction space. In crossed field operation, a high current beam is projected
and then redirected by a perpendicular magnetic field to a course that runs between a sole
electrode and the coplanar rectilinear stretches of the coil for wave-beam interaction proximate
to the rectilinear stretches of the coil. If the traveling wave tube is designed for as much power
amplification as is practical, the beam voltage and beam current are made as high as is feasible,
the focusing current is high, the wire'size of the coil must be large enough to carry the amplified
RF and the collector must be designed for very high heat dissipation and the electron beam
source must be designed to emit the high density beam.
Phase velocity of a propagated RF wave is related to the helix design i.e. the helix diameter and
pitch. In the interaction space, the electron beam must have a velocity somewhat greater than the
phase velocity to transfer energy to the RF wave. The electron beam accelerating voltage level is
set to impart the correct velocity to the beam electrons for interaction and energy transfer to the
RF wave. Beam current may be adjusted but the DC focusing field needs to be adjusted too for
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5
the resultant change in beam current density. If the tube needs to be operated at much higher
power level during one time interval compared to that during another time interval, the tube
needs to be designed to operate with the higher beam current though it may be operated at the
lower beam current most of the time. Also, a traveling wave tube amplifier may have to operate
in continuous-wave and pulse modes sequentially. Each time mode is switched, the power level
at which the tube operates needs to be switched; in order that there be no loss in data which
would occur during switching, the shift in power level needs to be essentially instantaneous.
However, the DC focusing field and the beam voltage cannot be switched between widely
different levels of operation at a rate fast enough for widely different levels of dual power
operation. One problem is that the beam current does not continue in close proximity to the
helical structure during and immediately following switching; there is degradation in gain and
efficiency. It is well known that a 2:1- change in power level is about the maximum that can be
tolerated with out adversely affecting efficiency to an unacceptable degree.
If two traveling wave tubes are connected in parallel to meet the above requirements, not only is
the cost high but sophisticated phasing techniques are needed particularly for operation over a
wide frequency band. If a traveling wave tube is made with two slow-wave helices connected in
parallel and with two electron beam sources that can be energized singly or in combination,
sophisticated phasing techniques are still required; additionally the input RF energy divides
between the two paralleLmounted helices, a 3db drop prior to amplification.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Instead of providing a traveling wave tube with a slowwave coil of one continuous wire conductor having identical turns that are coaxial, this invention
provides the traveling wave tube with a slow-wave multicoil of one continuous wire conductor
that forms one complete element of the multi-coil by looping alternately clockwise and
counterclockwise crossing over itself at least once to form two or more turns side-byside, e.g. a
figure-eight or a chain of three or more turns side-by-side; the looping repeats to form a series of
identical such elements in line and with a predetermined pitch. The geometry of the novel multicoil viewed endwise may be a plurality of almost circular loops; the circles are incomplete to a
minor extent at the crossovers. A multi-coil with circular loops may be operated with one beam
projected through one of the sub-coils or with a plurality of beams up to the number of sub-coils
projected through the respective sub-coils. For crossed field operation, the loops of the novel coil
include rectilinear stretches that are of equal length and coplanar. The multi-coil with the
rectilinear stretches is used with a single beam source.
Terrestrial communication system using satellite transmission

