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Contents
CONTENTS
Part
Page No.
#1.
Mathemathics
1 45
1.1
Linear Algebra
18
1.2
9 14
1.3.
Numerical Method
15 19
1.4.
Calculus
20 30
1.5.
Differential Equations
31 37
1.6.
Complex Variables
38 42
1.7
Laplace Transform
43 45
#2.
Engineering Mechanics
46 61
2.1
Statics
46 54
2.2
Dynamics
55 61
#3.
Strength of Materials
62 98
3.1
62 67
3.2
68 70
3.3
Stresses In Beams
71 - 74
3.4
Deflection Of Beams
75 83
3.5
Torsion
84 88
3.6
Mohrs Circle
89 91
3.7
92 - 93
3.8
94 98
#4.
Thermodynamics
99 159
4.1
Basic Thermodynamics
99 110
4.2
111 113
4.3
114 - 117
4.4
118 122
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Page I
Contents
4.5
Psychrometrics
123 134
4.6
Power Engineering
135 144
4.7
Refrigeration
145 149
4.8
I.C. Engines
150 - 159
#5.
Theory of Machines
160 184
5.1
Mechanisms
160 169
5.2
Gear Trains
170 175
5.3
Flywheel
176 - 179
5.4
Vibrations
180 184
#6.
Machine Design
185 219
6.1
Theory of Failures
185 189
6.2
Fatigue
190 - 198
6.3
199 219
#7.
Fluid Mechanics
220 273
7.1
Fluid Properties
220 224
7.2
Fluid Statics
225 231
7.3
Fluid Kinematics
232 236
7.4
Fluid Dynamics
237 242
7.5
Boundary Layer
243 249
7.6
250 256
7.7
Hydraulic Machines
257 273
#8.
Heat Transfer
274 298
8.1
Conduction
274 286
8.2
Convection
287 289
8.3
Radiation
290 294
8.4
Heat Exchanger
295 298
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Page II
#9.
Manufacturing Engineering
Contents
299 - 381
299 304
9.2 Casting
305 321
322 338
339 344
345 361
362 379
380 381
382 - 403
10.1
382 387
10.2
Inventory Control
388 392
10.3
Operations Research
393 403
Reference Books
404 405
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Page III
Mathematics
Part - 1: Mathematics
1.1 Linear Algebra
1.1.1
Matrix
Definition: A system of m n numbers arranged along m rows and n columns.
Conventionally, single capital letter is used to denote a matrix.
Thus,
A=[
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
a
Column Matrix
[1 ]
1
1
Number of columns
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Page 1
Mathematics
=A
Note: All the diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix must be zero.
Symmetric
Skew symmetric
a h g
h g
f]
[h b f ]
[h
g f c
g f
Symmetric Matrix
= A
1.1.1.11
1.1.1.12
)
Unitary Matrix: If we define, A = (A
Then the matrix is unitary if A . A = I
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Page 2
1.1.1.13
Mathematics
Hermitian Matrix: It is a square matrix with complex entries which is equal to its own
conjugate transpose.
A = A or a = a
1.1.1.14
1.1.1.15
always real
Idempotent Matrix
If A = A, then the matrix A is called idempotent matrix.
1.1.1.17
Determinant:
n square matrix.
a
D = det A = |a
a
a |=a
-a
Determinant of order n
D = |A| = det A = ||
a
a
a
a
|
|
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Page 3
1.1.1.19
Mathematics
1.1.1.21
Inverse of a Matrix
| |
b
1
a
Important Points:
1. IA = AI = A, (Here A is square matrix of the same order as that of I )
2. 0 A = A 0 = 0,
(Here 0 is null matrix)
3. If AB = , then it is not necessarily that A or B is null matrix. Also it doesnt mean BA = .
4. If the product of two non-zero square matrices A & B is a zero matrix, then A & B are
singular matrices.
5. If A is non-singular matrix and A.B=0, then B is null matrix.
6. AB BA (in general) Commutative property does not hold
7. A(BC) = (AB)C Associative property holds
8. A(B+C) = AB AC Distributive property holds
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Page 4
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Mathematics
+p
Note:
Elementary transformations dont change the ran of the matrix.
However it changes the Eigen value of the matrix.
1.1.1.23
Rank of Matrix
If we select any r rows and r columns from any matrix A,deleting all other rows and columns,
then the determinant formed by these r r elements is called minor of A of order r.
Definition: A matrix is said to be of rank r when,
i)
It has at least one non-zero minor of order r.
ii) Every minor of order higher than r vanishes.
Other definition: The rank is also defined as maximum number of linearly independent row
vectors.
Special case: Rank of Square matrix
Rank = Number of non-zero row in upper triangular matrix using elementary transformation.
Note:
1.
2.
3.
4.
r(A.B)
min { r(A), r (B)}
r(A+B) r(A) + r (B)
r(A-B)
r(A) - r (B)
The rank of a diagonal matrix is simply the number of non-zero elements in principal
diagonal.
5. A system of homogeneous equations such that the number of unknown variable exceeds
the number of equations, necessarily has non-zero solutions.
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Page 5
Mathematics
1.1.1.24
x
x
a
a
Where, A =
,
[a
B =
[x ]
Inconsistent means:
No solution
Cramers ule
Let the following two equations be there
a
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(i)
x +a
x = b ---------------------------------------(ii)
a
D = |b
a
b |
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Page 6
b
D =|
b
a
|
a
a
D =|
a
b
|
b
Mathematics
and x =
Characteristic equation: | A
I |= 0, The roots of this equation are called the characteristic
roots /latent roots / Eigen values of the matrix A.
Eigen vectors: [
]X=0
For each Eigen value , solving for X gives the corresponding Eigen vector.
Note: For a given Eigen value, there can be different Eigen vectors, but for same Eigen vector,
there cant be different Eigen values.
Properties of Eigen values
1. The sum of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to the sum of its principal diagonal.
2. The product of the Eigen values of a matrix is equal to its determinant.
3. The largest Eigen values of a matrix is always greater than or equal to any of the
diagonal elements of the matrix.
4. If is an Eigen value of orthogonal matrix, then 1/ is also its Eigen value.
5. If A is real, then its Eigen value is real or complex conjugate pair.
6. Matrix A and its transpose A has same characteristic root (Eigen values).
7. The Eigen values of triangular matrix are just the diagonal elements of the matrix.
8. Zero is the Eigen value of the matrix if and only if the matrix is singular.
9. Eigen values of a unitary matrix or orthogonal matrix has absolute value 1.
10. Eigen values of Hermitian or symmetric matrix are purely real.
11. Eigen values of skew Hermitian or skew symmetric matrix is zero or pure imaginary.
| |
12.
is an Eigen value of adj A (because adj A = |A|. A ).
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Page 7
13. If
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Mathematics
Vector:
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Page 8
Mathematics
Probability
B =, P(A
B) =0
Equally Likely Events: If one of the events cannot happen in preference to other, then such events
are said to be equally likely.
Odds in Favour of an Event =
Where m
n
.
.
P(A) P(A)=1
Important points:
P(A B) Probability of happening of at least one event of A & B
P(A B) ) Probability of happening of both events of A & B
If the events are certain to happen, then the probability is unity.
If the events are impossible to happen, then the probability is zero.
Addition Law of Probability:
a. For every events A, B and C not mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)- P(A B)- P(B C)- P(C A)+ P(A B C)
b. For the event A, B and C which are mutually exclusive
P(A B C)= P(A)+ P(B)+ P(C)
Independent Events: Two events are said to be independent, if the occurrence of one does not
affect the occurrence of the other.
If P(A B)= P(A) P(B)
Conditional Probability: If A and B are dependent events, then P. / denotes the probability of
occurrence of B when A has already occurred. This is known as conditional probability.
P(B/A)=
)
( )
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Page 9
Mathematics
P(B/A) = P(B)
[ P(A) 0]
= P(B). P(A/B),
[ P(B) 0]
Bayes theorem:
An event A corresponds to a number of exhaustive events B , B ,.., B .
If P(B ) and P(A/B ) are given then,
(
P. /=
). ( )
). ( )
Distribution
f(x ) = 1 (Discrete)
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Page 10
Mathematics
P(x ) =
f(x )
) ]
Var (X)= (x x
) f(xx )
(Discrete case)
)-,E(x)-
Properties of Variance
1. Var(constant) = 0
2. Var(Cx)
= C Var(x) -Variance is non-linear [here C is constant]
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Page 11
Mathematics
covariance=0,
2. Exponential distribution :
3. Uniform distribution:
4. Cauchy distribution :
Mean:
For a set of n values of a variant X=( x , x , . . , x )
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Page 12
Mathematics
For a grouped data if x , x , . . , x are mid values of the class intervals having frequencies
f , f ,.., f ,then, =
If is mean for n data; is mean for n data; then combined mean of n +n data is
=
If , be mean and SD of a sample size n and m ,
SD of combined sample of size n +n is given by,
(n
n )
D = m -m
( n)
=n
+n
+n D +n D
= (n
(n D )
Median: When the values in a data sample are arranged in descending order or ascending order
of magnitude the median is the middle term if the no. of sample is odd and is the mean of two
middle terms if the number is even.
Mode: It is defined as the value in the sampled data that occurs most frequently.
Important Points:
Mean is best measurement ( all observations taken into consideration).
Mode is worst measurement ( only maximum frequency is taken).
In median, 50 % observation is taken.
Sum of the deviation about mean is zero.
Sum of the absolute deviations about median is minimum.
Sum of the square of the deviations about mean is minimum.
Co-efficient of variation =
100
( , )
-1 (x, y) 1
(x,y) = (y,x)
|(x,y)| = 1 when P(x=0)=1; or P(x=ay)=1 [ for some a]
If the correlation coefficient is -ve, then two events are negatively correlated.
If the correlation coefficient is zero, then two events are uncorrelated.
If the correlation coefficient is +ve, then two events are positively correlated.
Line of Regression:
The equation of the line of regression of y on x is y
The equation of the line of Regression of x on y is (x
y=
x) =
(x
x)
(y
y)
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Page 13
Mathematics
Joint Probability Distribution: If X & Y are two random variables then Joint distribution is defined
as, Fxy(x,y) = P(X x ; Y y)
Properties of Joint Distribution Function/ Cumulative Distribution Function:
1. F (
,
) =
2. F ( , ) = 1
3. F (
, ) =
{ F (
, ) = P(
y) = 0 x 1 = 0 }
) = F (x) . 1 = F (x)
4. F (x, ) = P(
x
5. F ( , y) = F (y)
Joint Probability Density Function:
Defined as f(x, y) =
Property:
F(x, y)
f(x, y) dx dy
= 1
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Page 14
Mathematics
1. Bisection method
This method finds the root between points a and b.
If f(x) is continuous between a and b and f (a) and f (b) are of opposite sign then there is a
root between a & b (Intermediate Value Theorem).
First approximation to the root is x1 =
If f(x1) = 0, then x1 is the root of f(x) = 0, otherwise root lies between a and x1 or x1 and
b.
Similarly x2 and x3 . . . . . are determined.
Simplest iterative method
Bisection method always converge, but often slowly.
This method cant be used for finding the complex roots.
Rate of convergence is linear
2. Newton Raphson Method (or Successive Substitution Method or Tangent Method)
( )
xn+1 = xn
(
This method is commonly used for its simplicity and greater speed.
Here f(x) is assumed to have continuous derivative f(x).
This method fails if f(x) = .
It has second order of convergence or quadratic convergence, i.e. the subsequent error at
each step is proportional to the square of the error at previous step.
Sensitive to starting value, i.e. The Newtons method converges provided the initial
approximation is chosen sufficiently close to the root.
Rate of convergence is quadratic.
3. Secant Method
x
=x
) (
f(x )
Page 15
Mathematics
, f(x ) =
( )
)
2.
+n -
Page 16
Mathematics
L U Decomposition
It is modification of the Gauss eliminiation method.
Also Used for finding the inverse of the matrix.
[A]n x n = [ L ] n x n [U] n x n
a11 a12 a13
1 0 0
a21 b22 c23
L21 1 0
=
a31 b32 c33
L31 L32 1
Page 17
Mathematics
Numerical Integration
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
(remaining terms)+
a) max |f ( )|
, , -
f(x)dx =
*( first term
last term)
a) max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
f(x)dx =
h ( first term
{
last term)
a)
max |f ( ) ( )|
, , -
Page 18
Mathematics
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Page 19
Mathematics
1.4 Calculus
1.4.1
Limit of a Function
Let y = f(x)
Then lim
f(x)=
0< |x a|< , |f(x)
i.e, f(x)
|<
x) = 1
a
=x
a
nx
x
e =1+x+
log(1
x) = x
log(1
x) =
Sin x = x
n(n
1)(n
.........x
.........a
.........
+
.........
.........
.........
Cos x = 1
Sinh x = x
.........
.........
Cosh x = 1
.........
sinx
=
x
lim (1
lim(1
lim
lim
1
) =
x
x) =
1
x
1
x
= log a
=1
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Page 20
lim
lim
log(1
x
x
x
x)
Mathematics
=1
a
=
a
lim log|x| =
L Hospitals ule
When function is of
limit.
or
f(x) = lim
Properties of Continuity
If f and g are two continuous functions at a; then
a. (f+g), (f.g), (f-g) are continuous at a
b.
is continuous at a, provided g(a) 0
c. |f| or |g| is continuous at a
olles theorem
If (i) f(x) is continuous in closed interval [a,b]
(ii) f(x) exists for every value of x in open interval (a,b)
(iii) f(a) = f(b)
Then there exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that
( )=0
Geometrically: There exists at least one point c between (a, b) such that tangent at c is parallel to
x axis
C
C
2
C1
a
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Page 21
Mathematics
( )
= f (c).
(0< <1)
1.4.2
( )
=
( )
b
( )
( )
Derivative:
( ) = lim
( )
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Page 22
Mathematics
Homogenous Function
Any function f(x, y) which can be expressed in from xn . / is called homogenous function of
order n in x and y. (Every term is of nth degree.)
f(x,y) = a0xn + a1xn-1y + a2xn-2y2
f(x,y) = xn
an yn
. /
1.4.3
+ 2xy
+y
= n(n
1)u
Total Derivative
u=
+
x+
.
y
f( )
f( )
b) Local
Find
at x = ,
If
If
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Page 23
If
Mathematics
If
But If
If
If
If
at x = .
= , proceed further
Note: Greatest / least value exists either at critical point or at the end point of interval.
Point of Inflexion
If at a point, the following conditions are met, then such point is called point of inflexion
Point of
inflexion
i)
ii)
=0,
Neither minima nor maxima exists
iii)
Taylor Series:
f(a
h)= f(a)
h f(a)
f(a)
.........
Maclaurian Series:
f(x) = f( )
x f( )
f ( )
f ( )
= 0,
2. (i) if rt
(ii) if rt
(iii) if rt
(iv) if rt
,s=
=
, t=
solve these equations. Let the solution be (a, b), (c, d)
s
and r
maximum at (a, b)
s
and r
minimum at (a, b)
s < 0 at (a, b), f(a,b) is not an extreme value i.e, f(a, b) is saddle point.
s > 0 at (a, b), It is doubtful, need further investigation.
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Page 24
1.4.4
Mathematics
1. x dx =
, n
2. dx = log x
3. e dx = e
4. a dx =
(prove it )
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
cos x dx = sin x
sin x dx = cos x
sec x dx = tan x
cosec x dx = cot x
sec x tan x dx = sec x
cosec x cot x dx = cosec x
dx = sin
12.
dx =
sec
13.
dx = sec x
x )
24.
dx = log(x
a ) = cosh ( )
25.
dx = log(x
a ) = sinh ( )
26. a
x dx =
27. a
x dx = x
log(x
a )
28. x
a dx = x
log(x
a )
29.
dx =
tan
30.
dx =
log (
) where x <a
31.
dx =
log (
) where x > a
32. sin x dx =
33.
34.
35.
36.
sin
sin x
sin x
cos x dx =
tan x dx = tan x x
cot x dx = cot x x
ln x dx = x ln x x
37. e
sin bx dx =
(a sin bx
b cos bx )
38. e
cos bx dx =
(a cos bx
b sin bx )
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Page 25
39. e ,f(x)
Mathematics
f (x)-dx = e f(x)
Integration by parts: u v dx = u. v dx
v dx)dx
I L A T E
E
Selection of U & V
Inverse circular
(e.g. tan 1 x)
Exponential
Logarithmic
Algebraic Trigonometric
x)dx
f(x)dx+
=0
4. f(x)dx =2 f(x)dx
=0
a<c<b
f(x)dx = f(a
x)dx
f(a x)dx
f(x)dx =
if f(a-x)=f(x)
if f(a-x)=-f(x)
if f(-x) = f(x), even function
if f(x) = -f(x), odd function
f(x)dx
Improper Integral
Those integrals for which limit is infinite or integrand is infinite in a
then it is called as improper integral.
b in case of f(x)dx,
1.4.6 Convergence:
f(x)dx is said to be convergent if the value of the integral is finite.
If (i)
f(x) g(x) for all x and (ii) g(x)dx converges , then f(x)dx also converges
If (i) f(x) g(x)
for all x and (ii) g(x)dx diverges, then f(x)dx also diverges
( )
( )
If lim
diverge.
is converges when p
The integral
The integral
dx and
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Page 26
1.4.7
Mathematics
Vector Calculus:
=.
Directional Derivative:
is the resolved part of f in direction N
.
The directional derivative of f in a direction N
= | f|cos
f. N
is a unit vector in a particular direction.
Where N
Direction cosine: l
n =1
Gradient:
The vector function f is defined as the gradient of the scalar point function f(x,y,z) and written
as grad f.
grad f = f =
1.4.9
f is vector function
If f(x,y,z) = 0 is any surface, then f is a vector normal to the surface f and has a
magnitude equal to rate of change of f along this normal.
Directional derivative of f(x,y,z) is maximum along f and magnitude of this maximum
is | f|.
Divergence:
The divergence of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by div. F and
is defined by the equation.
div. F = . F
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Page 27
F=f +
div.F= . f = .
=
Mathematics
/ .( f +
. f is scalar
. =
is Laplacian operator
1.4.10 Curl:
The curl of a continuously differentiable vector point function F is denoted by curl F and is
defined by the equation.
Curl F =
f =|
|
f
F is vector function
1.4.11 Solenoidal Vector Function
If .A = 0 , then A is called as solenoidal vector function.
1.4.12 Irrotational Vector Function
If
f=
curl grad f =
f=0
div curl F = .
F =0
curl curl F =
(
f) = ( . f) grad div F = ( . f)=
(
F) +
F
F
Page 28
(F
9.
G) = F(
G)
G(
Mathematics
F)
Also note:
1. (f/g)= (g f f g)/g
2. (F.G) = F.G F . G
3. (F G) = F G + F G
4.
(fg) = g f + 2 f. g + f
= (C
.A
)B
.B
- (C
)A
(A
B)
C
(B
) = (A
.C
)B
.B
C
- (A
)C
A
(A B ) C A (B C )
1.4.16 Line Integral, Surface Integral & Volume Integral
Line integral = F( )d
If F( )= f(x,y,z) (x,y,z) + (x,y,z)
d = dx dy dz
dy dz )
F( )d = ( f dx
ds, Where N is unit outward normal to Surface.
Surface integral: F .
ds or F . N
Volume integral : F dv
If F(R ) = f(x,y,z) +
(x,y,z)
F dv = fdxdydz
dxdydz + dxdydz
dy) = .
/ dxdy
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Page 29
Mathematics
F .N ds
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Page 30
Mathematics
Order of Differential Equation: It is the order of the highest derivative appearing in it.
1.5.2
Degree of Differential Equation: It is the degree of the highest derivative occurring in it,
after expressing the equation free from radicals and fractions as far as derivatives are
concerned.
1.5.3
Equations of first order and first degree can be expressed in the form f (x, y, y ) = or
y = f(x, y). Following are the different ways of solving equations of first order and first degree:
1. Variable separable : f(x)dx + g(y)dy = 0
f(x)dx
2. Homogenous Equation:
( ,
( ,
)
)
y=Y+k
=
=
=
(say)
(
(
)
)
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Page 31
Mathematics
d y
dx
P(x)
dy
dx
(x)y = (x)
= . (I. F)dx
Note: The degree of every linear differential equation is always one but if the degree of the
differential equation is one then it need not be linear.
Ex:
x . /
= 0.
.1 Bernoullis Equation:
+Py=Qy
Divide by y
y
Substitute, y
Py
=Q
=z
(1
n)Pz = Q (1-n)
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Page 32
Mathematics
M dx
= d [log (
4.
=-d( )
5.
= d [tan (
)-
6.
=d[
)-
log(
)]
1.5.4
0 then I.F. =
0 then I.F. =
( )
( )
y=X
D
-----
)y = X {Where, D =
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Page 33
(D
m ) (D
m ) - - - - - - (D
m )y=0
Mathematics
C e
-- - - - -+ C e
C x)e
Similarly, if m = m = m
y = (C
Case III:
C x +C x ) e
m =
i , m =
y = e (C cos x
Case IV:
i
C sin x)
1.5.5
i ,
C ) cos x
,(C x
i
(C x
C ) sin x ]
X=
( )
.X
Case I:
When X =
P.I. =
( )
P.I. = x
( )
P.I. =
( )
put D = a
[ ( )
0]
put D = a
[ ( )
0, ( ) = 0]
put D = a
[ ( ) = 0, ( ) = 0, ( )
0]
Case II:
When X = sin (ax + b) or cos (ax +b)
P.I. =
=x
=
)
(
put
)
=-
, (-
0]
put
=-
, (-
, (-
) = 0]
) put
=-
, (-
, (-
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Page 34
= , (-
Mathematics
) = 0]
Case III:
When X =
= [ ( )-
( )
(D) ,1
(D) [1
( )
( )
( )
( )
Case IV:
When X =
V where V is function of x
P. I. =
( )
V then evaluate
Case V:
When X = x V(x)
P.I. =
( )
( )
x V(x) = 0
( )
( )
V(x)
Case VI:
When X is any other function of x
P.I. =
Factorize f(D) = (D
( )
) (D
) - - - - - - - (D
X=
) and resolve
( )
on each terms.