techniques
A terrestrial communication system, facilitating audio, video, data, and any other type of
communication within a local geographical area, and with an extremely large number of
communication channels being made available simultaneously at a very low cost. It comprises at
least two local terrestrial satellite (LTS), preferably located in a mast or any other supporting
structure, each LTS having high frequency communication equipment substantially
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5
corresponding to a conventional geostationary satellite for digital transmission of video, audio, or
data, arranged to transmit in the L Band (1-2 GHz), the S Band (2-4 GHz), or a high frequency
band with a relatively low power output and having a preferably omnidirectional antenna
installation for transmission in a substantially horizontal plane. The signals can be digitalized
according to MPEG-2 or according to any known signal algorithm.
Description
TECHNICAL FIELD
The present invention relates to a terrestrial communication system, facilitating audio, video,
data, and any other type of communication within a local geographical area, and with an
extremely large number of communication channels being made available simultaneously at a
very low cost.
BACKGROUND ART
Audio, video, and data communication are rapidly increasing sectors of interest, and existing
terrestrial communication circuits, radio communication channels and satellite communication
systems are used extensively. Dedicated cable systems are also being used to cover local
geographical areas with a large number of TV-channels, and these cable systems may also be
used for data transmission purposes.
Digital transmission techniques have been developed, and as a result, digital consumer TV
transmissions are now available from satellite transponders, and due to the digital techniques
utilized, the number of programs transmitted by each transponder is no longer one program only,
since several programs can be transmitted simultaneously by each transponder.
However, with regard to terrestrial transmissions techniques, a suitable system has not yet been
developed, but it is hoped that such a dedicated system will be made available within the next
few years. This will require development of suitable encoders and decoders, specifically
developed for terrestrial digital transmission techniques and frequency bands today used for
terrestrial TV transmission purposes. Considerable efforts and large sums of money have been
invested in the development of suitable techniques, but so far, these efforts have not been
successful.
DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION
The present invention is based on the discovery that present satellite transmission techniques also
can be used for terrestrial transmission.
As a result, a user having equipment intended for reception of digital satellite signals can also
use the very same equipment for reception of terrestrial transmissions. This is achieved by
arranging communication equipment of the type used in satellites as Local Terrestrial Satellites
(LTS) in a mast or other suitable foundation. Transmission from a LTS is based on one of the
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conventional standards for digital transmission as today used by conventional orbiting
geostationary satellites, e.g., MPEG-2 or MPEG-1 or any other standard suitable for audio, video
or data transmission purposes. A preferred standard today is frequency modulated MPEG-2 (also
compatible with MPEG-1), but other known or future standards may also be used, and amplitude
modulated (AM) transmission techniques can also be used as an alternative to frequency
modulated (FM) transmission techniques. Each LTS is transmitting using relatively low output
power and with an antenna arrangement preferably having none or little directional effect. As a
result, a suitable number of LTS can be arranged to cover a local geographical area, giving the
inhabitants access to individual communication channels for data, video (TV), and audio
communication. The advantages of such a system will be more fully discussed later.
Microwave Tube Devices Klystron

klystron
A type of vacuum tube used as an amplifier and/or oscillator for UHF and microwave signals. It
is typically used as a high-power frequency source in such applications as particle accelerators,
UHF TV transmission and satellite earth stations. The klystron wasinvented at Stanford Universit
y in 1937 and originally used as the oscillator in radar receivers during World War II.
A klystron tube makes use of speed-controlled streams of electrons that pass through a
resonating cavity. Electrons in a klystron areaccelerated to a controlled speed by the application
of several hundred volts. As the electrons leave the heated cathode of the tube, they aredirected t
hrough a narrow gap into a resonating chamber, where they are acted upon by an RF signal. The
electrons bunch together and aredirected into one or more additional chambers that are tuned at o
r near the tube's operating frequency. Strong RF fields are induced in thechambers as the electron
bunches give up energy. These fields are ultimately collected at the output resonating chamber. S
ee magnetronand diode.
An evacuated electron- beam tube in which an initial velocity modulation imparted to electrons
in the beam results subsequently in densitymodulation of the beam; used as an amplifier in the
microwave region or as an oscillator.
Klystron
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An evacuated electron-beam tube in which an initial velocity modulation imparted to electrons
in the beam results subsequently in densitymodulation of the beam. A klystron is used either as a
n amplifier in the microwave region or as an oscillator.
For use as an amplifier, a klystron receives microwave energy at an input cavity through which t
he electron beam passes. The microwaveenergy modulates the velocities of electrons in the beam
, which then enters a drift space. Here the faster electrons overtake the slower toform bunches. In
this manner, the uniform current density of the initial beam is converted to an alternating current.
The bunched beam withits significant component of alternating current then passes through an o
utput cavity to which the beam transfers its ac energy.
Klystrons may be operated as oscillators by feeding some of the output back into the input circuit
. More widely used is the reflex oscillator inwhich the electron beam itself provides the feedback
. The beam is focused through a cavity and is velocity-modulated there, as in theamplifier. The c
avity usually has grids to concentrate the electric field in a short space so that the field can intera
ct with a slow, low-voltageelectron beam. Leaving the cavity, the beam enters a region of dc elect
ric field opposing its motion, produced by a reflector electrodeoperating at a potential negative w
ith respect to the cathode. The electrons do not have enough energy to reach the electrode, but ar
ereflected in space and return to pass through the cavity again. The points of reflection are deter
mined by electron velocities, the fasterelectrons going farther against the field and hence taking l
onger to get back than the slower ones. Reflex oscillators are used as signalsources from 3 to 200
GHz. They are also used as the transmitter tubes in line-of-sight radio relay systems and in lowpower radars.
klystron
Electrons leave the heated cathode, and areaccelerated and focus by the focusingelements. They
are decelerated and bunchedby the deceleration grid. They U-turn at therepeller. Their frequency
is dependent on size.
A form of electron tube used for generation and amplification of microwaveelectromagnetic ener
gy. It is a linear-beam tube;
it incorporates an electron gun, one ormore cavities, and an apparatus for modulating the beam pr
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oduced by the electron gun.The most commonly used klystron tubes are the two-cavity, the multi
cavity, and thereflex klystron.
Klystron
an ultrahigh-frequency electronic vacuum device in which a steady stream of electrons is
converted to an alternating stream by modulatingthe electron velocities with an ultrahighfrequency electric field while the electrons move through the gap of a cavity resonator. Modulati
ng thevelocities has the effect of grouping the electrons into bunches, owing to differences in vel
ocity in a drift space, a section that is free fromthe ultrahigh-frequency field.
Two types of klystrons are in use: the floating drift and the reflex. In the floating drift klystron, el
ectrons pass successively through the gapsof cavity resonators (see Figure 1). Velocity modulatio
n occurs in the gap of the input resonator, the ultrahigh-frequency field in the gapperiodically
accelerating (half a cycle) and decelerating (half a cycle). Accelerated electrons catch up with ret
arded electrons in the driftspace, resulting in the formation of electron bunches. In transit through
the gap of the output resonator, the electron bunches interact with theresonators ultrahighfrequency field; most are decelerated, and some of their kinetic energy is converted to the energy
of ultrahigh-frequencyoscillations.
Figure 1. Diagrams of floating-drift klystrons: (a) klystron amplifier, (b) klystronoscillator; (1) ca
thode, (2) focusing cylinder, (3) electron stream, (4) inputcavity resonator, (5) input aperture for
ultrahigh frequency energy, (6)resonator gap, (7) drift space, (8) output cavity resonator, (9) outp
ut aperturefor ultrahigh frequency energy, (10) electron stream collectors, (11)intermediate cavity
resonators, (12) anode DC power supply, (13) heater powersupply, (14) first cavity resonator, (15
) coupling slot through which someultrahigh frequency energy passes from second resonator to fi
rst resonator,(16) second cavity resonator
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Most floating drift klystrons are manufactured as multicavity klystron amplifiers (see Figure 1,a).
Intermediate cavity resonators locatedbetween the input resonator and the output resonator make
it possible to broaden the frequency pass band, increase efficiency, and increasegain. Klystron a
mplifiers are built for operation in narrow frequency ranges of the decimeter or centimeter wavel
engths. Pulse-mode klystronshave an output from several hundred watts (W) to 40 megawatts
(MW); continuous-mode klystrons, from a few watts to 1 MW.
The gainusually runs from 35 to 60 decibels (dB). Efficiency varies from 40 to 60 percent. The p
ass band is less than 1 percent in the continuousmode and up to 10 percent in pulse mode. The pr
incipal areas of application of klystron amplifiers are in Doppler radar, communications witheart
h satellites, radioastronomy, and television (continuous-mode klystrons), as well as in linear
acceleration of elementary particles andpower output amplification in longdistance highresolution radar (pulse-mode klystrons).
A small number of industrially manufactured klystrons are continuous-mode klystron oscillators,
usually with two cavity resonators (seeFigure l,b). A small fraction of the ultrahigh-frequency os
cillatory power generated in the second resonator is transmitted through a couplingslot to the first
resonator in order to modulate electron velocities. The typical output of such klystrons is from 1 t