Substitute
------ -
=X
x=e
x
= Dy
= D (D-1) y
= D (D-1)(D-2) y
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Page 35
Mathematics
After substituting these differentials, the Cauchy Euler equation results in a linear equation
with constant coefficients.
1.5.7
ax + b =
- - - - -- -
=X
t = ln (ax + b)
(ax + b)
=aDy
D(D-1)y
D(D-1)(D-2)y
After substituting these differentials, the Legendres equation results in a linear equation with
constant coefficients.
1.5.8
1.5.9
=q,
= r,
= s,
= f( x, y)
-------
) = f(x, y)
{ where D =
and D =
f (D, D) = f(x,y)
Step I: Finding the C.F.
1. Write A.E.
Where m =
2. CF = (y +
CF = (y +
CF =
(y +
----= 0,
and the roots are
,
---- x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
are distinct
x) + x (y +
x) + (y +
x) + - - - - - - ,
x) + x
(y +
x) +
(y +
x) + - - - -
,
,
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Page 36
Mathematics
( ,
f (x, y)
1. when F( ax +by ) =
, put [ D = a, = b]
2. when F( x, y) = sin (mx +ny), put ( =
,
3. when F(x, y) =
, P. = ( , )
=[ ( ,
4. when F(x, y) is any function of x and y. P. =
( ,
=
))
f (x, y) , resolve
( ,
into partial
y + mx after integration.
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Page 37
Mathematics
is a complex no., where x & y are real numbers called as real and imaginary part of z.
, Argument of
( )=
. /
1.6.1 Function of a Complex Variable: It is a rule by means of which it is possible to find one or
more complex numbers w for every value of z in a certain domain D, then w = f (z)
Where z = x + iy,
w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y)
1.6.2
Continuity of f (z):
( ) = ( ).
A function = f (z) is said to be continuous at = if
Further f (z) is said to be continuous in any region R of the z-plane, if it is continuous at
every point of that region.
Also if w = f (z) = u(x, y) + i v(x, y) is continuous at = , then u(x, y) and v(x, y) are also
continuous at x= & y = .
1.6.3
Theorem on Differentiability:
The necessary and sufficient conditions for the derivative of the function f( ) to exist for all
values of in a region R.
i)
ii)
1.6.4
A single valued function which is defined and differentiable at each point of a domain D is
said to be analytic in that domain.
A point at which an analytic function ceases to possess a derivative is called Singular point.
Thus if u and v are real Single valued functions of x and y such that
, ,
,
are
continuous throughout a region R , then CR equations
=
=-
are both necessary and sufficient condition for the function f(z) = u
iv to be analytic in .
Real and imaginary part i.e. u, v of the function is called conjugate function.
An analytic function posses derivatives of all order and these are themselves analytic.
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Page 38
1.6.5
Mathematics
Harmonic Functions:
If f(z) = u + iv be an analytic function in some region of the z plane then the C R equations are
satisfied.
=
=0
(Laplace Equation)
Note:
(1) For a function to be regular, the first order partial derivations of u and v must be
continuous in addition to CR equations.
(2) Mean value of any harmonic function over a circle is equal to the value of the function at
the centre.
1.6.6
dz + c
( , )
( , )
dz + i . /
dz + c
( , )
dx +
dy
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Page 39
Mathematics
( )
=(
( )
= f( )
( ), i.e.
If f(z) is analytic in a simple connected domain D, then for every simple closed path C in D,
() = 0
Note: In other words, by Cauchys theorem if f(z) is analytic on a simple closed path C and
everywhere inside C (with no exception, not even a single point) then ( ) =
D
C
( )=
( ) =
( ) =
( )
( )
(
)
( )
.
( )=
( )
(
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Page 40
Mathematics
( )
= 0 around every
1.6.10 Taylors Series: If f(z) is analytic inside a circle C with centre at a then for z inside C
f(z) = f(a)
f(z) =
where
( )
f(a) (z-a) +
(
=
(z-a) + - - - - - - -
( )
)
( ) + - - - - - - -
1.6.11 Laurents Series: If f(z) is analytic in the ring shaped region R bounded by two concentric
circles and of radii and (
) and with centre at a then for all z in R
(
f(z) =
where,
( )
)
where
if
f(z) =
=
=
( )
=------
Page 41
Mathematics
f(z) =
(
)
singularity can be removed by defining f(z) at z = a is such a way that it becomes analytic at
z =a
( ) exists finitely, then z = a is a removable singularity.
Example: f(z) =
, then z = 0 is a removable singularity.
3. Essential singularity: If the numbers of negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series is infinite,
then z =a is called an essential singularity.
( ) does not exist in this case
4. Poles: If all the negative power of (z-a) in Laurents series after
singularity at z = a is called a pole of order n.
A pole of first order is called a simple pole.
( )
( )
,(
( )-3
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Page 42
Mathematics
Introduction
. ( )
, ( )- = ( )=
1.7.2
. ( )
J )
Frequency shift
[e-at f(t) ] = F(s + a) and
Time shift
[f(t to)] =
. F(s)
If initial conditions are zero (i.e. f(0) = 0),differentiating in time domain is equivalent to
multiplying by s in frequency domain.
Similarly,
( )]=
F(s) s f(0) -
(0) where
( ) ] at t = 0
( ) 1=
( )
and
( ) 3=
( )
( )
Integration in time domain is equivalent to division by s in frequency domain, if f(t) = 0 for t < 0.
Differentiation in Frequency Domain
[ t f(t) ] =
( )
and
( )+ = ( 1)
(F(s))
( )
1 =
( )
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Page 43
Mathematics
1.7.3
( )=
( )
This theorem does not apply to the rational function F(s) in which the order of numerator
polynomial is equal to or greater than the order of denominator polynomial.
1.7.4
( )=
( )
For applying final value theorem, it is required that all the poles of
s- plane (strictly) i.e. poles on
axis also not allowed.
1.7.5
Convolution theorem
, ( ). ( )- = ( )
, ( )
( )- =
( ).
( )
( )
(s) where
(s) =
( )
S. No
1.
2.
Function, f(t)
( )
u(t)
3.
4.
5.
u(t)
. ( )
6.
t.u(t)
7.
8.
9.
. ( )
( )
f(t).
sin at. u(t)
1
1
(
1
F(s-a)
(
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Page 44
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
f (t)
f (t)
f(u) du
16.
17.
18.
f(u)du
f(t-a).u(t-a)
t . F(t)
19.
20.
f(ta)
f(at)
21.
f (t) f (t)=
e . cos t
22
23
sin t
. f(t)
Mathematics
(
)
(
)
s
(s
a )
s.F(s)-f(o )
s . F(s) s. f(o ) f (o )
1 F(s)
s
F(s)
(o ).
where f
(o ) =
f(u)du
f (u). f (t
u)du
. F(s)
d
( 1) .
(F(s))
ds
|a|. F(as)
1 s
F( a)
|a|
F (s). F (s) where * is convolution operator
(s
)
((s
((s )
F(s)ds
24
25
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Page 45
Engineering Mechanics
Magnitude
Point of application
Line of action
Direction
Scalar and Vector: A quantity is said to be scalar if it is completely defined by its magnitude
alone. e.g. length, energy, work etc. A quantity is said to be vector if it is completely defined only
when its magnitude and direction is specified. e.g. force, acceleration.
2.1.1 Equivalent force system
Coplanar force system: If all the forces in the system lie in a single plane, it is called coplanar
force system.
Concurrent force system: If line of action of all the forces in a system passes through a single
point it is called concurrent force system.
Collinear force system: In a system, all the forces parallel to each other, if line of action of all
forces lie along a single line then it is called a collinear force system.
Force system
Example
Coplanar concurrent
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Page 46
Engineering Mechanics
(m
dv
)
dt
Third law: For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.
Principle of transmissibility of force: The state of rest of motion of rigid body is unaltered if a
force acting on a body is replaced by another force of the same magnitude and direction but
acting anywhere on the body along
the line of action of the replaced force.
P
B
P
Parallelogram law of forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a body at a point are
represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a parallelogram their
resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the parallelogram which
passes through the point of intersection of the two sides representing the forces.
2.1.2 Equilibrium and Free body diagrams
2.1.2.1 Coplanar Concurrent Forces
Triangle law of forces: If two forces acting simultaneously on a body are represented by the sides
of triangle taken in order, then their resultant is represented by the closing side of the triangle
taken in the opposite order.
Polygon law of forces:
P3
P2
P4
D
P3
R2
R
R1
P1
P4
C
P2
B
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Page 47
Engineering Mechanics
If a number of forces acting at a point be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of
a polygon in order, then the resultant of all these forces may be represented in magnitude and
direction by the closing side of the polygon taken in opposite order
P2
P1
Resultant (R) =
tan
P2
P1
P2
b
P3
P1
P3
a
sin
sin
sin
Free body diagram: A free body diagram is a pictorial representation used to analyze the forces
acting on a free body.
A free body diagram shows all contact and non-contact forces acting on the body.
Sample Free body diagrams
600N
W
SMOOTH
600N
R1
SMOOTH
R2
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Page 48
Engineering Mechanics
A cantilever beam
A block on a ramp
In a free body diagram all the contacts/supports are replaced by reaction forces which it will
exert on the structure. A mechanical system comprises of different types of contacts/supports.
Types of contacts/supports:
Following types of mechanical contacts can be found in various structures:
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Page 49
Engineering Mechanics
Smooth surfaces
Rough surfaces
Rough surfaces are capable of supporting a tangential component F (frictional force as well
as a normal component N of the resultant R.
Roller support
Roller, rocker, or ball support transmits a compressive force normal to supporting surface.
Collar or slider support force is normal to guide only. There is no tangential force as surfaces
are considered to be smooth.
Pin connection
A freely hinged pin supports a force in any direction in the plane normal to the axis; usually
shown as two components Rx and Ry. A pin not free to turn also supports a couple M.
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Page 50
Engineering Mechanics
A built-in or fixed end supports an axial force F, a transverse force V, and a bending moment M.
2.1.2.2 Coplanar Non-Concurrent Forces
Varignons theorem: The algebraic sum of the moments of a system of coplanar forces about a
momentum center in their plane is equal to the moment of their resultant forces about the same
moment center.
B
The algebraic sum of the components of the forces along each of the three mutually
direction is zero.
The algebraic sum of the components of the moments acting on the body about each of
the three mutually perpendicular axes is zero.
When a body is in equilibrium, the resultant of all forces acting on it is zero. Thus, the resultant
force R and the resultant couple M are both zero, and we have the equilibrium equations
R F 0
&
M= M=0
These requirements are both necessary and sufficient conditions for equilibrium.
Two forces can be in equilibrium only if they are equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and
collinear in action. If a system is in equilibrium under the action of three forces, those three
forces must be concurrent.
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Page 51
Engineering Mechanics
Types of Equilibrium:
There are three types of equilibrium as defined below:
Stable Equilibrium: A body is in stable equilibrium if it returns to its equilibrium position after it
has been displaced slightly.
Unstable Equilibrium: A body is in unstable equilibrium if it does not return to its equilibrium
position and does not remain in the displaced position after it has been displaced slightly.
Neutral Equilibrium: A body is in neutral equilibrium if it stays in the displaced position after if
has been displaced slightly.
Stable Equilibrium
Unstable Equilibrium
Neutral Equilibrium
F s
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Engineering Mechanics
While determining the reactions at the supports, the following points should be remembered
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Page 53
Engineering Mechanics
(a) At simply supported (i.e., pinned or roller support) support there can be only a vertical
reaction.
(b) At fixed support, the reaction can take an arbitrary direction.
A frame in which all the member lies in a single plane is called plane frame. While a frame in
which all the member do not lie in a single plane is called space frame.
4
5
1
For perfect frame, m = (2j -3)
3
2
If there is only one force acting at joint, then for the equilibrium, this force should be equal zero.
If there are two forces acting at a joint then, for the equilibrium, forces should act along the same
straight line. The two forces should be equal and opposite. If the (only) two forces acting at a
joint are not along the same straight line, then for the equilibrium of the joint each force should
be equal to zero.
If three forces act at a joint and two of them are along the some straight line then, for the
equilibrium of the joint, the third force should be equal to zero.
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Engineering Mechanics
Where u = initial velocity, v = final velocity, s = distance of travel, t = time and a = acceleration
Motion of Bodies Projected vertically upwards
When a body is projected vertically upwards, it is under the effect of the downward acceleration
due to gravity, i.e., it moves with retardation. Its velocity, therefore, gradually decreases until it
becomes zero; the body is then for an instant at rest and immediately begins to fall with a
velocity which increases numerically but is negative. Thus, we get
gs
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Page 55
time of flight =
Range (R) =
Engineering Mechanics
Now
is the inertia force Example represents the D Alemberts principle which may be
stated as follows:
When different forces act on a system such that it is in motion in a particular direction, the
algebraic sum of all the forces acting on the system in the direction of the motion, including the
inertia force taken in opposite direction to motion is zero. Thus in general
F
ma
Where
F
or
ma
where indicates the sum of all forces acting on the body in the direction of motion.
2.2.4 Kinetics of Curvilinear Motion
Central force motion
Centrifugal force =
Where r = radius of the path
= angular velocity
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Engineering Mechanics
v = linear speed
g = acceleration due to gravity
oment of momentum (angular momentum)of the whole body
Where I = m
Or
For a finite period of time, integrating, we get
If
Where
If the forces
are variable, they must be given as a function of time and should be similarly
integrated. Forces that cannot be expressed mathematically as a function of time may be plotted
on a force-time curve, in which the area under the curve is equal to the left side of the equation.
Linear impulse of a force is defined as Ft and linear momentum is defined as mv. Thus, it may be
expressed as follows:
Ft = mv mvo
The resultant impulse of the external forces acting upon a body is equal to the change of
momentum of the body. Both impulse and momentum are vector quantities. The units of impulse
and momentum are Ns.
Conservation of Linear Momentum
If the sum of the external forces acting on any system of mutually attracting and impinging
bodies resolved in any direction is always zero, the total momentum of the system in that
direction remains constant during the motion.
Let the two bodies have masses
and
with velocities and respectively, before coming
into contact with each other, and velocities
and
at the end of the period of contact. Then
according to the conservation of linear momentum, we have
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Engineering Mechanics
Coefficient of Restitution
For direct central impact Newton verified experimentally that the relative velocity after impact
is in a constant ratio to the relative velocity before impact. If the bodies collide obliquely, the
same fact holds for their compound velocities along the common normal at the point of contact.
This ratio is known as the coefficient of restitution, and is denoted by e. Thus
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Page 58
Engineering Mechanics
, we have
= F.s
Relation between work and change of kinetic energy:
Net work = change in kinetic energy
Where
represents kinetic energy. This equation represents the principle of work and energy.
Power = (F cos ) v.
v is the velocity of the point where the force F is acting.
is the angle between the directions of the force and the velocity.
If both are in the same direction then
.
One metric horse power = 735.5 watts
Work of the Elastic force: If a prismatic bar of area of cross section A, length and elastic constant
E is stretched then the work of elastic force can be calculated by treating it as a spring of
stiffness k.
&
are
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Engineering Mechanics
Net W.D. by the force for displacing a body from (1) to (2)
(
Principle of conservation of energy: states that the sum of the potential energy and the kinetic
energy of a particle (or of a system of particles) remains constant during the motion under the
action of conservative forces.
E
is positive upwards
is negative upwards.
Force exerted by the spring is not a constant force but it varies linearly with the displacement
from the undeformed position.
U
du
F dx
sign indicates that Force and displacement are in opposite directions.
Let v and
and .
U
( E)
be the velocities of the particle at points 1 and 2 and the corresponding distance be
mV
(
( E)
( E)
( E)
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Engineering Mechanics
O
Rigid body
Therefore,
(
=
Where
)
(
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Page 61
Strength of Material
Pparallel _ to _ area
A
Linear strain (normal strain, longitudinal strain, axial strain), , is a change in length per unit
length. Linear strain has no units. Shear strain, is an angular deformation resulting from shear
stress. Shear strain may be presented in units of radians, percent, or no units at all.
parallel _ to _ area
Height
tan [ in radians]
E
The deformation, , of an axially loaded member of original length L can be derived from Hookes
law. Tension loading is considered to be positive, compressive loading is negative. The sign of
the deformation will be the same as the sign of the loading.
PL
L L
E AE
This expression for axial deformation assumes that the linear strain is proportional to the
normal stress
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Strength of Material
When an axial member has distinct sections differing in cross-sectional area or composition,
superposition is used to calculate the total deformation as the sum of individual deformations.
PL
L
P
AE
AE
When one of the variables (e.g., A), varies continuously along the length,
PdL
dL
P
AE
AE
Lf L
The algebraic deformation must be observed.
Hookes law may also be applied to a plane element in pure shear. For such an element, the shear
stress is linearly related to the shear strain, by the shear modulus (also known as the modulus of
rigidity), G.
G
The relationship between shearing deformation, s and applied shearing force, V is then
expressed by
VL
AG
Ultimate strength
Rupture
strength
Yield point
Elastic limit
Proportional limit
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Page 63
Strength of Material
Proportional Limit: It is the point on the stress strain curve up to which stress is proportional to
strain.
Elastic Limit: It is the point on the stress strain curve up to which material will return to its
original shape when unloaded.
Yield Point: It is the point on the stress strain curve at which there is an appreciable elongation
or yielding of the material without any corresponding increase of load; indeed the load actually
may decrease while the yielding occurs.
Ultimate Strength: It is the highest ordinate on the stress strain curve.
Rupture Strength: It is the stress at failure
3.1.4 Poissons Ratio: Biaxial and Triaxial Deformations
Poissons ratio, , is a constant that relates the lateral strain to the axial strain for axially loaded
members.
lateral
axial
Theoretically, Poissons ratio could vary from 0 to 0.5, but typical values are 0.33 for aluminum
and 0.3 for steel and maximum value of 0.5 for rubber.
Poissons ratio permits us to extend Hookes law of uniaxial stress to the case of biaxial stress.
Thus if an element is subjected simultaneously to tensile stresses in x and y direction, the strain
in the x direction due to tensile stress x is x/E. Simultaneously the tensile stress y will
produce lateral contraction in the x direction of the amount y/E, so the resultant unit
deformation or strain in the x direction will be
y
x
E
E
y
E
x
E
Hookes law can be further extended for three-dimensional stress-strain relationships and
written in terms of the three elastic constants, E, G, and . The following equations can be used to
find the strains caused due to simultaneous action of triaxial tensile stresses:
1
x y z
E
1
y z x
E
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Page 64
1
z x y
E
xy
yz
zx
Strength of Material
xy
G
yz
G
zx
G
For an elastic isotropic material, the modulus of elasticity E, shear modulus G, and Poissons
ratio are related by
E
21
E 2G1
The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity, or the tendency of an object's volume to
deform when under pressure; it is defined as volumetric stress over volumetric strain, and is the
inverse of compressibility. The bulk modulus is an extension of Young's modulus to three
dimensions.
For an elastic, isotropic material, the modulus of elasticity E, bulk modulus K, and Poissons ratio
are related by
E 3K1 2
3.1.5 Thermal stresses
Temperature causes bodies to expand or contract. Change in length due to increase in
temperature can be expressed as
L
L..t
Where, L is the length, (/oC) is the coefficient of linear expansion, and t (oC) is the
temperature change.
From the above equation thermal strain can be expressed as:
=
If a temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely no load or the stress will be induced in
the structure. But in some cases it is not possible to permit these temperature deformations,
which results in creation of internal forces that resist them. The stresses caused by these
internal forces are known as thermal stresses.
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Page 65
Strength of Material
When the temperature deformation is prevented, thermal stress developed due to temperature
change can be given as:
E..t
0 : 1 (2t x) p(2rx) 0
0 : 2 (2 rt ) p(2 r ) 0
2
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Page 66
Strength of Material
Spherical shells
0 : 2 (2 rt ) p(2 r ) 0
1 2
pr
2t
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Page 67
Strength of Material
i
sec tion _ to
one _ end
Shear is positive when there is a net upward force to the left of a section, and it is negative when
there is a net downward force to the left of the section.
F d
i i
sec tion _ to
one _ end
i
sec tion _ to
one _ end
Bending moments in a beam are positive when the upper surface of the beam is in compression
and the lower surface is in tension. Positive moments cause lengthening of the lower surface and
shortening of the upper surface. A useful image with which to remember this convention is to
imagine the beam smiling when the moment is positive.
Strength of Material
V2 V1 wxdx
x1
wx
dV x
dx
The change in magnitude of the moment at any point is equal to the integral of the shear
function, or the area under the shear diagram up to that point.
x2
M 2 M1 V xdx
x1
V x
dM x
dx
The shear at any section is equal to the sum of the loads and reactions from the section to
the left end.