o 10 W, and their efficiencyis less than 10 percent. Klystron oscillators are used mainly in param
etric amplifiers and in radio beacons with wavelengths in the centimeteror millimeter range.
Figure 2. Diagram of a reflex klystron: (1)cathode, (2) focusing cylinder, (3) electronstream, (4)
accelerating grid, (5) cavityresonator, (6) resonator gap, (7) reflector,(8) second resonator grid, (9
) first resonatorgrid, (10) vacuum-tight ceramic windowserving as lead-out for ultrahigh frequenc
yenergy from resonator, (11) resonatorvoltage supply, (12) heater power supply,(13) reflector vol
tage supply
43
5
Reflex klystrons are those in which the electron stream, having passed through the resonator gap,
arrives at the decelerating field of thereflector, to be repelled by the field and pass through the res
onator gap in the opposite direction (see Figure 2). During the first transit throughthe gap, the ult
rahigh frequency electric field of the gap modulates the electron velocities. The second time, mo
ving in the opposite direction,the electrons arrive at the gap grouped in bunches. The ultrahigh fr
equency field in the gap retards these bunches and converts some of theirkinetic energy to the en
ergy of ultrahigh-frequency oscillations. Electron bunches are formed because the accelerated ele
ctrons follow alonger path in the space between cavity resonator and reflector and thus spend mo
re time there than do the decelerated electrons. If thenegative reflector voltage is changed, then t
he electron transit time, the arrival phase of the bunches at the gap, and the frequency ofoscillatio
ns generated will also be changed (see Figure 3).
Figure 3. Reflex klystron frequency and outputpower as a function of reflector voltage: (a)oscill
ation bandwidth, (b) oscillation bandwidthat half power, (f1) oscillation frequency atcenter of ban
dwidth,(f) frequency deviationfrom f1, (c) electronic tuning range at halfpower
The possibility of changing the frequency of oscillation is used in electronic tuning. This makes i
t possible to control oscillation frequency,practically inertia-free and without power loss, in frequ
ency modulation and automatic frequency control. Mechanical frequency tuning can beaccompli
shed by changing the gap, either by deflecting the face (a diaphragm) of a metallic klystron (see
Figure 4,a) or by moving a tuningpiston of a detachable part of the cavity resonator that is joined
to the edges of metallic disks protruding from the klystrons glass or ceramicshell (see Figure 4,b
). In addition to this primary cavity resonator, many reflex klystrons have a second cavity resonat
or located outside thevacuum envelope (see Figure 4,c). Mechanical frequency tuning is accompl
ished in this case by moving a stub, thereby changing the gap ofthe second cavity resonator. Such
designs make possible an unlimited number of frequency retunings. The incorporation of a highQresonator improves frequency stability but reduces the klystrons output power.
44
Figure 4. Mechanical frequency tuning methods in a reflex klystron: (a) bydeflecting diaphragm,
(b) by moving piston in detachable part of cavity resonator,(c) by moving stub in cavity resonato
r outside vacuum envelope; (1) diaphragmwhose deflection changes resonator gap (increasing th
e gap increases oscillationfrequency), (2) edges of metal disks to which detachable part of cavity
resonator isjoined, (3) detachable part of resonator, (4) piston within cavity resonator (loweringd
ecreases length of resonator and increases oscillation frequency), (5) vacuum-tight ceramic coupl
ing window between cavity resonators, (6) stub (raising stubincreases resonator gap and oscillati
on frequency), (7) output aperture for ultrahighfrequency energy
Reflex klystrons are the most widely used ultrahigh-frequency device.
They are manufactured for operation in the decimeter, centimeter, andmillimeter wave bands. Th
eir output power ranges from 5 mW to 5 W. Their mechanical frequency-tuning range
is as much as 10 percent (forklystrons with detachable cavity resonators, several dozen percent).
Their electronic tuning range is usually less than 1 percent. Theirefficiency is about 1 percent. Re
flex klystrons are used as heterodynes in superheterodyne radio receivers, as driving oscillators i
n radiotransmitters, as low-power oscillators in radar, in radio navigation,
and in measurement engineering.
As shown in the given diagram. The multi cavity klystron consist of a glass envelope in which
there is an electron gun composed of heater and cathode. After the electron gun there are two
focusing electrodes used to keep the electron beam in the center around the glass envelope. There
are two cavities known as buncher and catcher cavity. Between the cavities around the glass
envelope a magnet is used in order to keep the electron beam in the center and in concentrated
45
5
form at the end inside the glass envelope. There is anode used to attract the electrons emitted
from the cathode.
Working of Klystron
When switch on the circuit, the electrons starts emitting from the cathode. These electrons move
at a uniform speed towards the anode until they are attracted by it. Now we apply the R.F input
signal to the buncher cavity with the help of loop coupling. We suppose the negative half cycle of
the input signal. When this negative half cycle is applied to the buncher cavity, the negative
charges will develop and the speed of electron will be reduced between the cathode and cavity.
As a result the bunch of electrons will be formed near the buncher cavity. Now this bunch will
travel towards the anode. At the movement when the positive half cycle is applied, the speed of
electrons will increase from the previous condition. These electrons will join the bunch produced
by negative half cycle and the field strength of the field of the bunch will further increase.
In this manner bunches will continue to be form. when the R.F signal is present at the buncher
cavity.
when the nunch of electrons reaches in front of catcher cavity, due to its strong field strength the
excitation of this cavity will take place and we will get an amplified output from the catcher
cavity.
Application of Klystron
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5
This type of klystron is mostly used for the purpose of amplification of microwave length of
frequencies. it means that the high requencies can be amplified by multi cavity klystron. Which
is impossible and not feasible to use other components for this purpose.
Reflex Klystron
Construction
As shown in the given diagram it is composed of heater, cathode, focusing electrodes and
repeller anode. All these components are enclosed in a glass envelope. After the focusing
electrodes there is a cavity resonator which encircles the glass envelope. A loop coupling is used
inside the cavity to get the output.
Working
When we switch on the klystron, the heater of reflex klystron is heated up; the cathode starts
emission of electrons. The focusing electrodes keep the flow of electrons in the center of glass
envelope. In font of cavity resonator a huge crowed of electrons assembles and excites cavity, the
oscillation it the cavity takes place and hence we get the R.F output from the cavity with the help
of loop coupling.
Two cavity Klystron

2-cavity klystron amplifier works on the following principles
Velocity modulation
Current modulation
As we know in any tube amplifier we need to have electron beam produced in cathode to anode
region.So electrons in electron beam are produced in the cathode to anode region and accelerated
47
5
by the means of an anode voltage V0 .These electrons are allowed to pass through a pair of
buncher grid across which an RF(radio frequency) voltage V1sint and these electrons are
accelerated or de-accelerated depending on the part of cycle during which they enter gap.The
accelerated electrons emerge with a velocity higher than the entering velocity v0 and deaccelerated electrons emerge with a velocity lower than v0.While some electrons pass through
zero RF field and hence there is no change in their velocity. This phenomenon of the variation of
electrons in electron beam is known as Velocity Modulation.
The analysis for velocity modulation is carried out with following assumptions
1.Electrons leave the cathode with velocity=0 and the beam has uniform density in cross section
of beam
2.Space charge effets are not considered
3.Magnitude(V1) of input signal<<< De-accelerating voltage(V0)
Current modulation will be seen in the working of 2-cavity klystron amplifier
Operation :
Two cavity Klystron Amplifier

The electron beam is created with the help of the cathode.This electron beam attains a
high velocity due to the accelerating anode.This beam passes through the buncher
cavity.This beam then passes through the drift space having length 'L' and finally through
the catcher cavity(the name is referred as catcher since the output is obtained at this cavity).Finally
the beam is collected by the collector(Collector electrode).
The RF input(microwave) is given at the buncher cavity which we want to be
amplified.The anode voltage V0 and buncher cavity gap having length 'd' are adjusted
such that time taken by beam to pass through d is less than quarter time period of input
RF signal.The beam is focussed to travel axially so that it doesn't spread by the means of
applied external magnetic field.
48
Now when the electron beam passes through the buncher cavity during positive half
cycle of RF input signal,velocity of beam increses whereas during the negative cycle half
cycle of input RF signal velcity of beam decreases . This is the concept of velocity
modulation which we have see earlier. In the moving frame of the electron beam, the
velocity modulation is equivalent to a plasma oscillations. Plasma oscillations are rapid
oscillations of the electron density in conducting media such as plasmas or metals(The
frequency only depends weakly on the wavelength). So in a quarter of one period of the
plasma frequency, the velocity modulation is converted to density modulation, i.e.
bunches of electrons.Now lets see this procedure with the help of Applegate diagram.
Applegate Diagram
Thus the electron beam is velocity modulated to form bunches or undergoes
density(Current modulation) with input RF signal.This current modulation of beam
produces amplification of RF signal input at the catcher cavity.Thus what we obtain
finally is the amplification of RF input signal.
One important observation is that the phase of output signal is opposite to that of input
signal.Also many harmonics are generated during amplification.One way to remove this
harmonics is to tune the catcher cavity to the fundamental frequency or any other
harmonic desired.
Applications:
UHF TV Transmitter
Troposphere scatter transmitter
Communication Satellites
49
Radar Transmitter
Also as a power oscillator
50