The magnitude of the shear at any section is equal to the slope of the moment function at
that section.
Loads and reactions to the left of the section acting upward are positive
The shear diagram is straight and sloping for uniformly distributed loads.
The shear diagram is straight and horizontal between concentrated loads.
The shear is undefined at points of concentrated loads.
The following guidelines and conventions should be observed when constructing a bending
moment diagram. By convention, the moment diagram is drawn on the compression side of the
beam.
The moment at any section is equal to the sum of the moments and couples from the
section to the left end.
The change in magnitude of the moment at any section is the integral of the shear
diagram, or the area under the shear diagram. A concentrated moment will produce a
jump or discontinuity in the moment diagram.
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Page 69
Strength of Material
The maximum or minimum moment occurs when the shear is either zero or changes its
sign.
The moment diagram is parabolic and is curved downward for downward uniformly
distributed loads.
Note:
If the external load is not at right angles to the axis of the beam, the loading can be resolved
axially and transversely to the beam
Type of loading
Point load
U.D.L.
U.V.L. or Triangular
Parabolic
Bending couple
Variation of S.F.
Rectangle
Linear
Parabolic
Cubic
No shear variation
Variation of B.M.
Inclined line for linear
Square Parabola
Cubic Parabola
Fourth degree polynomial
A vertical step at the point of
application
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Page 70
Strength of Material
My
I
b,max
Mc
I
This equation shows that the maximum bending stress will occur at the section where the
moment is maximum. For standard structural shapes, I and c are fixed. Therefore, for design, the
elastic section modulus S, is often used.
I
c
M
S
For a rectangular b x h section, the centroidal moment of inertia and section modulus are
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Page 71
bh3
I
12
Strength of Material
bh 2
Srec tan gular
6
Also, the strain in any fiber varies directly with its location y from the neutral axis and can be
found by the equation
y
R
Or,
b
y
E
R
The transverse sections which are plane and normal before bending remain plane and
normal to the longitudinal fibres after bending (Bernoullis Assumption).
Material is homogeneous, isotropic and obeys Hooks Law and limits of eccentricity are not
exceeded.
Every layer is free to expand or contract.
Modulus of elasticity has same value for tension and compression.
The beam is subjected to pure bending and therefore bends in an arc of a circle.
Points to remember:
Pure Bending: Only B.M. but no S.F.
Neutral Layer: The layer which does not undergo any change in length (N.A.)
Neutral axis: Line of intersection of Neutral Layer with plane of cross section. It passes through
C.G. of cross section. At this axis the strain changes its sign.
Equation of Pure Bending:
M/I=/y=E/R
Curvature = (1/ R) = (M / EI), EI = Flexural rigidity
Section Modulus (
I/c): It represents the strength of the section. Greater the value of ,
stronger will be the section.
3.3.2 Shear Stress
The shear stresses in a vertical section of a beam consist of both horizontal and transverse
(vertical) shear stresses.
The exact value of shear stress is dependent on the location, y, within the depth of the beam. The
shear stress distribution is given by equation shown below. The shear stress is zero at the top
and bottom surfaces of the beam. For a regular shaped beam, the shear stress is maximum at the
neutral axis
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Page 72
xy
Strength of Material
QV
Ib
Q ydA
y1
For rectangular beams, dA bdy. Then, the moment of the area A above 1ayer y is equa1 to the
product of the area and the distance from the centroidal axis to the centroid of the area.
Q y ' A'
For a rectangular beam, the equation for max, can be simplified. The maximum shear stress is 50
percent higher than the average shear stress.
3V 3V
1.5 avg
2A 2bh
For a beam with a circular cross section, the maximum shear stress is
max,circular
4V
4V
4
avg
2
3A 3r
3
For a steel beam with web thickness tweb and depth d, the web shear stress is approximated by
avg
V
V
Aweb dtweb
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Page 73
Strength of Material
E
E wea ker
The area of the stronger material is increased by a factor of n. The transformed area is used to
calculate the transformed composite area, Ac,t , or transformed moment of inertia, Ic,t. For
compression and tension members, the stresses in the weaker and stronger materials are
wea ker
F
Ac,t
stronger
nF
Ac,t
For beams in bending, the bending stresses in the weaker and stronger materials are
wea ker
Mcwea ker
I c ,t
stronger
nMcstronger
I c,t
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Page 74
Strength of Material
1 max M d 2 y d
c
EI dx
dx
max
------- (1)
------- (2)
Using the preceding relationships, the deflection and slope of a loaded beam are related to the
moment M(x), shear V(x), and load w(x) by Eqs. (3) through (7).
y deflection
y'
------- (3)
dy
slope
dx
------- (4)
y''
d 2 y Mx
EI
dx2
------- (5)
y'''
d 3 y Vx
EI
dx3
------- (6)
y''''
d 4 y wx
EI
dx 4
------- (7)
If the moment function, M(x), is known for a section of the beam, the deflection at any point on
that section can be found from Eq. (8). The constants of integration are determined from the
beam boundary conditions in the table shown below.
EIy
Mxdx
------- (8)
Simple Support
Built-in Support
Free end
Hinge
M
0
0
0
0
0
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Page 75
Strength of Material
When multiple loads act simultaneously on a beam, all of the loads contribute to deflection. The
principle of superposition permits the deflections at a point to be calculated as the sum of the
deflections from each individual load acting individually. Superposition can also be used to
calculate the shear and moment at a point and to draw the shear and moment diagrams. This
principle is valid as long as the normal stress and strain are related by the modulus of elasticity,
E. Generally this is true when the deflections are not excessive and all stresses are kept below
the yield point of the beam material.
Points to be remembered
Curvature
EI
/
= M
- - - - - for + ve B.M
lope dy / dx radians EI EI. dy / dx
Deflection = y, EIy =
EI y /
= dM / dx = Shear force +F
EI y /
= dF / dx = Load +
A = area of B.M.D.
Theorem 2: The intercept on a vertical line made by two tangents drawn at the two points on the
deflected curve, is equal to the moment of M / EI diagram between the two points about the
vertical line.
= distance of C.G. of B.M.D.
e.g,: (Suitable for cantilevers) from objective point of view.
Step 1: To determine slope and deflection at any point say B.
L
A
x
xL
xLx
B
,
xLx
L
2
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Page 76
Strength of Material
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Page 77
Strength of Material
Maximum Deflection
) where W =
Slope
Maximum Deflection
SL No. 4 Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load up to a certain length from fixed end
w/unit run
C
A
a
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Page 78
Slope
Strength of Material
Maximum Deflection
) where W =
)+ *
-+
SL No. 5 Cantilever subjected to uniformly distributed load up to a certain length from free end
w/unit run
a
)
B
)*
Slope
Maximum Deflection
(3
)
4
)+
B
A
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Page 79
Strength of Material
run
B
W
/
/
C
Maximum Deflection
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Page 80
Strength of Material
Maximum Deflection
where W =
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Page 81
Strength of Material
Maximum Deflection
A
C
Slope
Maximum Deflection
( at x
0 519 from A )
Strength of Material
Slope
Maximum Deflection
Sign conventions used :
Slope: Clockwise
Counter- clockwise
Deflection : upwards
Downward
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Page 83
Strength of Material
Part3.5: Torsion
3.5.1 Torsion
If moment is applied in a plane perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the beam (or) shaft, it
will be subjected to Torsion.
e.g.:
Torsion formula:
T
Where T = Torque applied
= Twist of cross section
= Maximum shear stress due to torsion
R = Radius of shaft
L = Length of shaft
J = Polar moment of inertia =
=
Assumptions:
1. Plane normal sections of shaft remain plane after twisting.
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Page 84
2.
3.
4.
5.
Strength of Material
The stress setup at any point in a cross section is one of pure shear or simple shear.
The longitudinal axis is neutral axis.
The shear stress will vary linearly from zero at the centre to maximum at the outer surface
(any point on periphery)
As the value of Torsional modulus increases, the Torsional strength increases. For E.g.: A
hollow circular shaft compared to that of a solid shaft of same area, will have more
torsional strength.
= inner diameter.
or
Strength of Material
Metric System
H.P.
Composite Shafts: When two dissimilar shafts are connected together to form one shaft, the shaft
is known as composite shaft.
Shafts in Series: If the driving torque is applied at one end, and the resisting torque at the other
end, the shafts are said to have been connected in series.
( )
T
( )
Shafts in Parallel:
OR
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Page 86
Strength of Material
If the Torque T is applied at the junction of two shafts and resisting Torque at their remote
ends, the shafts are said to be connected in parallel.
For such a case,
T=
. .,
If both the shafts are of same material
.
2
2
2
/4)
/4)
16
16
16
Equivalent Torque: It is the twisting moment, which acting along produce the maximum shear
stress due to combined bending and Torsion.
Equivalent Bending Moment: The bending moment to produce the maximum bending stress
equal to greater principle stress .
1
(
2
For e.g. If K
) /
0.6,
1.7
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Page 87
Strength of Material
The ratio of the weight of a hollow shaft, and solid shaft of equally strength is
1
(1
) /
Stresses at a section of a rod: A section of a rod is subjected to direct shear force (W) and a
Torque (T = WR)
Maximum Shear Stress = (
)
- (1)
,1
If m is small, then maximum shear stress can be calculated by A.M. Wahls formulae that takes
account for initial curvature of the spring wire:
Max.
64
, deflection
/64
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Page 88
Strength of Material
x y
a ave
and
2y
x y
2
xy
2
y
yx
x-face coordinate: ( x , xy )
xy
x
xy
x
y-face coordinates: ( y , xy )
yx
-
y
y
R
(x , -xy )
x y
2
xy
2
x y
ave
+
(x , xy )
xy
Notes:
If the plane contain only shear and no normal stress (pure shear), then origin and centre of
the circle will coincide and maximum and minimum principal stress equal and opposite.
1
Strength of Material
, 2 -
The summation of normal stresses on any two mutually perpendicular planes remains
constant.
x
1 2
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Page 90
Strength of Material
4
(
Spherical shells:
Hoop stress = longitudinal stress =
pd
8t
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Page 91
Strength of Material
FdL
=
AL
Work per unit volume corresponds to the area under the stress-strain curve.
For an axially loaded member below the proportionality limit, the total strain energy is given by,
1
P2 L
P
2
2 AE
U
2
AL 2E
N.A.
y
P
dx
dU = P2dx/2AE = M2y2/
d
(dA)2 dx/2(dA)E
y dA
M dx
2EI
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Page 92
Strength of Material
T dx
2GJ
P
Interpretation: The partial derivative of the strain energy with respect to one of the external
loads equals the displacement of the point of application of load in the direction of that load.
3.7.5 Impact or Dynamic Loading
The problem of impact is analogous to that of a falling body stopped by spring. Let us consider a
free falling body of mass m from a height h that produces a deflection in the spring.
Relationship between dynamic and static deflection can be obtained by equating the resultant
work done to the zero change in kinetic energy.
The ratio of the maximum dynamic deformation to the static deformation st can be given by
the equation
2h
(1
For sudden loading, free fall h does not exist i.e., h 0. i.e., a suddenly applied load (dynamic
condition), produced a deflection which is twice as great as that obtained when the load is
applied gradually.
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Page 93
Strength of Material
:
:
:
:
Short Column: Short columns, called piers or pedestals, will fail by compression of the material.
These columns fail essentially by direct crushing at ultimate load.
Crushing load P
f . A, f
Long columns: Long columns will buckle in the transverse direction that has the smallest radius
of gyration. Buckling failure is sudden, often without significant warning. If the material is wood
or concrete, the material will usually fracture (because the yield stress is low); however, if the
column is made of steel, the column will usually fail by local buckling, followed later by twisting
and general yielding failure. Intermediate length columns will usually fail by a combination of
crushing and buckling.
Radius of gyration: r
I/A
Y
For a given area, Tubular section will have maximum radius of gyration.
H-Section is more efficient than I-Section.
Equilibrium of a column: A column is said to have buckled or failed when it reaches Neutral
Equilibrium.
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Page 94
Strength of Material
2 EI
Pcr 2
L
--------- (1)
The corresponding column stress is given by the equation shown below. This stress cannot
exceed the yield strength of the column material.
cr
Pcr
2 E
A L 2
r
] --------- (2)
L is the longest unbraced column length. If a column is braced against buckling at some point
between its two ends, the column is known as a braced column, and L will be less than the full
column height.
The quantity L/r is known as the slenderness ratio. Long columns have high slenderness ratios.
The smallest slenderness ratio for which Eq. (2) is valid is the critical slenderness ratio, which
can be calculated from the materials yield strength and modulus of elasticity. Typical
slenderness ratios range from 80 to 120. The critical slenderness ratio becomes smaller as the
compressive yield strength increases.
Most columns have two radii of gyration, rx and ry, and therefore, have two slenderness ratios.
The largest slenderness ratio will govern the design.
The smallest force at which a buckled shape is possible. Prior to this load the column remains
straight. The columns buckle in the plane of the major axis of the cross section as shown below.
Y
X
X
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Page 95
Strength of Material
Assumptions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
I = actual length
Eff. Length (L)
L
Critical load
EI/L
L/2
EI/L
L/2
EI/L
2L
EI/4L
EI/L
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Page 96
Strength of Material
2L
EI/4L
1.5L
EI/2.5L
E/(L/r)
As and E are constant for a particular material, Eulers formula is valid for a particular range of
slenderness ratio, for e.g. for mild steel whose = 3300 Kg/cm and E = 2.1 10 Kg/cm
Euler formula is not valid for slenderness ratio less than 80.
Eulers formula is valid only up to proportional limit i.e., in inelastic zone, the formulae are not
valid
Note:
i) The relation between slenderness ratio and corresponding critical stress is
hyperbolic
ii) According to Euler formulae the critical load does not depend upon strength
property of material the only material property involved is the elastic modules E
which physically represents the stiffness characteristics of the material.
3.8.3 Rankines formula
It is empirical formula
Takes into account both direct crushing (Pc) load and Euler critical load (P ).
1
1
1
i. e. ,
P
P
P
P .P
P
P
P
Basic Formula:
.
P
( / )
Where
Rankines constant
L = eff. Length
yield stress.
Rankines Co-efficient: is independent of geometry and end conditions, can be modified to
incorporate imperfections
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Page 97
Material
Mild steel
Wrought Iron
Cast Iron
3200
2500
5500
Strength of Material
Rankines Constant
1/7500
1/9000
1/1600
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Page 98
Thermodynamics
Part 4: Thermodynamics
Part 4.1: Basic Thermodynamics
4.1.1 Thermodynamic systems
Thermodynamic system is a quantity of matter or region in space considered for the analysis of a
problem.
Surroundings: Everything external to the system.
Boundary: It separates system and surroundings
Boundary
System
Surroundings
Classification of system:
Open system: Both energy and mass can transfer across the boundary e.g., Steam turbine,
centrifugal pump.
Energy in
Mass out
Mass in
Energy out
Closed system: Energy transfer occurs across the boundary. No mass transfer across the
boundary
Energy out
Energy in
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Page 99
Cylinder
Thermodynamics
Gas
Piston
Thermal conductor
Isolated system: Neither mass nor energy transfers across the boundary e.g. Universe
Mass Transfer
X
Energy
Transfer
X
Thermodynamic property: Any characteristic of a system by which its physical condition can be
described, eg. Pressure, temperature, volume, etc.
Thermodynamic state: All the properties have definite values.
Change of state: Any operation in which one or more of the properties of the system changes.
Path of change of state: The succession of states passed through during a change of state.
4.1.2 Thermodynamic Processes
Process: When path is completely specified, the change of state is called process.
Types of thermodynamic properties
a) Intensive properties independent of mass eg. Pressure, temperature, density.
b) Extensive properties depends on the mass of the system eg. Volume, energy etc.
Thermodynamic equilibrium should satisfy the following.
a) Mechanical equilibrium
b) Thermal equilibrium.
c) Chemical equilibrium
Quasi static process: The departure of the state of the system from the thermodynamic
equilibrium is infinitely small.
The quasi static process is an infinite slow process.
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Page 100
Thermodynamics
All are in
thermodynamic
equilibrium
1
P
2
V processes):
Thermodynamic processes (non-flow
a) Constant pressure or Isobaric process:
P=C
W = p v
V
b) Constant volume process or Isochoric process :
2
V=C
P
1
V
c) Isothermal (constant temperature) process:
T=C
1
P
2
W=
constant
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Page 101
Thermodynamics
1
P
=C
2
V
e) Polytropic process (generalized process)
P
const
n index of expansion
1
P
=C
2
V
n=
=C
=C
V=c
V
Thermodynamic Process
Constant volume (V = C)
Constant pressure (P = C )
Isothermal (T = C)
Polytrophic (P
c
Reversible adiabatic (P
C
0
1
1< n < 1.25
(= 1.4 )
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Page 102
Thermodynamics
Definition: When a body A is in thermal equilibrium with a body B, and also separately with
a body C, then B and C will be in thermal equilibrium with each other.
ZLTD is the basis for temperature measurement
A reference body used for quantitave measurement of temperature is called thermometer
A certain physical characteristic of thermometer which changes with change in temperature
is called thermometer property.
C
If t
t
Then t
As per FLTD, heat (Q) and work (W) are mutually convertible
00kJ of
00 kJ of
00kJ of
00kJ of
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Page 103
Thermodynamics
+ve
ve
Work done by the system (+ve)
Work done on the system (-ve)
ve
+ve
Perpetual motion machine of first kind (PMM1)is a fictitious machine which gives continuous
output without any input. It violates FLTD
Q=0
PMM1
W
FLTD for a non cyclic process (non-flow process)
U
1
P
2
V
FLTD for a steady flow process
Steady flow properties of the system are constant with respect to time.
Flow energy or flow work: work done by the fluid on itself to cause the fluid flow.
Flow work = PV kJ
Flow work is a point function
Enthalpy (H): H= (U+PV) kJ
Where, U internal energy(kJ)
PV flow work (kJ).
Specific enthalpy, h= (u+pv) kJ/kg
Where u specific internal energy (kJ/kg
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Page 104
Thermodynamics
Control Volume
(1)
(2)
,
(3)
,
(4)
Control Surface
Fig. SFEE
m
C
SFEE continued
Mass balance:
m = constant
m + m
m + m
In general,
. m
. m
Continuity equations:
m =
Where A = Cross-sectional area m
C = velocity (m/s)
v = specific volume (m kg)
= density (m kg)
m =
Energy balance:
[ otal Energy ]
[ otal Energy ]
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Page 105
Thermodynamics
(1)
(2)
(1)
(2)
datum
+ m *
Where
m *
+ m *
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
m[
+ (
)+
- - - - - SFEE
m[
+ (
)+
- - - - - SFEE
and
Applications of SFEE
(i)
Boiler Condenser
HPS(
HPW(
Boiler
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Page 106
Thermodynamics
LPS(
LPW (
Condenser
=0
C
Turbine/Compressor
Turbine
Compressor
LPF(
HPF(
LPF(
q
C
HPF(
0
C
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Page 107
(iii)
Thermodynamics
Nozzle /Diffuser
Nozzle
(1)
Diffuser
(2)
(2)
(1)
h C
(2)
(1)
(1)
(2)
h
C
q
w
h
C
h
C
h
C
0
0
C
C
(h
h )
i.e. gain in kE = drop in enthalpy
C + h
exit velocity, C
h
(h
h )+
(h
h )= C
C
gain in enthalpy = drop in KE
where C
exit velocity, m/s
h
h ) = enthalpy drop, J/kg
In general, C
C
C
h m s
h
= 000 h
h where h an h are given in kJ/kg
C
. h
h
for a gas nozzle h C
)
where C
specific heat k
C
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Page 108
Thermodynamics
(2)
(1)
(1)
q
C
h
0
C
h
= g(
i.e. work input = increase in P.E
h
h
m C t
t =m C
m
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Page 109
Thermodynamics
Impossible
Heat Engine
W
HE
i.e. (W<
o heat engine (HE) is 100% efficient
PMM 2 fictitious heat engine with 100% efficiency
Clausius statement: It is impossible to construct a device, which operating in a cycle, will
produce no effect other than the transfer of heat from a cooler to a hotter body
Impossible
HP/K+1
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Page 110
Thermodynamics
CP
(e)
T
(d)
(c)
2
1
(a)
3 (b)
V
(a) - Saturated liquid curve (SLC)
(b) - Saturated vapour curve (SVC)
(c) - vapour dome
(d) - under cooled liquid.
(e) - Super heated vapour zone
(f) - Gaseous Zone
------- saturated liquid states
3 3 3 3 ------ saturated vapour states
CP --- Critical Point.
Critical point: Water changes its phase directly to vapour with no distinction between liquid and
vapour phases.
-
At critical point, change in enthalpy, change in specific volume etc. are zero
At critical point (for water) pressure, p
0. ar
Temperature,
3 .
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Page 111
Thermodynamics
Triple point: the state at which all three phases solid, liquid and gas exist in equilibrium is called
triple point.
For water, triple point is
T = 273.16K
P = 4.587mm of Hg
Dryness fraction: Wet steam characterized by dryness fraction.
where m
mass of vapour
m
mass of liqui
0
x
0
00 liqui
x
00 vapour
Mollier Diagram:
Constant pressure lines
.
s
h enthalpy (kJ/kg)
s entropy (kJ/kg K )
specific Volume(m kg
Sublimation: Solid directly converts into vapour.
Steam Tables: Two types
a) Pressure entry
b) Temperature entry
Properties for pure substance (water)
a) Wet steam:
(iii)
(iv)
specific volume of dry saturated steam (directly available from steam tables )
ryness fractio
h= h + xh
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Page 112
(v)
Thermodynamics
s=s +xs
where
h s
h s
b) Superheated steam (
V=
h = h +C
s = s + C ln *
where
superheated steam temperature, Kelvin
saturated steam temperature, Kelvin
C
specific heat of steam kJ/kg k
Note: internal energy, u = (h PV) kJ/kg
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Page 113
Thermodynamics
} reversi le process
} irreversi le process
irreversi le process
0
reversi le process
I=
+
T
(A E)
T0
(U E)
S
AE=Q*
Anergy: Minimum heat losses that are to be suffered during energy conversion process.
4.3.2 Ideal or perfect gases
Ideal gas: * Inter molecular forces are negligible
* O eys all erfect gas Laws at low pressure an high temperatures.
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Page 114
Thermodynamics
.3
Thermodynamics
kJ kg mol K
R
Specific heat (C):
C=
kJ
kJ
Units: kg K or kg
For solids only one specific heat
For liquids only one specific heat
For gases two specific heats
1. C (specific heat at constant pressure)
2. C ( specific heat at constant volume)
C
and C
Change in enthalpy
H = mC
-
|
Change in internal energy
mC
Relation between C C
C
C
R
C
C
adiabatic index
C
C
. for diatomic gases
= 1.67 for monoatomic gases
= 1.33 for triatomic gases.
[ ]
[ ]
[ ]
If
Z=1,P =R
a perfect gas
Z 1,
a real gas
I.
Z>1
Z<1
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Page 116
Thermodynamics
] R
* + + [
a
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Page 117
Thermodynamics
mC
mC (
P=C
1
W = p v
V
U +
= mC
Q = mC
+p
)
V=C
P
1
V
W =p v
U = mC
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Page 118
Thermodynamics
U+
= mC
T=C
1
P
2
W=
W =p
mR ln ( )
= mRT ln ( )
U = mC
Q = mRT ln ( )
Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic process:
P
constant
1
P
=C
2
V
W =p
For an isentropic process
0
0
QW=
[ ]
[ ]
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Page 119
Thermodynamics
=C
2
n=
W=
U = mC
U +
mC
[ ]
[ ]
0 in polytropic process.
4.4.2 Heat Engine
A heat engine cycle is a thermodynamic cycle in which there is net heat transfer to the system
and a net work transfer from the system. The system which executes a heat engine cycle is called
a heat engine.
The function of a heat engine cycle is to produce work continuously at the expense of heat input
to the system. So the net work done W and heat input Q are of primary interest.
The efficiency of a heat engine is defined as
et ork Output of the cycle
otal heat input to the system
Carnot Cycle:
1
2
4
3
V
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Page 120
Thermodynamics
. s
Carnot efficiency,
Where
In general representation
source temp K
sink temp K
),
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Page 121
Thermodynamics
It is outcome of SLTD
The entropy of the universe always increases and it represents the degree of irreversibility
associated with the process.
Entropy of the system increases upon heating and decreases upon cooling.
Clasius theorem: When closed system undergoes a cyclic process.
0
R Reversi le
i.e,
. s
=
s
For closed system
1
2
Process
a) V = C
change in entropy
s
s
C log
b) P = C
C log
c) T = C
R log
d) Adiabatic
e) Isentropic (Reversible adiabatic)
s
s
s
0
s =0
Clasius inequality: It states that when a closed system undergoes a cyclic process,
a)
0 for irreversi le cycle
b)
impossi le
c)
0 reversible
Principle of increase of entropy
0
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Page 122
Thermodynamics
Suppose a mixture of air-water vapour which is not saturated is cooled at constant pressure
the partial pressure of water vapour remains constant till it is equal to the saturation
pressure of water. With continued cooling, the water vapour begins to condense. The
constant pressure cooling of a mixture is represented on a T-S diagram in Fig.
P = constant
T
Specific Humidity: Specific humidity (SH) or humidity ratio is defined as the ratio of mass of
water vapour to the mass of dry air in the mixture.
0.
0.
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Page 123
Unsaturated air
water Vapour
mixture
m
m
Thermodynamics
Liquid water
Consider the device as control volume and apply material and energy balances to get
Mass balance of air: m
m
Mass balance for water: m + m
m
Energy balance: m h + m h + m h
m h
+ m
Where,
m = mass flow rate of dry air;
m = mass flow rate of water vapour / water
h = specific enthalpy of dry air;
h = specific enthalpy of water vapour / water
Subscripts 1, 2, 3 denote the conditions at the points shown in fig. If air is treated as an ideal gas,
we can write (h
h
C
. Assume that liquid water enters the device at the same
temperature as the air leaving the device. That is
.
Then, h
h
h
h
h
an h
h
h
h
Thus,
C
+
h
The specific humidity and relative humidity of an air-water vapour mixture can be measured
with an adiabatic saturator.
For all practical purposes, the adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) does not depend upon
the temperature at which liquid water enters the device
The adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) does not depend upon the temperature at which
liquid water enters the device
The adiabatic saturation temperature (T3) depends only on the conditions (T1, SH1) of the
entering air.
Psychrometric Chart:
Thermodynamics
Adiabatic
mixer
Control
volume
RH
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Page 125
Heating coil
Refrigerant
Humid
air
1
Thermodynamics
Cooling unit
Dehumidified
air
4
Heating unit
Condensed
water
3
Dehumidification of air-water vapour mixture can be achieved by cooling the mixture below
its dew point temperature, allowing some water to condense, and then reheating the mixture
to the desired temperature
For cooling the mixture, chilled water can be sprayed into the mixture or the mixture can be
made to pass over cooling coils through which a cold refrigerant is circulated.
The dehumidification process is represented on a psychrometric chart in Fig. below.
*h
O/kg
Specific Humidity(SH) kg
dry air
h kJ kg ry air
h
R
R
*h
2
23
Dry bulb emp.
41
C
Humidification with Cooling: If an unsaturated air-water vapour mixture is made to flow through
porous pads soaked in water, the mixture gets saturated. Since the process occurs without any
energy exchange as heat with the surroundings, it is adiabatic. The energy required for the
evaporation of water comes from air-water vapour mixture resulting in a decrease in its
temperature.
Thermodynamics
where,
and
denote the specific humidity of air-water vapour mixture at the inlet and
outlet of the cooler, respectively.
Dry air
Porous pad
2
1
Dry bulb
Degree of Saturation: The water vapour exists at the dry bulb temperature T of the mixture and
partial pressure . Consider now that more water vapour is added in this Control volume V at
temperature T itself. The partial pressure will go on increasing with the addition of of water
vapour until it reaches a value p corresponding to state 2, after which it cannot increase further
as p is the saturation pressure or maximum possible pressure of water at temperature T. The
thermodynamic state of water vapour is now saturated at point 2. The air containing moisture in
such a state is called saturated air.
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Page 127
Thermodynamics
2
3
T
Saturated water
Vapour in saturated
Air
In this state the air is holding the maximum amount of water vapour (the specific humidity being
, corresponding to the partial pressure p ) at temperature T of the mixture. The maximum
possible specific humidity,
at temperature T is thus
s
0.
/ (p
p )]
Relative Humidity: Relative humidity denoted by the symbol or RH is defined as the ratio of the
mass of water vapour m in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature mass of water
vapour m in the same volume of saturated air at the same temperature. Thus if
and are
the specific volumes of water vapour in the actual moist air and saturated air respectively at
temperate T and in volume V, at points 1 and 2 respectively
v or
We have
0.
0.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (1)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - (2)
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Page 128
Thermodynamics
Enthalpy of Moist Air: The enthalpy of moist air h is equal to the sum of the enthalpies of dry air
and associated water vapour, i.e (h = h + h ) per kg of dry air, where h is the enthalpy of the
dry air part and h is the enthalpy of the water vapour part. h
C t
.005 t kJ/kg
C A
Reference state
S
Again taking the reference state enthalpy as zero for saturate liqui at 0 the enthalpy of the
water vapour part, at point A is expressed as
h
where C
h
t + h
+C
t kJ kg
Taking the specific heat of liquid water as 4.1868 kJ/kg K) and that of water vapour as 1.88
kJ kg K in the range 0 to 0 we have
h
t + h
+ .
Accordingly, enthalpy of water vapour at A, at DPT of t and DBT of t, can be determined more
conveniently by the following two methods:
i) h
ii) h
0 + C
Thus, employing the second expression an taking the latent heat of vaporization of water at 0
as 2501 kJ/kg, we obtain the following empirical expression for the enthalpy of the water vapour
part
h
50 + .
.005 +
t kJ kg
500 + .
. .
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Page 129
Thermodynamics
+ ( )0
+ ( ) 0
where
+
.005 + .
kJ kg .a. K
umi specific heat is the specific heat of moist air +
kg per kg of ry air. he term
C t governs the change in enthalpy of moist air with temperature at constant specific
humi ity an the term
h 0 governs the change in enthalpy with the change in
specific humidity, i.e. due to the addition or removal of water vapour in air.
ince the secon term .
is very small compare to the first term 1.005, an
approximated value of C of 1.0216 kJ/kg d.a.) (K) may be taken for all practical
purposes in air-conditioning calculations.
For any state of unsaturated moist air, there exists a temperature t* at which the air
becomes adiabatically saturated by the evaporation of water into air, at exactly the same
temperature t*
The leaving air is saturated at temperature t*. The specific humidity is correspondingly
increase to *. The enthalpy is increased from a given initial value h to the value h*.
he weight of water a e per kg of ry air is * - which a s energy to the moist air
of amount equal to *- h , where h * is the specific enthalpy of the injected water at t*.
Adiabatic
Enclosure
Outlet air
Inlet Air
t
t*
t*
*
h*
Feed Water
= (* - ) per kg of Dry air
Let us compare the expressions for the wet ul temperature t an the temperature of
adiabatic saturation t*, i.e.
It follows that if k
Or f k C
L
C
D
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Page 130
Thermodynamics
Mixing with Condensation: When large quantity of cold air mixes with a quantity of warmer air at
a high
1
1
4
Adiabatic Mixer
2
relative humidity, there is a possibility of condensation of water vapour, the mixture will then
consist of saturated air and the condensate.
2
t
It the DB of the mixture falls elow 0 the con ensate may eventually freeze.
If may be noted that due to condensation, the specific humidity of the mixture
, will be
reduced to below . Correspondingly, the temperature of the air would be increased to t from
t due to the release of the latent heat of the condensate. Now, if
represents the mass of the
condensate per unit mass of the mixture, we have by moisture and energy balance
or
[ m
+ m
+ m
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Page 131
and
m h + m h
or
[ m
h + m
Thermodynamics
m h
h
+ m
Where h is the enthalpy of the condensate at temperature t of the mixture. The two variables
to be solved are t and . By assuming different values of t and substituting for , h and h ,
the two equations can be solved by trial and error to obtain he final state after mixing.
Sensible Heat Process-Heating or Cooling:
t
m h
h
+
.005 + .
where C is the humid specific heat. This heat, denoted by the subscript S, is called the sensible
heat. If a building to be air conditioned r receives or loses heat due to transmission or other
reasons, it is supposed to have sensible heat load.
m denotes the mass flow rate of dry air. Generally the flow rate of dry air is measured in
terms of cubic meters of air per minute (cmm). Then the mass flow rate of dry air can be
calculated from
m
where
is the volume flow rate of air. Expressing this in cmm, we have
m
cmm
0 kg . a. s
For the purpose of calculation stan ar air is taken at 0 an 50 percent R . he ensity
of standard air is approximated to 1.2 kg/m d.a. The value of humid specific heat is taken as
1.0216 kJ/ (kg d.a.) K. we obtain
[ cmm .
.0
0] t 0.0 0 cmm t k
When the state of air is altered along the t = constant line, such as BC moisture in the form of
vapour has to be transferred to change the humidity ratio of the air.
This transfer of moisture is given by
)
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Page 132
Thermodynamics
Because of this change in the humidity ratio, there is also a Change in enthalpy of the air
given by (h
h ). In air-conditioning practice this change in enthalpy due to the change in
the Humidity ratio is considered to cause a latent-heat transfer
Given by
m h
h
500
If the building gains or loses moisture, it is supposed to have a latent-heat load. A gain of
moisture will require the condensation of moisture for the dehumidification of air in the
conditioning apparatus, and hence a cooling load. On the other hand, a loss of moisture will
necessitate the evaporation of water for the humidification of air in the apparatus and hence
a heating load.
[ cmm .
50
0]
50
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Page 133
Thermodynamics
Sensible Heat Factor (SHF): The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the total heat transfer is
termed as the sensible heat factor. Thus SHF
+
SHF
[ h
h
[0.0 0
h
h + h
h ]
h
h h
0.0 0 + 50 ]
0.0 0 0.0
The process line AC is called the sensible heat factor line or process or condition line.
A zero SHF line is vertical on the psychrometric chart and implies no sensible heat transfer. An
SHF of 0.75 to 0.8 is quite common in air conditioning practice in a normal dry climate. A lower
value of SHF, such as 0.65, implies a high latent head load, which is quite common
+
here tan
+ tan
F 1]
F line AC on the sychrometric chart which is purely a
(1 SHF)
C
SHF
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Page 134
Thermodynamics
Entry
Exit
Throat
Fig. Convergent divergent nozzle.
The cross section of a nozzle at first tapers to a smaller section (to allow for changes which
occur due to changes in velocity, specific volume and dryness fraction as the steam expands); the
smallest section being known as throat, and then it diverges to a large diameter. The nozzle
which converges to throat and diverges afterwards is known as convergent divergent nozzle.
In convergent nozzle there is no divergence after the throat.
In a convergent divergent nozzle, because of the higher expansion ratio, addition of divergent
portion produces steam at higher velocities as compared to a convergent nozzle.
Velocity of steam at the exit of nozzle, C = 44.2 h
where h = heat drop during expansion of steam.
Discharge through the Nozzle and Conditions for its Maximum Value:
Let p = initial pressure of steam
v = initial volume of 1 kg of steam at pressure p
p
steam pressure at the throat
v = volume of 1 kg of steam at pressure p m
A = cross sectional area of nozzle at throat (m
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Page 135
Thermodynamics
An ( ) (
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Page 136
Thermodynamics
Impulse Turbines
Velocity Diagram for Moving Blade
Thermodynamics
As the blades move with tangential velocity of (C ), the entering steam jet has a relative
velocity C
with respect to la e which makes an angle with the wheel tangent. he
steam then glides over the blade without any shock and discharges at a relative velocity of C
at an angle with the tangent of the blades. The relative velocity at the inlet (C ) is the
same as the relative velocity at the C if there is no frictional loss at the blade. The absolute
velocity C of leaving steam makes an angle to the tangent at the wheel.
To have convenience in solving the problems on turbines it is a common practice to combine
the two vector velocity diagrams on a common base which represents the blade velocity
C as shown in Fig. This diagram has been obtained by superimposing the inlet velocity
diagram on the outlet diagram in order that the blade velocity lines C coincide.
S
Fig. 6.3
Important Formulae:
(
3. The axial thrust on the wheel due to difference between the velocities of flow at entrance
and outlet :
Axial force on the wheel = m (C
C )
4. Energy converted to heat by blade friction
= loss of kinetic energy during flow over blades
= m (
)
5. Optimum value of ratio of blade speed to steam is,
6. The blade efficiency for two stage turbine will be maximum when,
In general optimum blade speed ratio for maximum blade efficiency or maximum work
done is given by
and the work done in the last row = of total work
where n is the number of moving rotating blade rows in series.
In practice more than two rows are hardly preferred.
7. The degree of reaction of reaction turbine stage is defined as the ratio of heat drop over
moving blades to the total heat drop in the stage.
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Page 138
Thermodynamics
cos
and hence
9. The state point may be defined as that point on h s diagram which represents the
condition of steam at that instant.
10. Theoretical efficiency of reheat cycle is given by
, neglecting pump work.
4.6.3 Rankine Cycle
Basis for steam turbine power plant
Working substance is steam.
B- boiler
ST Steam Turbine
SC Steam Condenser
P Pump
HPL High Pressure Liquid
LPL Low Pressure Liquid
HPV- High Pressure Vapour
LPV Low Pressure Vapour
HPV
(1)
ST
B
LPV
(2)
(4)
HPL
(3)
LPL
(1)
(4)
(1)
(4)
P
P
T
(2)
(3)
(2)
(3)
V
S
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Page 139
Thermodynamics
boiler pressure
- Con enser pressure
Rankine cycle contains
2 isentropic processes(expansion & pumping )
2 isobaric processes (boiling & condensation)
1-2 isentropic expansion in steam turbine work developed per kg of steam,
h
h
3 isobaric condensation. Heat rejected by the steam, q
h
h
3 4 isentropic pumping
Work supplied per kg of steam,
h
h
Isobaric heat adition
Heat supplied per kg of steam in the boiler
q =h
h
Net work done = q
q
=
00
In general
Work ratio,
0.95<
0.9
Specific steam consumption (KJ/KWh): The amount of steam consumed by the steam power
plant per unit power output
SSC =
Where m
mass flow rate of steam, kg/h
P = net power output k
SSC =
SSC =
-
Effects of Reheating
1. Net work output increases
2. Efficiency of the plant increases
3. Life of steam turbine blades increases
Purpose of regeneration: To increase the efficiency of the plant by increasing the mean
temperature of heat addition.
Regeneration: some amount of steam is extracted from the turbine and is used to increase
the temperature of fee water. his process is calle lee ing.
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Page 140
Thermodynamics
M kg/s
ST
Boiler
m kg/s
M kg/s
(M m) kg/s
Condenser
Regenerator
M-m
M kg/s
(1)
M
(7)
T
(6)
(5)
(2)
(4) (M m) (3)
S
M = total mass flow rate of steam
= mass flow rate of bled steam
Effects of Regeneration:
-
Efficiency increases
Work output decreases
LPT
Reheated steam
Condenser
Pump
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Page 141
Thermodynamics
Purpose of reheating: To avoid blade erosion by increasing the dryness fraction of the steam
at the end of expansion process in steam turbine.
To avoid blade erosion , dryness fraction should be greater than or equal to 0.88
x
0.
Reheating involves partial expansion of steam in HPT and then extract this steam for
reheating in to the boiler, feed the reheated steam to LPT for further expansion (refer Fig. )
(1)
(3)
T
(2)
(6)
(5)
(4)
s
a
2
ST
Condenser
Steam Turbine
Pump
Cascade Heat exchanger
(
Pump
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Page 142
Thermodynamics
4
T
Steam
c
S
4.6.4 Brayton (or) Joule Cycle:
2
P
1
V
-
Basic cycle for gas turbine plant and jet propulsion systems.
Cycle contains 2 isentropic and 2 constant pressure processes.
Pressure ratio (r =
Compression ratio (r) =
KJ/Kg
(r )
work input to the compressor
2-3 constant pressure heat addition
q
KJ/Kg
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Page 143
Thermodynamics
KJ Kg
KJ/Kg
q
Work ratio
0.55
0.9
r
r
r
+
+
r
C [
----------
----------
] KJ Kg
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Page 144
Thermodynamics
Source
HP/K+1
= sink temperature
HP/K+1
W = work input
Sink
CO
Sink
CO
Heat Pump
Refrigerator
Carnot COP =
Carnot COP =
Actual COP=
Actual COP=
Relative COP =
Relative COP =
CO
CO
Thermodynamics
Figure shows a simple vapor compression refrigeration cycle on T-s diagram for different
compression processes. The cycle works between temperatures
and
representing the
condenser and evaporator temperatures respectively. The various processes of the cycle A-B-CD (A-B-C-D and A-B-C-D) are as given below:
i) Process B-C B-C or B-C Isentropic compression of the vapor from state B to C. If
vapor state is saturate
B or superheate
B the compression is calle
ry
compression. If initial state is wet B the compression is calle wet compression as
represente y B-C.
ii) Process C-D C-D or C-D): Heat rejection in condenser at constant pressure.
iii) Process D-A: An irreversible adiabatic expansion of vapor through the expansion value.
The pressure and temperature of the liquid are reduced. The process is accompanied by
partial evaporation of some liquid. The process is shown by dotted line.
iv) Process A-B (A-B or A-B
eat a sorption in evaporator at constant pressure. he
final state epen s on the quantity of heat a sor e an same may e wet B ry B or
superheate B .
COP of Vapor Compression Cycle:
CO
Heat extracted at low temperature = Heat transfer during the process A-B = refrigerating effect.
Work of compression
(adiabatic compression).
o CO
+
+
KJ/Kg of refrigerant
kg/min ton
(m / min ton)
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Page 146
Thermodynamics
KJ/Kg
(KW / ton)
(KW/ton)
m ,
ton
(KJ / Kg)
to
Process c-d: Isothermal compression of the working fluid during which heat is rejected at
constant high temperature .
Process d-a: Isentropic expansion of the working fluid. The temperature of the working fluid falls
from to .
Thermodynamics
COP of Refrigerator:
Practically, the reversed Carnot cycle cannot be used for refrigeration purpose as the isentropic
process requires very high speed operation, whereas the isothermal process requires very low
speed operation.
4.7.3
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Page 148
Thermodynamics
Process 1-2 represents the suction of air into the compressor. Process 2-3 represents the
isentropic compression of air by the compressor. Process 3-5 represents the discharge of high
pressure air from the compressor into the heat exchanger. The reduction in volume of air from
v to v is due to the cooling of air in the heat exchanger.