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Microwave Devices & Network

Microwave Devices & Network 201

Microwave solid-state devices

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How radar works

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Microwave Devices & Network 201

How does radar work?

Here's how radar works:

Microwave Devices & Network 201

BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor

Microwave Devices & Network 201

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Alloy or Fused Junction

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Point Contact Junction

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BJT Modes of Operation

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FET & JFET

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Microwave Devices & Network 201

FET & BJT ON THE BASIS OF APPLICATIONS

Bipolar Junction Transistor

Field Effect Transistor

Microwave Devices & Network 201

1) A bipolar transistor requires a small

1) Once the gate terminal on an FET has

2) A BJT will consume more power in the

2) FETs are preferred in Wide line or load

3) BJTs function as regulators of currents

3) FET function as voltage regulators as

4) The bipolar transistor is liable for

4) FET have a positive temperature coefficient, stopping thermal runway.

5) BJTs are preferred for low current

5) FETs are preferred in Low-voltage

7) BJTs are used where we need high gain

8) FETs are preferred in High frequency

Microwave Devices & Network 201

9) To operate BJTs at high switching

9) FETs are low switching devices.FET is

10) FET are smaller in size.so area

10) BJTs are relatively greater in size than

12) BJTs have high switching speed but

12) As FET introduce lower noise level to

13) BJT Have small duty cycles.

and have higher element density the BJT's.

15) JFET is mostly used in digital circuits.

17) Switch mode power supplies (SMPS): ZVS

Microwave Devices & Network 201

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Gunn diode symbol

Microwave Devices & Network 201