Process 5-6 represents the isentropic expansion of air in the expander. Process 6-2 represents
the absorption of heat from the evaporator at constant pressure.
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Page 149
Thermodynamics
Suction Valve
Intake of suction manifold
S
S
Top dead center T.D.C
S
Piston
Gudgeon of wrist pin
S
Bottom deadScenter BDC
Cylinder head
Exhaust Valve
S
Exhaust
manifold
S
S
Clearance volume, Vc
S
Stroke volume Vs
Cylinder volume V
S
S
Cylinder
Connecting rod
S
Crank Pin
Crank case
CrankSShaft
Crank
S
S
Name of the part
Material used
Cylinder
Cast iron
Cylinder head
Piston
Piston rings
Connecting rods
Steel
Crank shaft
Alloy steel
Bearing
White metal
Cylinder liner
Engines erminology
Piston Swept Volume (Vs): The nominal volume generated by the piston when travelling
from one dead centre to the next one.
Vs = A
Clearance Volume (Vc): The nominal volume of the space on the combustion side of the
piston at top dead centre
Cylinder Volume (V) : The sum of piston swept volume and clearance
volume
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Thermodynamics
V = Vc + Vs
On the basis of the number of stroke engine can be four-stroke engine or can be two stroke
engine.
On the basis of the working cycle it can be spark ignition (otto cycle) engine or it can be
compression ignition engine (diesel cycle).
Valve position
Suction stroke.
Compression stroke
Expansion stroke
Exhaust stroke
BDC
Exhaust
Opens
Intake
Closes
Power
Exhaust
Opens
Intake valve
open
Compressio
n
Intake
opens
Overlap
Intake valve
open
Compressio
n
Intake
Closes
Power
Exhaust
Opens
Intake
Closes
Exhaust
Opens
BDC
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Page 151
Ignition
occurs
T.D.C
Expansion
Compression
Thermodynamics
Exhaust port
closes
Exhaust port
closes
Inlet port
closes
B.D.C
Inlet port
closes
port open
Four-stroke cycle
Two-stroke cycle
Shaft
shaft
flywheel is needed
flywheel is needed.
It contains valves
S.I. Engines
C. I. Engines
ignition temperature
Compression ratio
is between 6 to 10.5
ignition temperature
Compression ratio
is between 14 to 22
Lighter
Heavier
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Page 152
Thermodynamics
=
I. P. = Indicated power
mf = Mass of fuel
QLHV = Lower Heat Calorific Value
. .
b. p. = break power.
Mechanical efficiency (
=
. .
. .
=
=
f. p. = i. p. b. p.
f. p. = friction power
f.p. is usually assumed constant. At part loads b.p. is changed, thus from b.p. & f.p., ip. can be
calculated.
Volumentric efficiency ( ): It is defined as the ratio of the air actually induced at ambient
conditions to the swept volume of engine.
=
Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio: It is defined as ratio of thermal efficiency of the actual
cycle to that of the ideal cycle.
=
Specific fuel consumption (sfc): It is expressed in grams per horsepower-hour or per kWh.
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Page 153
bsfc =
isfc =
. .
. .
Thermodynamics
kg/kWh
kg/kWh
Fuel-Air Ratio: It is relative proportion of the fuel and air in the engine.
. .
for 4s
n = N for 2s
k = No. of cylinders
Equivalent ratio:
=
= 1 chemically correct
< 1 lean mixture
> 1 rich mixture
NOTE:
In line engines : all cylinders are arranged linearly and transmit power to a single crankshaft
Radial engines: air cooled aircraft engines, odd cylinders are employed for balancing, pistons
of all cylinders are coupled to same crankshaft.
The working medium is a perfect gas throughout, i.e., it follows the law pV= mRT.
The working medium has constant specific heats.
The working medium does not undergo any chemical change throughout the cycle.
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Page 154
Thermodynamics
The kinetic and potential energies of the working fluid are neglected.
The operation of the engine is frictionless.
All the process are reversible.
3
T
Constant
3
W.D. in expansion
3-4 = area 3-4-6-5-3
4
1
Constant
1
5
Process
12
23
34
41
Remark
Adiabatic and reversible compression
Combustion
Adiabatic and reversible expansion
Exhaust stroke
Thermal efficiency, =
Work done = heat added heat rejected = cv(T3 T2) cv(T4 T1)
=1
=1
Thus the efficiency of otto cycle depends only on compression ratio (r), and the efficiency
increases with increasing compression ratio and . The efficiency at compression ratio 5 is
47.5% and at compression ratio 10 is 60.2%
Monoatamic gas
= 1.67
Air
= 1.4
Exchaust gas
= 1.30
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Page 155
Thermodynamics
Isothermal
P
Reversible
adiabatic
2
=
=
=1
,r=
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Page 156
Thermodynamics
The efficiency of the diesel cycle is different from that of the Otto cycle only by the bracketed
term, which is always greater that unity.
Mean Effective Pressure (mep)
mep =
=
The efficiency decreases as cut off ratio increases. If cut off ratio is greater than 10% of stroke,
smoking occurs in an actual engine because there is no sufficient time for the combustion
process to be completed before the exhaust valve opens.
The dual combustion or mixed or limited pressure cycle
The name dual combustion is derived from the fact that it incorporates the features of both
otto and diesel cycles.
High speed diesel engine is based on this.
3
v = constant (otto )
4
v = constant
2
P
2
P = constant (Diesel)
5
1
=
=
=1
=
*
,
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Page 157
Thermodynamics
mep
[
For same compression ratio and same heat input: The heat rejected in the Otto cycle is less
than that in the diesel cycle and dual combustion cycle thus the efficiency of the Otto cycle
is more than the diesel and the dual combustion cycle for same compression ratio and same
heat input.
otto
dual
diesel
T
3
2
4
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Page 158
Constant pressure
Thermodynamics
4
2
1
Constant volume
6
S
For same maximum pressure and temperature
>
>
T
Constant
pressure
4
2
Constant
volume
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Theory of Machines
Kinematic Pair: Two links or elements connected with a joint that allows the relative motion
between the links.
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Theory of Machines
Form Closure: The two links are held together by the shape of the links and they cannot
be detached easily.
Force Closure: The contact is maintained by an external force either the gravity force or
spring force and the two bodies can be separated easily.
Kinematic chain:
A kinematic chain is formed by connecting number of links with kinematic pairs so that there
exists definite relation between the motion of various links. They can be of two types closed
kinematic chains and open kinematic chains.
A mechanism is obtained by fixing any one link in a kinematic chain.
Degrees of Freedom of a Kinematic chain: A kinematic chain is formed by connecting number of
links with number of pairs. Let n be the no. of links and is the number of pairs of class n. Then
as for grublers criterion the DOF of a spatial kinematic chain is given by
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Theory of Machines
Degrees of Freedom of a Mechanism: As one link is fixed in a kinematic chain to get a mechanism.
Grublers equation for the DOF of a mechanism is as follows for spatial mechanism
(
Note: A mechanism has six (three) degrees of freedom less compared to that of the kinematic
chain from which it is obtained.
Classification based on degrees of freedom:
Zero degrees of freedom: Structure
Negative degrees of freedom: Super structure/ Preloaded structure
Positive degrees of Freedom: Mechanism
Four bar chain/quadric cycle chain: It is the basic chain that consists of four links and four
turning pairs. It is the basic chain from which many one DOF mechanism can be derived. The
necessary condition to form a four bar chain based on their length is l s p q.
When l is the length of the longest link, s is that of the shortest link and p, q are the lengths of the
remaining two links. Though a chain is formed by satisfying the above condition it may not
result in useful mechanism, if one barely satisfy the condition.
Grashoffs Condition: Grashoffs condition checks the link proportions and classifies the chains
mechanism
If l
If l
If l
s
s
s
p
p
p
q
q
q
Grashoffs or Class I
Non grashoffs or Class-II
Special Grashoffs or Class-III
Inversion: By fixing one link in a kinematic chain a mechanism is obtained. By fixing different
links, different mechanisms are obtained. Inversion is the process of obtaining different
mechanism by fixing different links in a kinematic chain.
B
Theory of Machines
A four bar mechanism is as shown in figure; AD, the link 1 is known as the fixed link. AB, the link
2 acts as input link. The link 3 BC is the coupler and the link 4 CD is the output link. The input
and output links can be interchanged. If the input/output link can have complete rotation about
its centre it is known as crank. If it has only a partial revolution it is known as a rocker or an
oscillatory link. Based on this the mechanisms can be classified as C-C, C-R, R-C, R- R
mechanisms.
Inversions of Grashoffs 4-bar chain (l s p q): The mechanisms obtained from the
Grashoffs kinematic chain are based on the positions of the shortest link
Mechanical advantage =
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Theory of Machines
ODC
IDC
Fig. 5.1.2.1
Figure shows a slider crank mechanism in which the crank OA rotates in the clockwise direction.
r are the lengths of the connecting rod & the crank respectively.
Let x
Velocity of Piston:
V
r *sin
Acceleration of Piston:
a r *cos
+
If n is very very large
a r cos as in case of SHM
When
i.e. at IDC, a r *
i.e. at ODC, a
t
a
+
*
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Page 164
Theory of Machines
The ve sign indicates that the sense of angular acceleration of the rod is such that it tends to
reduce the angle . Thus, in the given case, the angular acceleration of the connecting rod is
clockwise.
Engine Force Analysis:
An engine is acted upon by various forces such as weight of reciprocating masses and connecting
rod, gas forces, forces due to friction & inertia forces due to acceleration & retardation of engine
elements, the least being dynamic in nature. The effect of the weight & the inertia effect of the
connecting rod is neglected.
A
( + )
Fig. 5.1.2.2
Let
p
p
m
Theory of Machines
3. Crank Effort:
Force is exerted on the crankpin as a result of the force on the piston. Crank effort is the net
effort (force) applied at the crank pin perpendicular to the crank which gives the required
turning moment on the crank shaft.
Let = crank effort
As t r
r sin(
)
sin(
)
sin(
)
4. Thrust on the Bearing
The component of along the crank (in the radial direction) produces a thrust on the crank
shaft bearings.
)
cos(
cos(
)
Turning moment on crank shaft
*sin
+
AB
B
b
C
a, d
DC
A
c
BC
Fig. 5.1.3.1
Construction procedure for velocity polygon: A and D are fixed points having zero velocity mark,
a, d at a convenient location and they act as reference for the velocity polygon. Velocity of B
relative to A will be l
perpendicular to AB in the direction of
so draw ab to with a
length l
. Velocity of C relative to will be to C but sense is not known hence draw a line
to C passing through b. Velocity of C relative to D will be lr to DC sense is not known. So draw
a line lr to DC through d. hese two lines will intersect at C that completes the velocity polygon.
In the velocity diagram the vector bc indicates the velocity of C relative to B and
. Similarly dc = l from which
can be obtained.
l = bc gives
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Theory of Machines
Capital letters deals with the configuration diagram is AB, CD are respective link positions, lower
case letters indicate the points on the velocity diagram
Cases:
1. When the link AB and BC are parallel to each other
Velocity of polygon will be a straight line
Velocity of B is equal to the velocity of C.
l
=l
and
=0
If both AB and DC are on the same side of AB both have the angular velocity in the same
sense. If they are on opposite side i.e. BC crosses AD; AB and DC will have velocities in the
opposite sense
2. When AB and DC are parallel
i.e. they are in the same line,
3. When BC and CD are parallel
i.e. they are in same line,
and
and
l =
l =
l .
Instantaneous Centre: The instantaneous centre, for a plane body moving in a two dimensional
plane is a point in its plane around which all other points on the body are rotating at the instant.
This point itself is the only point that is not moving at that instant.
The number of instantaneous centers in a mechanism depends upon number of links. If N is the
number of instantaneous centers and n is the number of links.
N=
nn 1
2
There are three types of instantaneous centers namely fixed, permanent and neither fixed nor
permanent.
For Four bar mechanism, n = 4, N =
nn 1 44 1
6
=
2
2
I13
I34
3
I23
4
2
I24
I12
I14
Fig. 5.1.3.2
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Theory of Machines
P
2
P1
B1
B2
B on link 3
3
A on link 2
A1
2
Fig. 5.1.3.3
Assume link 2 having constant angular velocity 2, in its motions from OP to OP1 in a small
interval of time t. During this time slider 3 moves outwards from position B to B2. Assume this
motion also to have constant velocity VB/A. Consider the motion of slider from B to B2 in 3 stages.
1. B to A1 due to rotation of link 2.
2. A1 to B1 due to outward velocity of slider VB/A.
3. B1 to B2 due to acceleration r to link 2 this component in the coriolis component of
acceleration.
We have Arc B1B2 = Arc QB2 Arc QB1
= Arc QB2 Arc AA1
Arc B1B2
= OQ d - AO d
= A1B1 d
= VB/A 2(dt)2
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Theory of Machines
The tangential component of velocity is r to the link and is given by Vt = r. In this case has
been assumed constant and the slider is moving on the link with constant velocity. Therefore,
tangential velocity of any point B on the slider 3 will result in uniform increase in tangential
velocity. The equation Vt = r remain same but r increases uniformly i.e. there is a constant
acceleration r to rod.
Displacement B1B2 = at2
= f (dt)2
f (dt)2 = VB/A 2 (dt)2
fcrB/A = 22 VB/A Coriolis acceleration
The direction of coriolis component is the direction of relative velocity vector for the two
coincident points rotated at 90o in the direction of angular velocity of rotation of the link.
Figure 5.1.3.4 shows the direction of coriolis acceleration in different situation.
fcr
2
2
fcr
(a) Rotation CW slider moving up
fcr
(c) Rotation CCW slider moving up
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Theory of Machines
Gear Terminology:
Addendum: The radial distance between the Pitch Circle and the top of the teeth.
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Theory of Machines
Arc of Action: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the beginning and the end of the engagement of a
given pair of teeth.
Arc of Approach: Is the arc of the Pitch Circle between the first point of contact of the gear teeth and
the Pitch Point.
Arc of Recession: That arc of the Pitch Circle between the Pitch Point and the last point of contact of
the gear teeth.
Backlash: Play between mating teeth.
Base Circle: The base circle of an involute gear is the circle from which involute teeth profiles are
derived.
Center Distance: The distance between centers of two gears.
Chordal Addendum: The distance between a chord, passing through the points where the Pitch
Circle crosses the tooth profile, and the tooth top.
Chordal Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along a chord passing through the points
where the Pitch Circle crosses the tooth profile.
Circular Pitch: Millimeter of Pitch Circle circumference per tooth. Pc =
Circular Thickness: The thickness of the tooth measured along an arc following the Pitch Circle
Clearance: The distance between the top of a tooth and the bottom of the space into which it fits on
the meshing gear.
Contact Ratio: The ratio of the length of the Arc of Action to the Circular Pitch.
Dedendum: The radial distance between the bottom of the tooth to pitch circle.
Diametral Pitch: Teeth per mm of diameter. DP = T/D
Face: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the top of the
tooth.
Face Width: The width of the tooth measured parallel to the gear axis.
Flank: The working surface of a gear tooth, located between the pitch diameter and the bottom of
the teeth
Gear: The larger of two meshed gears. If both gears are of the same size, they are both called "gears".
Land: The top surface of the tooth.
Line of Action: That line along which the point of contact between gear teeth travels, between the
first point of contact and the last.
Module: Millimeter of Pitch Diameter to Teeth. m
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Theory of Machines
R A 2 R 2 cos2 R sin
Path of recess:
ra 2 r 2 cos2 r sin
cos
Length of path of contact
Length of arc contact
cos
Contact Ratio (or Number of Pairs of Teeth in Contact): The contact ratio or the number of pairs of
teeth in contact is defined as the ratio of the length of the arc of contact to the circular pitch.
Length of arc of approach
Page 172
Mathematically,
PC Circular pitch m
Where:
and
Theory of Machines
m = Module.
v
v
GEAR 'A'
GEAR 'B'
(Idler gear)
GEAR 'C'
The velocity v of any point on the circle must be the same for all the gears, otherwise they would be
DC
DA
DB
slipping.
v A
A DA B DB C DC
A m t A B m t B C m tC
A t A B t B C tC
or in terms of rev / min
N A t A N B t B N C tC
If A is the driving wheel and C is driven wheel, then
Velocity Ratio =
Train Value: It is reciprocal of velocity ratio.
In an ideal gear box, the input and output powers are the same so;
2 N1 T1 2 N 2 T2
60
60
T2 N1
N1 T1 N 2 T2
GR
T1 N 2
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Theory of Machines
It follows that if the speed is reduced, the torque is increased and vice versa. In a real gear box,
power is lost through friction and the power output is smaller than the power input. The
efficiency is defined as:
Power out 2 N 2 T2 60 N 2 T2
Power In
2 N1 T1 60
N1 T1
Because the torque in and out is different, a gear box has to be clamped in order to stop the case
or body rotating. A holding torque T3 must be applied to the body through the clamps.
The total torque must add up to zero.
T1 + T2 + T3 = 0
If we use a convention that anti-clockwise is positive and clockwise is negative we can determine
the holding torque. The direction of rotation of the output shaft depends on the design of the
gear box.
Compound Gear Trains: Compound gears are simply a
chain of simple gear trains with the input of the second
being the output of the first.
B C
A tB tD
GR
D t A tC
Since 2 N
ND
t A tC
tA + tB = tC + tD
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Epicyclic Gear Train: Epicyclic means one gear revolving upon and around another. The design
involves planet and sun gears as one orbits the other like a planet around the sun.
The diagram shows a gear B on the end of an arm. Gear B meshes with gear C and revolves
around it when the arm is rotated. B is called the planet gear and C the sun.
Suppose gear C is fixed and the arm A makes one revolution. Determine how many revolutions
the planet gear B makes.
Step
Action
tC
tB
-1
tC
tB
Add
tC
t B
tC
.
tB
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Theory of Machines
Torque
crank angle,
FIG. 5.3.1.1
where
is the
Theory of Machines
again maximum at d & minimum at a. Thus, there are two maximum & two minimum speeds for
the turning-moment diagram.
The difference between the greatest & the least speeds of the engine over one revolution is
known as the fluctuation of speed
Turning Moment Diagram for Single-cylinder Four stroke Engine:
Turning moment
p
0
SUCTION
EXHAUST
EXPANSION
COMPRESSION
Fig.5. 3.1.2
In case of a four-stroke IC engine, the diagram repeats itself after every two revolutions instead
of one revolution as for a steam engine. It can be seen from the diagram (Fig. 5.3.1.2) that for the
majority of the suction stroke, turning moment is ve but becomes ve after point p. During the
compression stroke, it is totally ve. It is ve throughout the expansion stroke & again ve for
most of the exhaust stroke.
Turning Moment Diagram for Multi-cylinder Engine:
Mean
Torque
Torque
1st
2nd
3rd
Fig. 3.1.3
As observed in the foregoing paragraphs, the turning-moment diagram for a single cylinder
engine varies considerably & a greater variation of the same is observed in case of four stroke,
single-cylinder engine. For engines with more than one cylinder, the total crank shaft torque at
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any instant is given by the sum of the torques developed by each cylinder at the instant. For
example, if an engine has two cylinders with cranks at 90, the resultant turning moment
diagram has a less variation than that for a single cylinder. In a three-cylinder engine having its
cranks at 120, the variation is still less.
Fig. 5.3.1.3 shows the turning moment diagrams for a multi-cylinder engine. The mean torque
line ab intersects the turning moment curve at a, b, c, d & e. The area under the wavy curve is
equal to the area
. As discussed earlier, the speed of the engine will be maximum when the
crank positions correspond to b, d & minimum corresponding to a, c, e.
Fluctuation of Energy:
Let ,
be the areas in work units of the portions above the mean torque ae of the turning
moment diagram (Fig. 5.3.1.3) these areas represent quantities of energies added to the
flywheel. Parallely areas ,
below ae represents quantities of energies taken from the
flywheel.
The energies of the flywheel corresponding to positions of the crank are as follows.
Crank position
a
b
Flywheel energy
E
E+
E+
d
e
E+
E+
The greatest of these energies is the maximum kinetic energy of the flywheel & for the
corresponding crank position, the speed is maximum.
The least of these energies is the least kinetic Energy of the fly wheel & for the corresponding
crank position, the speed is minimum.
The difference between the maximum & minimum kinetic energies of the fly wheel is known as
the maximum fluctuation of energy.
Whereas the ratio of this maximum fluctuation of energy to the work done per cycle is defined as
the co-efficient of fluctuation of energy.
The difference between the greatest speed & the least speed is known as the maximum
fluctuation of speed & the ratio of the maximum fluctuation of speed to the mean speed is the coefficient of fluctuation of speed.
5.3.2 Size of Flywheel
There are two types of flywheels: disc type & arm type. In the arm type of flywheel, the weight of
the flywheel is mainly located in the rim & the arms & boss do not contribute much in storing the
energy.
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The whole weight of the flywheel is assumed to be concentrated in the rim of the flywheel,
therefore it is usual practice to neglect the weight of the arms and the boss in the design of the
flywheel.
I = moment of Inertia of the Flywheel
maximum speed =
minimum speed =
mean speed =
Kinetic energy of the Flywheel at mean speed
Maximum fluctuation Energy
Co-efficient of fluctuation of speed
(
). (radius of gyration)
,
where,
If b & d be the respective width and diameter of the flywheel & t its thickness, then
.
Co-efficient of Fluctuation of energy (
):
where,
mean torque
mean speed =
&
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Theory of Machines
= kx.
If at some time t the mass is displaced an amount x(t) in the positive direction as shown.
Then there will be a force on the mass from the spring of kx(t).
hus from Newtons second law of motion using a free body diagram,
m + kx(t) = 0
. . .5.4.1.1
Equilibrium
position
x(t)
Equation (5.4.1.1) is called the equation of motion. The equation is unchanged if gravity effects
are included. The solution of the equation of motion gives,
x(t) = x(0) cos
( )
where x(0) is the initial displacement from the equilibrium position; (0) is the initial velocity.
The frequency n is called the undamped natural frequency and is given by
Thus for an initial displacement but with no initial velocity the motion is sinusoidal with an
amplitude x(0) and frequency n,
x(t) = x(0) cos
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The undamped natural frequency does not depend on the initial conditions or the amplitude of
motion. It only depends on the mass and stiffness.
5.4.2 Damped Vibrations
Real vibration systems have a source of energy dissipation and it is convenient to represent this
by a massless viscous damper as shown. This produces a drag force opposing the motion which
depends on the velocity of the mass.
Thus the damping coefficient c, of the damper, results in an additional force
( ) on the mass.
hus from Newtons second law of motion using a free body diagram, the equation of motion is,
m +
Equilibrium
position
( ) + kx(t) = 0
. . . 5.4.2.1
x(t)
( )
( )=0
. . . 5.4.2.2
is the undamped natural frequency as before and the viscous damping ratio is defined
The solution of equation (5.4.2.2) has different forms depending on the value of .
If the initial conditions are x(0) and (0) then for
x(t) =
[ ( )
x(t) =
[ ( )
x(t) =
[ ( )
[ ( )
( )]
[ ( )
( )] ]
[ ( )
( )]
Logarithmic decrement: or damping ratio < 1.0 then vibration will occur and the motion is
defined by
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[ ( )
x(t) =
[ ( )
( )]
Theory of Machines
x(t
It can be shown that, if the amplitudes on any two successive peaks are measured, the ratio of
these amplitudes is constant. For any value of m, the log decrement will be
ln[x(
)] = 2
or small values of ,
5.4.3 Forced vibration
A forced vibration is usually defined as being one that is kept going by an external excitation. We
now come to look at the vibration of a one degree of freedom system when there is an externally
applied force. The system will respond to the force. The response will depend on the particular
forcing function. We will look at a forcing function that illustrate most of the main effects
resulting from external forces.
It is a sinusoidally varying force that has a particular frequency which is popularly known as
harmonic excitation.
F sin t
x(t)
( )
( )
. . . 5.4.3.1
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The mathematical solution of the equation of motion may be achieved in various ways. It will be
found that after an initial transient (depending on initial conditions and start up effects from
applying the sinusoidally varying force) the motion becomes a steady sinusoidal displacement.
This situation is known as the steady state.
The steady state solution for x(t) can be shown to be
x(t)
Where x = [(
X sin ( t
)
. . .5. 4.3.2
and tan = (
) ]
X is the displacement amplitude and is the phase angle between displacement and force.
It is common to non-dimensionalize these equations so that
5. 4.3.3
[[
+ ]
+ ]
and tan =
. . . 5.4.3.4
*
Where
and
= 0.1
4
3
2
1
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
M.F 0 as
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Notes:
The response curve has a resonance. The resonance is at a frequency
There is thus no resonance (i.e. no peak in the response) when
t resonance the response peak equals 2 for small . he value of may be determined from
the response curve for small . he phase varies from 0 to 180 degrees, i.e. the displacement
lags the force.
Resonance:
Resonance
5
4
3
= 0.1
2
1
0
0.5
1.5
1.0
2.0
3.0
2.5
Resonant frequency
Resonance occurs, i.e. X/
when
(
2 )
(kX)
. . . 5.4.3.5
The ratio of transmitted force to that of disturbing force is known as Transmissibility ratio (TR).
Mathematically, it is
| |
+ ]
. . . 5.4.3.6
*
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Maximum principle (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankines theory).
Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guests or Trescas theory).
Maximum principle (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory).
Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haighs theory).
Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
Octahedral Shearing Stress theory.
Ductile materials have identifiable yield strength that is often same in compression as in tension
(Syt = Syc = Sy ).
Brittle materials, do not exhibit identifiable yield strength, and are typically classified by
ultimate tensile and compressive strengths, Sut and Suc, respectively (where Suc is given as a
positive quantity)
Maximum principle or Normal Stress Theory (Rankines Theory) for Brittle materials
The elastic failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principle or
normal stress reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple tension test irrespective
of the value of other two principle stresses, i.e., when
Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield point stress and for brittle materials is
ultimate stress, the maximum principle or normal stress ( ) is given by
Where,
Ultimate stress
FOS = Factor of Safety
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Since this theory ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, it is not used for ductile
materials.
However, for brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension or
compression, this theory is generally used.
Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guests or Trescas Theory) for ductile materials.
The elastic failure occurs when the greatest shear stress reaches a value equal to the shear stress
at elastic limit in a simple tension test.
(
or
)-
))-
But in fact with this type of loading (i.e.,) when there is uniform pressure all round (hydrostatic
pressure), no failure occurs.
This theory may be used for ductile materials.
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Shear Strain energy or Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises Theory)
The failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion strain energy (also
called shear strain energy) per unit volume in the stressed material reaches the limiting
distortion energy (i.e. distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined from a
simple tension test. Mathematically, the maximum distortion energy theory for yielding is
expressed as
(
Fig. 6.1.1 The distortion-energy (DE) theory for plane stress states
This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy theory.
Note: The maximum distortion energy is the difference between the total strain energy and the
strain energy due to uniform stress.
Octahedral Shearing Stress Theory
According to this theory, the critical quantity is the shearing stress on the octahedral plane. The
plane which is equally inclined to all the three principle axes is called the octahedral plane.
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,(
Machine Design
) -
Where,
Octahedral shearing stress
Failure is said to occur when
This theory is supported quite well by experimental evidences and is identical to Von Mises
theory.
6.1.2 Theories of failure for two dimensional stresses:
Taking
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If the loading conditions are suitably altered, a brittle material may be made to yield before
failure. Hence, design of a member requires the determination of the mode of failure (yielding
or fracture), and the factor (such as stress, strain and energy) associated with it. Full scale tests
simulating all conditions would be ideal but not practicable.
In practice, in complex loading conditions, the factor associated with failure has to be identified
and precautions taken to ensure that this factor does not exceed maximum allowable value
determined on the basis of suitable tests (uniform tension or torsion) on the material in the
laboratory.
Results of many laboratory tests on ductile material shows shear stress from torsion tests varies
between 0.55 and 0.6 of the yield strength determined from tension tests. This result agrees
with shear strain energy theory and octahedral shear stress theory. The maximum shear stress
theory predicts that the shear yield value is 0.5 times the tensile yield value, which is about 15%
less than the value predicted by the other two theories.
The maximum shear stress theory gives design values on the safe side and is widely used in
design with ductile materials.
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Fig. 6.2.1
In the above member with different cross-section under a tensile load, the nominal stress in the
right and left hand sides will be uniform but in the region where the cross-section is changing, a
re-distribution of the force within the member must take place. The maximum stress occurs at
some point on the fillet and is directed parallel to the boundary at that point.
Theoretical or Form Stress Concentration Factor:
The theoretical or form stress concentration factor is defined as the ratio of the maximum stress
to the nominal stress at the same section based upon net area.
Maximum stress
Nominal stress
The value of Kt depends upon the material and geometry of the part.
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When a/b is large (a), the ellipse approaches a crack transverse to the load and the value of Kt
becomes very large. When a/b is small (b), the ellipse approaches a longitudinal slit and the
increase in stress is small. When the hole is circular (c), then a/b = 1 and the maximum stress is
three times the nominal value.
Machine Design
The stress concentration effects of a press fit may be reduced by making more gradual
transition from the rigid to the more flexible shaft
The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the same nature,
(i.e. tensile or compressive) are called fluctuating stresses.
Fig. 6.2.4
The stresses which vary from zero to a certain maximum value are called repeated
stresses.
Fig. 6.2.5
The stresses which vary from a minimum value to a maximum value of the opposite
nature (i.e. from a certain minimum compressive to a certain maximum tensile or from a
minimum tensile to a maximum compressive) are called alternating stresses.
Fig. 6.2.6
The variable stress, in general, may be considered as a combination of steady (or mean or
average) stress and a completely reversed stress component.
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Note: For repeated loading, the stress varies from maximum to zero (i.e.
= 0) in each cycle.
3. Stress ratio,
Where,
Endurance limit for any stress range represented by R.
Endurance limit for completely reversed stresses, and
Stress ratio.
6.2.3 Fatigue
When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point
stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as fatigue.
The fatigue of material is effected by the size of the component, relative magnitude of static and
fluctuating loads and the number of load reversals.
Fatigue failure is due to crack formation and propagation. A fatigue crack will typically initiate at
a discontinuity in the material where the cyclic stress is a maximum.
Discontinuities can arise because of:
Design of rapid changes in cross section, keyways, holes, etc. where stress
concentrations occur
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Elements that roll and/or slide against each other (bearings, gears, cams, etc.) under
high contact pressure, developing concentrated subsurface contact stresses that can
cause surface pitting or spalling after many cycles of the load.
Carelessness in locations of stamp marks, tool marks, scratches, and burrs; poor joint
design; improper assembly; and other fabrication faults.
Composition of the material itself as processed by rolling, forging, casting, extrusion,
drawing, heat treatment, etc. Microscopic and submicroscopic surface and subsurface
discontinuities arise, such as inclusions of foreign material, alloy segregation, voids, hard
precipitated particles, and crystal discontinuities.
Fatigue-Life Methods
Stress-life method
Strain-life method
Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
These methods attempt to predict the life in number of cycles to failure, N, for a specific level of
loading.
N 103
- low-cycle fatigue
N > 103
- high-cycle fatigue
Stress-life method:
Strain-life method:
More detailed analysis of the plastic deformation at localized regions where the stresses
and strains are considered for life estimate
Good Method for low-cycle fatigue applications
In applying this method, several idealizations must be compounded, and so some
uncertainties will exist in the results.
Fracture mechanics method:
Assumes a crack is already present and detected. It is then employed to predict crack
growth with respect to stress intensity.
Most practical when applied to large structures in conjunction with computer codes and
a periodic inspection program.
Fatigue Strength and the Endurance Limit:
The strength-life (S-N) diagram provides the fatigue strength Sf versus cycle life N of a material.
The results are generated from tests using a simple loading (R. R.Moore high-speed rotatingTHE GATE ACADEMY PVT.LTD. H.O.: #74, Keshava Krupa (third Floor), 30th Cross, 10th Main, Jayanagar 4th Block, Bangalore-11
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Machine Design
beam machine) of standard laboratory controlled specimens. The loading often is that of
sinusoidally reversing pure bending. The laboratory-controlled specimens are polished without
geometric stress concentration at the region of minimum area.
Fig. 6.2.7 Test-specimen geometry for the R.R. Moore rotating beam machine.
Fig. 6.2.8 S-N diagram for steel, normalized; Sut = 116 kpsi; maximum Sut = 125 kpsi.
Fig. 6.2.9 S-N bands for representative aluminum alloys, excluding wrought alloys with Sut < 38
kpsi
For steel and iron, the S-N diagram becomes horizontal at some point. The strength at this point
is called the endurance limit [maximum value of the completely reversed bending stress which a
polished standard specimen can withstand without failure for infinite number of cycles (usually
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Machine Design
107 cycles)]. Se and occurs somewhere between 106 and 107 cycles. For non-ferrous materials
that do not exhibit an endurance limit, a fatigue strength at a specific number of cycles, Sf , may
be given. The strength data are based on many controlled conditions that will not be the same as
that for an actual machine part. What follows are practices used to account for the differences
between the loading and physical conditions of the specimen and the actual machine part.
The term endurance limit is used for reversed bending only while for other types of loading, the
term endurance strength may be used when referring the fatigue strength of the material. It may
be defined as the safe maximum stress which can be applied to the machine part working under
actual conditions.
Endurance Limit Modifying Factors:
Modifying factors are defined and used to account for differences between the specimen and the
actual machine part with regard to surface conditions, size, loading, temperature, reliability, and
miscellaneous factors.
Factor of Safety for Fatigue Loading:
When a component is subjected to fatigue loading, the endurance limit is the criterion for failure.
Therefore, the factor of safety should be based on endurance limit. Mathematically,
Factor of safety (FOS)
For Steel,
.
Where,
= Endurance limit stress for completely reversed stress cycle, and
= Yield point stress.
Factors to be Considered while Designing Machine Parts to Avoid Fatigue Failure:
Machine Design
Soderberg Line
Stress Amplitude
Gerber Line
Goodman Line
Modified Goodman Line
Mean Stress
is plotted
Soderberg Line
If the point of the combined stress is below the Soderberg line then the component will not fail.
This is a very conservative criteria based on the material yield point S
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Soderberg Criteria
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Gerber Line
If the point of the combined stress is below the Gerber line then the component will not fail. This
is a less conservative criteria based on the material Ultimate strength S
To establish the factor of safety relative to the Gerber Criteria
(
S
S
S
N
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Butt (double
strap)
Efficiencies (in %)
Single riveted
50-60
Double riveted
60-72
Triple riveted
72-80
Single riveted
55-60
Double riveted
76-84
Triple riveted
80-88
Few parameters, which are required to specify arrangement of rivets in a riveted joint are as
follows:
a. Pitch: This is the distance between two centers of the consecutive rivets in a single row.
(usual symbol p)
b. Back Pitch: This is the shortest distance between two successive rows in a multiple
riveted joint. (usual symbol p or p )
c. Diagonal pitch: This is the distance between the centers of rivets in adjacent rows of
zigzag riveted joint. (usual symbol d )
d. Margin or marginal pitch: This is the distance between the centre of the rivet hole to the
nearest edge of the plate. (usual symbol m)
These parameters are shown in figure 6.3.1.7.
Machine Design
s (p
d)t
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c) Crushing of rivet: If the bearing stress on the rivet is too large the contact surface between
the rivet and the plate may get damaged. (see Figure 6.3.1.4). With a simple assumption of
uniform contact stress the maximum force allowed is
P
s dt
where s = allowable bearing stress between the rivet and plate material.
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Machine Design
In a double or triple riveted joint the failure mechanisms may be more than those discussed
above. The failure of plate along the outer row may occur in the same way as above. However, in
addition the inner rows may fail. For example, in a double riveted joint, the plate may fail along
the second row. But in order to do that the rivets in the first row must fail either by shear or by
crushing. Thus the maximum allowable load such that the plate does not tear in the second row
is
P
s (p
d)t
min*P P +
d s (valid for t
However, d should not be less than t, in any case. The standard size of d is tabulated in code IS:
1928-1961.
Pitch (p): Pitch is designed by equating the tearing strength of the plate to the shear strength of
the rivets. In a double riveted lap joint, this takes the following form.
s (p
But p
d)t
. d /
Machine Design
Machine Design
3. Design of parallel fillet joint: Consider a parallel fillet weld as shown in figure 6.3.2.3. Each
weld carries a load P . It is easy to see from the strength of material approach that the
maximum shear occurs along the throat area (try to prove it). The allowable load carried by
each of the joint is s
where the throat area
. The total allowable load is
Machine Design
shear stress develops in the weld in a similar way as in parallel fillet joint. Assuming that the
weld thickness is very small compared to the diameter of the shaft, the maximum shear
stress occurs in the throat area. Thus, for a given torque the maximum shear stress in the
weld is
(
= throat thickness
,(d
d -
The throat dimension and hence weld dimension can be selected from the equation
s
Machine Design
Where,
M: Bending moment at the point of interest
d : Outer diameter of the shaft
k: Ratio of inner to outer diameters of the shaft ( k = 0 for a solid shaft because inner
diameter is zero )
Axial Stress
(
Where,
F: Axial force (tensile or compressive)
: Column-action factor(= 1.0 for tensile load)
The term has been introduced in the equation. This is known as column action factor. What is a
column action factor? This arises due the phenomenon of buckling of long slender members
which are acted upon by axial compressive loads.
Here is defined as,
. /
Where,
n = 1.0 for hinged end
n = 2.25 for fixed end
n = 1.6 for ends partly restrained, as in bearing
K = least radius of gyration, L = shaft length
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Machine Design
Where,
T: Torque on the shaft
: Shear stress due to torsion
Combined Bending and Axial stress
Both bending and axial stresses are normal stresses, hence the net normal stress is given by,
0
The net normal stress can be either positive or negative. Normally, shear stress due to torsion is
only considered in a shaft and shear stress due to load on the shaft is neglected.
Maximum shear stress theory
Design of the shaft mostly uses maximum shear stress theory. It states that a machine member
fails when the maximum shear stress at a point exceeds the maximum allowable shear stress for
the shaft material. Therefore,
. /
and
2C
(C T)
Therefore, the shaft diameter can be calculated in terms of external loads and material
properties. However, the above equation is further standarized for steel shafting in terms of
allowable design stress and load factors in ASME design code for shaft.
6.3.4 Design of Bearings
Bearings are machine elements which are used to support a rotating member viz., a shaft. They
transmit the load from a rotating member to a stationary member known as frame or housing.
They permit relative motion of two members in one or two directions with minimum friction,
and also prevent the motion in the direction of the applied load.
The bearings are classified broadly into two categories based on the type of contact they have
between the rotating and the stationary member
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a. Sliding contact
b. Rolling contact
The sliding contact bearings have surface contact and come under lower kinematic pair.
Journal / sleeve bearings:
Among the sliding contact bearings radial bearings find wide applications in industries and
hence these bearings are dealt in more detail here.
The radial bearings are also called journal or sleeve bearings. The portion of the shaft inside the
bearing is called the journal and this portion needs better finish and specific property.
Depending on the extent to which the bearing envelops the journal, these bearings are classified
as full, partial and fitted bearings. As shown in Fig. 6.3.4.1
(a) Full
(b) Partial
(c) Fitted
Machine Design
Hydrodynamic lubrication:
If a lubricant film is enclosed in a wedge or tapered gap between the stationary and moving
members, the oil film is drawn into the wedge shape generating a pressure that can support a
load.
It has been shown experimentally that the coefficient of friction varies as shown in Figure
6.3.4.2. In which a curve of f versus is plotted. It is found that the operation of a bearing to the
left of point B, the lubrication is not stable and is known as boundary lubrication.
A
C
f
B
N/P
Figure 6.3.4.2
However, if we are operating in the region BC, the lubrication is stable and is known as thick film
or hydrodynamic lubrication.
When a journal starts rotating in a bearing as shown in Figure 6.3.4.3, below the lubricant is
forced into a wedge shaped (strictly a curved wedge) space by a pumping type of action and the
pressure built up in the wedge supports the load on the journal.
Bearing
Line of centres
Journal
e
c = radial clearance
Figure 6.3.4.3
As a result of the lubricant pressure, a minimum film thickness h occurs, not at the bottom of
the journal, but displaced in the direction of rotation, as shown in the Figure 6.3.4.3. This is
because the lubricant pressure in converging gap reaches maximum at a point to the left of the
bearing centre.
In a journal bearing, the following nomenclature is used.
c is the radial clearance and is the difference in the radii of the bearing and the journal.
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Machine Design
e is the eccentricity and is the distance between the centers O and O of the journal and
bearing respectively.
h is the minimum film thickness and it occurs on the line of centres. (The film thickness
at any other point is normally designated as h)
is the eccentricity ratio = .also
/.
shown in Figure is the angular length of a partial bearing if it is not a full circle.
A bearing in which the radii of the bearing and the journal are equal, is known as a fitted bearing.
Machine Design
and the other is in relative motion, a frictional force dF is developed between the members. The
magnitude of the frictional force is equal to the co-efficient of friction times the normal force dN
The moment of the frictional force relative to the point of motion contributes to the retardation
of motion and braking. The basic mechanism of braking is illustrated above.
Design and Analysis: To design, select or analyze the performance of these devices knowledge on
the following are required.
There are two major classes of brakes, namely drum brakes and disc brakes. Design and analysis
of drum brakes will be considered in detail in following sections, the discussion that follow on
disc or plate clutches will form the basis for design of disc type of brakes.
Drum brakes basically consists of a rotating body called drum whose motion is braked together
with a shoe mounted on a lever which can swing freely about a fixed hinge H. A lining is attached
to the shoe and contacts the braked body. The actuation force P applied to the shoe gives rise to
a normal contact pressure distributed over the contact area between the lining and the braked
body. A corresponding friction force is developed between the stationary shoe and the rotating
body which manifest as retarding torque about the axis of the braked body.
Brakes Classification: Various geometric configuration of drum brakes are illustrated below:
Figure 6.3.5.1
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Machine Design
Drum Brakes are classified based on the shoe geometry. Shoes are classified as being either
short or long. A short shoe is one whose lining dimension in the direction of motion is so small
that contact pressure variation is negligible, i.e. the pressure is uniform everywhere.
When the area of contact becomes larger, the contact may no longer be with a uniform pressure,
in which case the shoe is termed as long shoe. The shoes are either rigid or pivoted, pivoted
shoes are also some times known as hinged shoes. The shoe is termed rigid because the shoes
with attached linings are rigidly connected to the pivoted posts. In a hinged shoe brake the
shoes are not rigidly fixed by hinged or pivoted to the posts. The hinged shoe is connected to the
actuating post by the hinge, G, which introduces another degree of freedom.
Preliminary Analysis: The figure shows a brake shoe mounted on a lever, hinged at O, having an
actuating force F , applied at the end of the lever. On the application of an actuating force, a
normal force F is created when the shoe contacts the rotating drum. And a frictional force F of
magnitude f. F , f being the coefficient of friction, develops between the shoe and the drum.
Moment of this frictional force about the drum center constitutes the braking torque.
Figure 6.3.5.2
Short Shoe Analysis:
For a short shoe we assume that the pressure is uniformly distributed over the contact area.
Consequently the equivalent normal force F
p. , where = p is the contact pressure and A is
the surface area of the shoe. Consequently the friction force Ff = f.Fn where f is the co-efficient of
friction between the shoe lining material and the drum material.
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Machine Design
F a
F b
fF c
F (b
fc) a
The reaction forces on the hinged pin (pivot) are found from a summation of forces,
i.e.
F
fp
Self energizing:
The principle of self energizing and leading and trailing shoes
With the shown direction of the drum rotation (CCW), the moment of the frictional force f. F c
adds to the moment of the actuating force F . As a consequence, the required actuation force
needed to create a known contact pressure p is much smaller than that if this effect is not
present. This phenomenon of frictional force aiding the brake actuation is referred to as self
energization.
Leading and trailing shoe:
For a given direction of rotation the shoe in which self energization is present is known
as the leading shoe
When the direction of rotation is changed, the moment of frictional force now will be
opposing the actuation force and hence greater magnitude of force is needed to create
the same contact pressure. The shoe on which this is prevailing is known as a trailing
shoe
Self Locking: At certain critical value of f.c. the term (b-fc) becomes zero. i.e no actuation force
need to be applied for braking. This is the condition for self-locking. Self-locking will not occur
unless it is specifically desired.
Machine Design
6.3.6 Clutch
A Clutch is a machine member used to connect the driving shaft to a driven shaft, so that the
driven shaft may be started or stopped at will, without stopping the driving shaft. A clutch thus
provides an interruptible connection between two rotating shafts
To design analyze the performance of these devices, a knowledge on the following are required.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Friction Clutches: As in brakes a wide range of clutches are in use wherein they vary in their are
in use their working principle as well the method of actuation and application of normal forces.
The discussion here will be limited to mechanical type friction clutches or more specifically to
the plate or disc clutches also known as axial clutches.
Frictional Contact axial or Disc Clutches: An axial clutch is one in which the mating frictional
members are moved in a direction parallel to the shaft. A typical clutch is illustrated in the figure
below. It consist of a driving disc connected to the drive shaft and a driven disc connected to the
driven shaft. A friction plate is attached to one of the members. Actuating spring keeps both the
members in contact and power/motion is transmitted from one member to the other. When the
power of motion is to be interrupted the driven disc is moved axially creating a gap between the
members as shown in the figure.
Figure 6.3.6.2
The applied force can keep the members together with a uniform pressure all over its contact
area and the consequent analysis is based on uniform pressure condition. However as the time
progresses some wear takes place between the contacting members and this may alter or vary
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Machine Design
the contact pressure appropriately and uniform pressure condition may no longer prevail.
Hence the analysis here is based on uniform wear condition
Uniform pressure condition: Assuming uniform pressure and considering an elemental area dA
d
.r dr
.r.dr.p
f.
.r.dr.p
dF. r
f. dN. r
f. p. . r
f. p. . . r. dr . r
The total torque that could be transmitted is obtained by integrating this equation between the
limits of inner radius r to the outer radius r
pfr dr
pf(r
r )
Integrating the normal force between the same limits we get the actuating force that need to be
applied to transmit this torque.
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Machine Design
prdr
r ). p
(r
Equation 1 and 2 can be combined together to give equation for the torque
T
r )
r )
(r
(r
fF .
pV
r.
In the previous equations substituting this value for the pressure term p and integrating
between the limits as done earlier we get the equation for the torque transmitted and the
actuating force to be applied.
i.e The axial force F is found by substituting p
and integrating equation dN
prdr
for p.
r
/ rdr
r
prdr
.p
r (r
r)
r rdr
f p
r (r
Machine Design
r )
fF .
(r
r)
Basically, the clutch needs three parts. These are the engine flywheel, a friction disc called the
clutch plate and a pressure plate. When the engine is running and the flywheel is rotating, the
pressure plate also rotates as the pressure plate is attached to the flywheel. The friction disc is
located between the two. When the driver has pushed down the clutch pedal the clutch is
released. This action forces the pressure plate to move away from the friction disc. There are
now air gaps between the flywheel and the friction disc, and between the friction disc and the
pressure plate. No power can be transmitted through the clutch.
Operation of Clutch: When the driver releases the clutch pedal, power can flow through the
clutch. Springs in the clutch force the pressure plate against the friction disc. This action clamps
the friction disc tightly between the flywheel and the pressure plate. Now, the pressure plate and
friction disc rotate with the flywheel.
As both side surfaces of the clutch plate is used for transmitting the torque a term N is added to
include the number of surfaces used for transmitting the torque
By rearranging the terms the equations can be modified and a less general form of the equation
can be written as
T
N. f. F . R
Machine Design
Small fly wheels are solid discs of hollow circular cross section. As the energy requirements and
size of the flywheel increases the geometry changes to disc of central hub and peripheral rim
connected by webs and to hollow wheels with multiple arms.
Figure 6.3.7.1
(r
r )t
(r
r )t
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Machine Design
Stresses in Flywheel
Flywheel being a rotating disc, centrifugal stresses acts upon its distributed mass and attempts
to pull it apart. Its effect is similar to those caused by an internally pressurized cylinder
g
g
(
(
8
8
v
) (r
v
) 4r
v
r )
v
r r
r
r 5
material weight density angular velocity in rad sec. v Poissons ratio is the radius to
a point of interest, r and r are inside and outside radii of the solid disc flywheel.
Figure 6.3.7.3
The point of most interest is the inside radius where the stress is a maximum. What causes
failure in a flywheel is typically the tangential stress at that point from where fracture originated
and upon fracture fragments can explode resulting extremely dangerous consequences, Since
the forces causing the stresses are a function of the rotational speed also, instead of checking for
stresses, the maximum speed at which the stresses reach the critical value can be determined
and safe operating speed can be calculated or specified based on a safety factor. Consequently
F. O. S (N) N
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Fluid Mechanics
(reciprocal of density)
Units: m3/kg
Specific gravity (G):
Specific gravity, G =
For liquids, standard fluid is water at 40C
For gases, standard fluid is hydrogen or air.
Units: No units (ratio)
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Fluid Mechanics
or F
L2T
2. Pump impellers
4. Ship propellers.
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Fluid Mechanics
Liquid drop:
C)
Soap bubble:
Capillarity: The phenomenon of rise or fall of a liquid surface relative to the adjacent general
level of liquid in small diameter tubes. The rise of liquid surface is designated as capillary rise
and lowering is called capillary depression. It happens due to both cohesion and adhesion.
Water
Figure. 7.1.2
Units: cm or mm of liquids
Capillary rise: If the adhesion > cohesion
For e.g., Mercury depressive with convex upwards is capillary rise or fall
. . . (7.1.1)
mercury
Figure. 7.1.3
surface tension
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d = dia. of tube
Fluid Mechanics
For tube dia. > 12mm capillary effects are negligible. Hence the dia. of glass tubes used for
measuring pressure (manometers, piezometer etc.) should be large enough.
7. .3 Newtons aw of Viscosity:
moving plate
U
F
Gap filled
with fluid
d
Stationary plate
Figure. 7.1.4
or
u y
Differential form:
where
( )
Shear stress; du dy
. . . (7.1.2)
Velocity gradient;
Dynamic viscosity
According to Newtons law of viscosity for a given shear stress acting on fluid
which fluid deforms (u / y) is inversely proportional to viscosity
.
, the rate at
Real Fluid:
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Fluid Mechanics
Newtonian Fluids:
Q
Thixotropic
Bingham plastic
D
E
P
Newtonian
G
Dilatant
C Pseudoplastic
B
Ideal fluid
Figure. 7.1.5
du / dy
( )
Where A and B are constants depend upon the type of fluid and conditions imposed on
flow. Based on power index n and constant B Non Newtonian fluids are
i) B = 0 and n > 1
(represented by OE in Figure 7.1.5)
Dilatant Fluids, e.g.: Butter, quick sand
ii) B = 0 and n < 1
(represented by OC in Figure 7.1.5) Pseudoplastic
e.g.: Blood, Paper Pulp, Polymeric solutions such as rubber, suspension paints.
iii)
(represented by PD in the Figure 7.1.5)
Bingham plastic Eg: Sewage sludge drilling mud require minimum shear stress known as
yield stress before they start flowing.
iv) Thixotropic Fluids: Printers ink, lipstick
Time dependent fluid i.e., viscosity depends upon both shear stress and duration of
application.
Viscosity increases or decreases with time.
e.g.: Paints and enamels, when subjected to high shear by the brush during application of
paints, the apparent viscosity is reduced the paint covers the surface smoothly and brush
marks disappears subsequently.
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Fluid Mechanics
1 MPa = 10 bar
piston
P
P
Figure 7.2.1
iv Application of Pascals aw-Hydraulic Press:
Assumption: Pressure variation due to height neglected and friction force is neglected.
A = area of plunger
Wt. W lifted
W = (F/a) A
Where A = Area of piston.
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Fluid Mechanics
Where
The linear variation of pressure with depth below the free surface is known as hydrostatic
pressure distribution.
Suitable for measuring moderate gauge pressures of liquids. Not suitable for high pressures,
suction pressures and pressures of gases.
b) Manometer: Pressure measuring device based on the principle of balancing the column of a
liquid (whose pressure is to be found) by the same or another column of liquid.
i) U Tube Manometer: Consists of a U shaped bend unit whose one end is attached to
the gauge point and other is open to the atmosphere. Can measure both positive as well
as negative pressures. Contains liquid of specific gravity greater than that of the fluid of
which the pressure is to be measured.
ii) Inverted U Tube Manometer: Consists of an inverted U Tube containing a light liquid.
- This is used only to measure the difference of low pressures between two points
where better accuracy is required. It generally consists of an air cock at top.
iii) Differential Manometer: A U Tube manometric liquid heavier than the liquid for which
the pressure difference is to be measured, and is not immiscible with it (generally
mercury).
iv) Micro Manometer: Modified form of a simple manometer whose one limb is made of
large cross sectional area.
- Measurement of very small pr. differences with very high precision is made possible.
c) Mechanical Gauges: Generally used for measuring high pressures where high precision is not
required. Eg. Bourdon pressure gauge measures gauge pressures.
d) Aneroid Barometer: used to measure local atmospheric pressure. (Absolute pressure)
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Fluid Mechanics
b) Vertical Plane
c) Inclined Plane
F
M
F = .A.
MN Plane surface to paper
F = .A.
F = .A.
Figure 7.2.2
Note:
i) Force F always acts normal to the plane surface.
ii) The value of F is independent of the angle of inclination of the plane as long as the depth of
centroid
is unchanged.
iii) Total Force F = Area Pressure at the centroid = .
iv) Pressure Prism Concept:
i) Total force F = volume of pressure prism
= area of pressure diagram X width of plane
ii) Force F acts at the C.G. of the pressure prism.
v) Centre of pressure (C.P): The point of application of resultant force (F).
= M.I. of the section about an axis parallel o X passing through C.G. of the area.
v) C.P is always below the C.G as the depth of immersion is increased, the C.P. approaches the
C.G
Centre of Pressure (CP) on Inclined Plane:
Figure 7.2.3
NOTE:
i) CP always lies below CG.
ii) As the depth of immersion is more, CP comes closer to CG.
iii) From eq. it is evident that the position of CP is independent of i.e. may be varied by
rotating the surface provided h remains unchanged.
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Fluid Mechanics
Total Force = F =
h
= Horizontal component
C
= vertical component
L
F
B
Figure 7.2.5
7.2.3 Buoyancy
The resultant force exerted on a submerged or floating body in a static liquid is called Buoyancy
Force F .
(i) The Buoyancy force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.
ii The Buoyancy force acts through the CG of the displaced volume called Centre of Buoyancy
(C .
CB
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Fluid Mechanics
(iii) A floating body displaces a volume of fluid whose weight is equal to the weight of the body.
Stability of Submerged Bodies:
G = center of gravity
B = center of buoyancy
A slight rotational displacement generates forces which oppose the change of position and tend
G
B
Neutral Equilibrium:
(i)
When CG coincides with CB.
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Fluid Mechanics
Buoyancy Force (F ) is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body and acts
through the CG of the displaced liquid.
(iii) The body is in stable equilibrium if the meta centre lies above its CG. *i.e., BM > BG)
(iv) Meta Centre
c
a
M
W
Figure 7.2.6
X
dA
Y
Figure 7.2.7
Where I = second moment of area of water plane (m4) about an axis passing through centre
of area and perpendicular to the axis of tilted longitudinal axis =
V = volume of liquid displaced by the body (m3).
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Fluid Mechanics
.
k radius of gyration m.
meta centric height in m.
If GM is large the Time Period of roll will reduce i.e., more stable vessel will have less period
of roll.
Period of Rolling (T) is inversely proportional to stability and directly proportional to radius
of gyration (k).
The meta centric height of ocean-going vessel is usually 30 cm to 1.2 m. for war ships it
ranges from 1 m to 1.5 m.
As meta centric height increases less comfort to passenger (because less period of roll) but
more stability.
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Fluid Mechanics
Classification of Flow:
(a) (i) Steady Flow: At any point of the flowing fluid, various characteristics such as velocity,
pressure density temperature etc., do not change with time.
Mathematically, ( ) 0 . . ( ) ( ) 0
( )
0( )
0( )
Eg:
Unsteady
Steady
3 dimensional
Flood flows
V = f (x, y, z, t)
V = f (x, y, z)
2 dimensional
V = f (x, y, t)
V = f (x, y)
1 dimensional
shooting flows
V = f (x, t)
V = f (x)
Flow Pattern:
(a) Stream Line: An imaginary curve drawn through a flowing fluid in such away that the tangent
to it at any point gives the direction of the velocity of flow at that point. Also called as flow
line, since flow is along the stream lines.
Type of Flow
3 dimensional
2 dimensional
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Fluid Mechanics
Y
V
V
0
Figure 7.3.1
( )
.( )
.(
.( )
.(
.( )
.( )
.(
Fluid Mechanics
Unlike velocity vector, the acceleration vector has no specific orientation with respect to
stream line i.e., it need not always be tangential to stream line. Therefore, at any point it may
have acceleration components both tangential and normal.
Tangential Acceleration is developed when the magnitude of velocity changes with respect to
space and time.
Normal Acceleration is developed when a fluid particle moves in a curved path i.e., simply due to
change in direction of velocity of fluid particle, regardless of whether the magnitude of the
velocity is changing (or) not. For steady flow .A. zero O a
V.
Tangential Acceleration,
a
( )
.
Normal Acceleration,
a
( )
Where
r = radius of curvature of stream line
V = tangential component of velocity
V = normal component of velocity
= local tangential acceleration
= local normal acceleration
.
= convective tangential acceleration
.
= convective normal acceleration
For steady flow, a
V.
a
V r
Note: If the stream lines are
(i) Equidistant, Tangential convective acceleration is zero.
(ii) Straight (not curves), Normal convective acceleration is zero.
If the stream lines are straight and parallel to each other, there is no acceleration.
If the stream lines are curved and equidistant there will be only normal convective acceleration.
If the stream lines are curved and converging, then both normal and tangential convective
accelerations.
If stream lines are diverging, instead of acceleration will be corresponding retardation.
7.3.2 Continuity Equation:
Basis: Principle of conservation of mass mass can neither be created nor destroyed
(a) Differential form (in Cartesian co ordinates):
(i) For compressible fluids, (
0,
(ii) For incompressible fluids, ( u/
( ) ( ) 0 vertically the divergence of
velocity vector .V=0
Assumptions:
(1) Flow is steady. (2) Flow is incompressible. (3) Velocity is uniform over a cross section.
(b) In one dimensional analysis (Flow through a stream tube):
For compressible fluids, p A V
p A V.
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Fluid Mechanics
A V.
Also (
y)
Fluid Mechanics
derivative exists)
Any function which is continuous is a possible case of fluid flow.
It is constant along a stream line.
The difference of stream functions for two stream lines is equal to the flow rate between them.
Potential Function (): A scalar function of space and time such that its negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the fluid velocity in that direction.
( ) v
( ) w
( ).
aplace Equation for :
z
0
Any function that satisfies the aplace equation is a possible irrotational flow.
Velocity potential exists only for irrotational flows.
Lines of constant are called equipotential lines and these lines will form orthogonal grids
with constant lines.
Stream Lines, Equipotential Lines and Flow Net:
Stream line is given by constant.
Equipotential line is given by
constant.
Stream lines and equipotential lines intersect each other orthogonally at all points of
intersection. (Reason: The product of slopes of tangents of these two lines is 1.)
A grid obtained by drawing a series of stream lines and equipotential lines is known as Flow
Net
Flow Net can be drawn for
(i) Steady Flow (ii) Irrotational flow and (iii) When the flow is not governed by gravity force.
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Fluid Mechanics
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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Fluid Mechanics
a) There exists a force potential () which is defined as that whose negative derivative with
respect to any direction gives the component of body force per unit mass in that
direction.
X
x
Y
y
Z
z
b) The flow is irrotational, i.e., the velocity potential exists (or) the flow may be rotational,
but is steady.
Flow is steady
Flow is irrotational
Flow is incompressible
Flow is non-viscous i.e., density is constant
Flow is continuous
Velocity is uniform over a cross section
Fluid is ideal.
b) For real fluids there will be some loss of energy between two points.
( )
( )
( )
( )
(energy equation)
( ) .
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Page 238
= 1.0
= 2.0
= 1.01 to 1.20
Fluid Mechanics
h
(h
)
Stagnation head
A
Dynamic head (h)
Figure 7.4.1
g. V =
Actual velocity V = c
, Where c = pitot tube constant
]
With U tube manometer reading x h x [ S s
Note:
1. A pitot measures stagnation pressure head (or the total head) at dipped end.
2. A pitot tube measures both static pressure and stagnation pressures.
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Fluid Mechanics
Converging cone
Diverging cone
Inlet
Taper angle20
Taper Angle 5
Throat
Figure 7.4.2
(a a gh)
area a0
area a
Figure 7.4.3
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Fluid Mechanics
a
a
d) Nozzle meter: Used for measuring discharge.
When compared to venturimeter diverged part is omitted, and therefore a greater
dissipation of energy.
Stream lined
Convergent nozzle
Figure
7.4.4
L
Figure 7.4.5
45 )
b) Vortex Motion: A rotating of fluid is known as Vortex and the motion of rotating mass of
fluid is known as Vortex motion. Different types of Vortex motion are described below :
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Fluid Mechanics
i) Free Vortex motion: Is that in which the fluid mass rotates without any external force
being impressed and the expenditure of energy from any external source takes place.
Ex: 1) A whirl pool in a river.
2) A wash basin (or) bath tub draining water through an outlet at a bottom.
3) Flow of liquid in a centrifugal pump casing after it has left the impeller.
4) Flow of water in a turbine casing before it enters the guide vanes.
No external torque is required to be exerted on the fluid mass. Therefore, the rate of change
of angular momentum of the flow must be zero.
i.e.,
0 i.e., v.r = constant
(i.e., the velocity of flow in a free vortex motion varies inversely with the radial distance
from center of vortex motion).
As r 0 v the point where the velocity V becomes infinity is called singular point.
Flow field of a vortex motion is everywhere irrotational except at the axis and therefore it is
also called irrotational vortex motion or potential vortex motion.
The equation v.r = constant, is applicable only to the region farther away from the central
region of free vortex motion which occurs frequently is known as Rankine Vortex motion.
Ex: Motion of air mass in tornado.
ii) Forced Vortex motion: Forced vortex motion occurs when a constant torque is applied to
a fluid mass. Ex: Cylinder rotated about its vertical axis at a constant angular velocity
Relation: V =r w, w = angular velocity i.e., velocity of flow is directly proportional to its
radial distance from the axis of rotation.
Equation of pressure variation: p r
rw
Important points:
a) On any horizontal plane the fluid pressure increases with the square of the radial
distance from center of vortex motion.
b) Surfaces of constant pressure are paraboloids of revolution.
c) The free surface is a special surface of constant pressure and is also a paraboloid of
revolution.
d) Forced vortex is basically a rotational motion.
iii) Spiral Vortex motion:
A combination of cylindrical vortex motion and radial flow.
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Fluid Mechanics
Note: Outside the boundary layer velocity is constant and therefore velocity gradient and shear
stress are zero.
Laminar Boundary Layer: The boundary layer is called laminar boundary layer if the flow in the
boundary layer exhibits all the characteristics of a laminar flow, irrespective of whether the
incoming flow is laminar or turbulent.
Reynolds number is less than 5
for sphere
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Fluid Mechanics
Momentum Thickness : The distance from the actual boundary such that the momentum flux
corresponding to the main stream velocity V through this distance is equal to the deficiency
or loss
Energy Thickness
: The distance from the actual boundary such that the energy flux
corresponding to the main stream velocity V through this distance
is equal to the deficiency
or loss in energy due to the boundary layer formation.
U
U=0.99 y
U
0.99 u
u
y
Relative magnitudes of
, ,
This is applied to
(i) Laminar Boundary
(ii) Transition boundary layer and
(iii)
Turbulent boundary layer flows.
Assumptions:
1) steady flow
2) Two dimensional flow
3) Incompressible
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Fluid Mechanics
Kx v V
As per Blasius K
Further,
(
(ii)
5
( .
),C
B ( )
B dx = C
Where B = width of plate
L = length of plate
Average drag coefficient (or) Total frictional drag coefficient C
Where R
(iii)
The velocity Distribution is infact parabolic for laminar boundary layer. Being smaller
in thickness it can be assumed as linear distribution.
Relation between and for Laminar Boundary Layer
,
,
3 for linear distribution velocity
Transition from Laminar Boundary Layer between R
Critical R
5
0
.3
0 to 4
0 to 4
.
.
if 5 0 < Re < 0
.
.
if 0
Separation of Boundary Layer: Boundary Layer separation takes place due to adverse or positive
pressure gradient. i.e., when dp/dx > 0 and
0. In fact separation starts when
0
Thus,
(i) ( )
(ii) ( )
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(iii) ( )
Fluid Mechanics
P min
Effective pressure gradient on
boundary layer separation
7.5.2 Dimensional Analysis
Dimensional analysis is a method to describe a physical phenomenon by a dimensionally correct
equation among certain variables which affect the phenomenon. It reduces the number of
variables and arranges them into dimensionless groups useful for phenomenon which defy
analytical solution and must be solved experimentally.
Fundamental dimensions: Mass (M), Length (L), time (T) and temperature (Q). In place of mass,
the force is also considered as a fundamental quantity.
Dimensional Homogeneity: Dimensional analysis is based on Fouriers Principle of Dimensional
Homogeneity. An equation is said to be dimensionally homogeneous if the form of the equation
does not depend upon the units of measurement. To satisfy this condition, the dimensions of
each side of equation must be same.
The empirical equations involving numerical coefficients are dimensionally non homogeneous
Methods of Dimensional analysis:
Total number of variables = number of Independent variables + one dependent variable.
Rayleighs Method: Gives a special form of relationship among the dimensionless groups.
Drawbacks:
1. It does not provide any information regarding the number of dimensionless groups to be
obtained as a result of dimensional analysis.
2. The method becomes rather cumbersome when a large number of parameters are
involved.
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Fluid Mechanics
Significance: For compressible flows, high speed flows, motion of objects like aeroplane
and projectiles through air at super sonic speeds.
f) Weber Number (W): Inertia force/surface tension force =
Significance: In formation of water droplet or bubbles, flows of shallow depth over
spillways, dams etc., for dynamic similarity to exist between a model and a prototype,
R
R m F
F m E p
E m M p
M m and W
W m, depending on
the significance of various forces.
7.5.3 Lift & Drag
A fluid moving relative to a rigid boundary exerts force on the boundary. Shear stresses acting
on surface and pressure acting normal to the boundary give rise to forces which would add up
vectorially to give a resultant force on the body. The component of the resultant force in the
direction of relative velocity V of the flow past the body is called Drag. The component of the
resultant normal to the relative velocity is known as ift.
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Fluid Mechanics
Lift force occurs only when the axis of body is inclined to the direction of flow. If the axis of body
is parallel to the direction of flow, lift force is zero, only drag force acts. If fluid is assumed ideal
and body is symmetrical such as sphere or cylinder, both the drag and lift are zero.
Vo
Lift
P
Resultant
Drag
A vertical disc normal to the flow is mainly subjected to pressure drag since the wake
size is very large.
ii. Streamlined body is predominantly subjected to shear drag and pressure drag is very
less due to very small wake.
iii. The total drag in sphere is approximately 1/3 of that of vertical disc.
iv. The total drag on streamlined body is approximately about 1/40th of that of vertical disc.
Lift: Lift force occurs normal to the direction of relative motion V .
F
C . A.
where C
lift coefficient
A = Characteristic area
where R
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Fluid Mechanics
or R
As fluid flows through a pipe certain resistance is offered to the flowing fluid, resulting in a loss
of energy. Broadly these are of two types.
a) Major Losses due to friction.
b) Minor Losses due to various fittings, transitions, changes in velocity to change in crosssections.
The frictional resistance in the laminar flow is:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
The reason for the frictional resistance in the case of laminar flow being independent of the
nature of the surface in contact, is that when a fluid flows past a surface with velocity less than
critical velocity, a film of almost stationary fluid is formed over the surface, which prevents the
flowing fluid to come in contact with the boundary surface. Similarly in the case of laminar flow
the resistance is due to viscosity only and the viscosity of a fluid depends on its temperature.
The frictional resistance in the case of turbulent flow is:
i) proportional to velocity . Where the index n varies from 1.72 to 2.0,
ii) independent of the pressure,
iii) proportional to the density of the flowing fluid,
iv) slightly affected by the variation of the temperature of the flowing fluid,
v) proportional to area of surface in contact,
vi) dependent on the nature of the surface in contact.
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Fluid Mechanics
where
The ratio
S represents the energy slope which is equal to the hydraulic gradient in
uniform flow. In long pipe lines h forms a major part of the total loss.
The above equation is derived based on experiment of Froude, which revealed that
a) The frictional resistance varies approximately with the square of velocity
b) The frictional resistance varies with the nature of the surface.
Minor Losses in Pipes:
Situation
Head Loss =
Explanation
Sudden expansion
=
=
Sudden Contraction
=
0.5
vena contracta
0. 5
V = Velocity in pipe
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Fluid Mechanics
At exit of a pipe
V = Velocity in pipe
Conical expansion
K is a constant
.
K is a constant
[
V
A
Pipes In Series Or Compound Pipe: If a pipe line connecting two reservoirs is made up of several
pipes of different diameters D , D and D etc., and lengths ,
and
etc all connected end
to end, then the system is called pipes in series, in such a case.
i) The difference in liquid surface levels in the two reservoirs is equal to sum of the head
losses in all the sections.
i.e., H =
Figure 7.6.1
Equivalent Pipe: Often a compound pipe consisting of several pipes of varying diameters and
lengths is to be replaced by a pipe of uniform diameter, known as equivalent pipe. The uniform
diameter of equivalent pipe is known as equivalent diameter.
Pipes in Parallel: When a main pipe line divides into two or more parallel pipes which again join
together downstream side and continue as a main line, the pipes are said to be parallel.
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Fluid Mechanics
Note: The pipes are connected in parallel in order to increase the discharge passing through the
main.
a) Rate of discharge in main line is equal to sum of discharge in each of parallel pipes.
Q=Q
Q
3h
i.e., loss of head should be 1/3 of total head to have maximum power transmitted.
Efficiency of power transmission
Corresponding to the maximum power transmitted the efficiency of power transmission is
2/3 or 66.7 %
Note: The efficiency corresponding to maximum transmission of power is not maximum.
7.6.2 Viscous flow
The laminar flow of a fluid is one in which the fluid moves in layers (laminae), each layer sliding
over the adjacent one. The viscosity plays a dominant role on the fluid motion.
Critical Reynolds number: The Reynolds value below which the flow can be certainly considered
to be laminar is known as critical Reynolds number
It is a function of flow conditions and geometry of flow
CASE
LOWER
1
Pipe flow
2000
2
Flow through parallel plates
1000
3
Open Channel flow
500
4
Flow around a sphere
1
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Fluid Mechanics
The basic equations which govern the motion of incompressible viscous fluid in laminar flow are
Navier stokes equation
For a two dimensional, steady uniform flow relation between shear and pressure gradients is:
P X
i.e., pressure gradient in the direction of flow is equal to the shear stress gradient in the normal
direction.
Laminar flow through circular pipes:
0.707R
Linear
D
R
Velocity
Shear Stress
Figure 7.6.2
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Fluid Mechanics
Shear velocity = V = ( )
Head loss
: The variation of head loss h due to uniform laminar flow in a length of a pipe
of diameter D is given by Hagen Poiseuille equation
i.e.,
*because V
D )+
Power (P): In laminar flow the power required to overcome frictional resistance i.e., h in a
pipe of length and diameter D carrying a discharge A of a fluid of specific weight r and
viscosity is
P = Qh =
=Q P
B
Shear
Velocity
Distribution
Shear
Distribution
Figure 7.6.3
) ( )+ [B
6 V B
B
]
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Fluid Mechanics
3 Vd
It has been experimentally found that the Stokes law expressed by Eq. is valid only if the
Reynolds number is less than 0.1. It is used to determine the fall of relatively small bodies
through fluids of relatively high viscosity such as the fall of dust particles, mist droplets in the
atmosphere and the settlement of silt in reservoirs.
A small solid particle falling through a fluid under its own weight will accelerate until the net
downward force on it is zero. In other words, when the submerged weight of the particle is equal
to force given by Eq. it will have reached the steady state of its motion. No further acceleration is
then possible and the particle is said to have reached its terminal velocity.
Thus, the submerged weight (weight of particle minus the buoyant force) = Resisting force
where and are the specific weights of the solid and the fluid respectively. The Eq. expresses
the Stokes law. Its validity lies within the Reynolds number
0. .
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Fluid Mechanics
Figure 7.7.1
Jet Striking a Moving Vane Tangentially at One Tip
In order to obtain a higher efficiency it is always desirable that the relative velocity vector V
strike the vane tangentially.
U = Velocity of curved vane
V = Absolute velocity of jet at inlet (A C )
u = Vane velocity at inlet (A B )
V = Relative velocity at inlet (B C )
V = Velocity of whirl at inlet (A D )
Component of V in the direction of blade motion i.e. along u
V = Velocity of flow at inlet (D C )
Normal component of V to the blade motion.
= Angle made by jet with direction of vane or blade motion C A D
= Angle made by relative velocity vector at inlet in the direction of motion of vane at inlet.
C B D
The direction of fluid jet changes as if flows over the smooth surface of the vane, and at the
outlet tip it emerges with a relative velocity V inclined at angle as shown in Fig. 7. .
Blade or vane angle at outlet. A B C )
If vane surface is very smooth, V
V
If friction of blade surface is considered, V
factor K
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Fluid Mechanics
Note: If is the change in the whirl velocity V between inlet and outlet sections that produces
the force on the vane and is responsible for doing work.
Force on vane: V denotes the fate of flow passing through control volume.
Forces on Vanes:
Case (a): If < 90
Force on the vane Q [V
V ] Q [V
V ]
Q g [V
V ] W/g [V
V ]
W Wt of fluid striking the vane sec Q sp. weight of fluid
Case (b): If > 90,
Force on the vane Q [V
V ]
= W/g [V
V ]
Workdone per second = Power (on the vane)
Workdone / second = Power = F.u
= W/g (V
V ). u if < 90
= W/g (V
V ). u if > 90
W Q
Vane Efficiency:
Note:- If blade friction is negligible, then the workdone by the jet = Change in kinetic energy.
Vane Efficiency
(
( )
Curved Vanes Mounted on a Wheel: For rotation of the wheel at constant angular speed the
blade tip velocity will be
u
w u
w
r and r being the radii at the inlet and outlet respectively.
7.7.2 Theory of turbo machines
When a fluid flows through the runner of a turbo machine, its radius usually varies along its
path. Hence it is desirable to compute torque rather than the force.
Consider the flow through the runner of a turbo machine. Let the flow enter the runner blade
with an absolute velocity V at an angle and leave it with absolute velocity V at an angle
.
It is preferred to draw velocity triangle on the blade tips. As shown in Fig. 7.7.2
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Fluid Mechanics
Vw1
Vw
U1
V1
Vr1
Inlet
Vr1
INLET VELOCITY
TRIANGLE
Vf1
outlet
U2
r1
Vr2
Vw2
V2
Vf2
QH
(iii)
H
H
h for a turbine
h for a centrifugal pump.
Efficiency of turbine
Efficiency of pump
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Fluid Mechanics
Figure 7.7.4
Notations:
V = Velocity of jet at inlet = C
(C = Co. eff. of velocity = 0.97 to 0.99 takes care of loss in nozzle)
V = Absolute velocity of jet leaving the bucket.
U = Absolute velocity of bucket considered along the direction tangential to the pitch circle.
V = (V
U ) = Velocity of incoming jet relative to the bucket.
V = Velocity of jet leaving the bucket relative to the bucket.
V = K. V , K = blade friction coeff.
V = Velocity of whirl at the inlet tip of bucket.
V = Velocity of whirl at the outlet tip of bucket. = (V Cos
u
Angle of blade at outlet tip
Angle made by absolute velocity with peripheral velocity at outlet
U = U = U DN 60 D dia of wheel N speed of wheel in r.p.m.
Since the inlet and outlet tips of the bucket are at the same radial distance from the center of
shaft.
Inlet Velocity Triangle: It is a straight line.
Where V
V
U
V
UV
V
Outlet Velocity Triangles: At the outlet tip any of the three velocity triangle are possible
depending upon the magnitude of U corresponding to which it is a slow medium or fast
runner.
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Page 260
Vr1
V2
V2 = Vf2
Vf2
V2
Fluid Mechanics
Vr2
Vf2
Vw2
U2 = U
Vw2
U2 = U
U2 = U
Figure 7.7.5
;
90 V negative
90 V
0
Torque = F.r., Power = F.r.w. = (Tw) = F.u.
> 90, V
is positive)
Power F.u. Q V
u
KCos u
The transfer of energy from the water to the buckets takes place according to the momentum
principle. The dynamic force exerted by water on the buckets in a direction tangential to the
pitch circle is the force which produced a torque and causes the rotation of the runner.
The change of momentum in a direction tangential to the periphery of the runner shall be
computed.
1. Work done and efficiencies of Pelton Wheel:
A. Velocity of Whirl (V ):- The components of absolute velocities V
V Cos and
V
V Cos are velocity of whirls. These are responsible for force exerted and Work
done.
B. Force exerted by the fluid on the buckets:[V
V ]
If 90
[V
V ]
[V
V Cos
u]
[V
u
V Cos ]
[V
K. V Cos ]
V [
KCos ]
[V
][
]
Similarly if 90 V
0.
F Q [V
u]
if > 90 F Q [V
V ]
C. Work done Sec or Power developed by buckets runner : For
90 :i) Power developed P Q V
V u
Q [V - u] [
K cos ] u
ii) Power developed per unit mass/sec = (V
u
K Cos u
iii) Power developed/unit weight of water per sec
iv) Hydraulic Efficiency w. r. t unit mass of water/sec
. .
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Fluid Mechanics
Hydraulic Efficiency
(Hydraulic Efficiency represents the effectiveness of wheel in converting the Kinetic
Energy of the jet into mechanical energy of rotation).
v) Conditions for Maximum Efficiency:outlet blade angle
Maximum Hydraulic Efficiency
vi) Hydraulic Efficiency w. r. t unit wt.
vii) Mechanical Efficiency:- ( )
. .
. .
. .
The mechanical losses are
i) Friction in bearings
ii) Windage loss i.e. the friction between the wheel and atmosphere in which it
rotates..
viii) Overall Efficiency:Shaft horse power
H)
I)
J)
0.54 * + metres.
Jet Ratio (m):- The ratio of pitch diameter D of the Pelton Wheel to the diameter of the
jet (d).
i.e. m = (D/d). It is an important parameter in the design of Pelton Wheel. For maximum
efficiency jet ratio varies from 11 to 14 and is 12 for most cases.
Number of buckets for a Pelton Wheel Runner
5
5 0.5 m = jet ratio.
Number of Jets:- It is obtained by dividing the total rate of flow through the turbine by
the rate of flow of water through a single jet.
Important dimensions of a Pelton Wheel in terms of jet diameter d:
Axial Width B = 3d to 5d, radial length L = 2d to 3d
M
. to . 5d
0 to 0
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Fluid Mechanics
Spiral casing
Stay Ring
Guide Mechanism
Runner
Vf = V
Vr
U
Figure 7.7.6
work done aV Vw U
Vw U )
aV mass of water striking per second
= Maximum output under specified conditions is obtained by Vw equal to zero.
Now work done aV Vw U )
work per unit weight of water = (Vw U ) / g
Hydraulic efficiency of Francis Turbine
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Fluid Mechanics
Vw U / Gh
aV W g
W = Wt. of water striking per second.
Over all efficiency
S.H.P WQH in SI system S.H.P in W
S.H.P / (WQH/75 S.H.P in H.P
power P developed by runner
Note: HP 746 W
P o. W.Q.H
W Sp. wt. of water
The overall efficiency of Francis Turbine ranges from 80 to 90%
Working Proportions of Francis Turbine:
i) The ratio of width B of the wheel to the diameter D of the runner is represented by
n that is n B D. It varies from 0. to 0.45.
ii) Flow Ratio : The ratio of Velocity of flow V at inlet tip of the vane to the spouting
velocity
is known as flow ratio .
Flow ratio V / gH. It varies form 0.15 to 0.30.
iii) Speed ratio U gH, varies from 0.60 to 0.90.
A) Design of a Francis Turbine Runner:
i) Determine required discharge from the relation
P o W.Q.H 75
P = power in kW
W = Sp. Wt. of water in kN/m
ii) If B = Width of wheel at inlet, D = dia of runner,
discharge Q = K D B
V
k = vane thickness coefficient.
iii) Tangential velocity of runner at inlet U
iv) Velocity of whirl Vw at inlet can be determined from relation h = (
).
v) The runner dia at outlet (D ) varies from D/3 to 2D/3. usually taken as D/2.
Tangential velocity at outlet.
U V
D N 60
vi) Normally width of wheel at outlet B
B .
vii) Generally runner is designed to have the velocity of whirl Vw at outlet equal to zero.
i.e., Vw
0. and
90. Then runner vane angle at outlet is given by tan
viii) The number of runner vanes should be either one more or one less than the
number of guide vanes, in order to avoid setting up of periodic impulse.
Kaplan Turbine: Kaplan is also a reaction type of turbine and hence it operates in an entirely
closed conduct from the head race to the tail race. It is a type of propeller turbine. It is an axial
flow turbine, suitable for low heads and hence required a large quantity of water to develop
large amount of power.
Between the guide vanes and the runner the water in a Kaplan turbine runs through a right
angle into the axial direction and then passes through the runner. The runner consists of four or
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Fluid Mechanics
six blades. Servometer is used for adjustment of runner blades. Eddy losses, which are inevitable
in Francis and Propeller turbines are almost eliminated in a Kaplan Turbine.
Working Proportions of a Kaplan turbine:
i) Ratio n = d / D
where d Hub or Boss diameter D runner outside dia. It varies from 0.35 to 0.60.
ii) Discharge Q through the runner is given by
[ (
] 4
Type of Turbine
Pelton Wheel with single jet.
Pelton Wheel with two or more jets
Francis Turbine
Kaplan (Or) Propeller Turbine.
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Fluid Mechanics
Note: Some of the authors report Ns as 35 to 50. The higher the specific speed, the smaller
the runner diameter as well as overall size of runner, due to which the weight and the cost of
runner are reduced.
2. Shape Number : A dimensionless form of specific speed is known as Shape Number
Shape Number = Dimensionless specific speed.
3. Unit Quantities : In order to predict behaviors of a turbine working under varying conditions
of head, speed, output and grate opening, the results are expressed in terms of quantities
which may be obtained when the head on the turbine is reduced to unity. The conditions of
turbine under unit head are such that the efficiency of the turbine remains unaffected. The
important unit quantities are given below.
(A) Unit Speed : It is defined as the speed of a turbine working under a unit head. (ie., under
a head of 1 m). Denoted by N .
We have N
N
Where N speed of turbine under a head H
H = head under which a turbine is working
U = tangential velocity.
(B) Unit Discharge (Qu):
Where Q discharge passing through a given turbine under a head H
(C) Unit power (Pu) : Pu = P/H3/2
Where P power developed by turbine under a head H
Use of Unit Quantities : If a turbine is working under different heads the behavior of the
turbine can be easily known from the values of Unit Quantities.
4. Similitude in Turbines:
Scale models are often used in designing and other studies relating to turbines. Geometric
similarity is assured by having geometrically similar velocity vector diagram. It is usual to
neglect viscous effects in the model studies. The model and prototype characteristic
relationships are usually expressed in terms of the following relationship between the
variables:
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Fluid Mechanics
In reaction turbines the cavitation may occur at the runner exit or the inlet to the draft tube,
where the pressure is considerably reduced.
Due to cavitation the metal of the runner vanes and the draft tube is gradually eaten away in
these zones, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine. As such the turbine
components should be so designed that as far as possible cavitation is eliminated.
In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in any portion of the turbine,
D. Thoma of Germany has developed a dimensionless parameter called Thomas cavitation
factor, which is expressed as
. (H
Where H is atmospheric pressure head, H is vapour pressure head, H is suction pressure head
(or height of runner outlet above tail race) and H is working head of turbine.
Complete similarity in respect of cavitation can be ensured if the value of is same in both the
model and the prototype. Moreover it has been found that depends on Ns of the turbine, and
for a turbine of particular Ns the factor can be reduced upto a certain value upto which its
efficiency dose not remains constant. A further decrease in the value of results in a sharp fall in
no. The value of at this turning point is called critical cavitation factor c The value of c for
different turbines may be determined with the help of the following empirical relationship.
For Francis Turbines
0.6 5 N
0. 8
444
.
-------------- (i)
)
--------------- (ii)
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid Mechanics
Q = Discharge m sec .
Delivery head (Total or manometric) in m.
Types of Impeller
Ns
/sec, H = 1m
10-30
Q=
*Ns
With Q = Litres/sec H = 1m
300-900 rpm
30-50
900-1500
50-80
1500-2400
80-160
2400-5000
110-500
3400-15000
* Ns = 30 Ns
Work done by the impeller:
Liquid enters the impeller radially i.e., Abs. Velocity of liquid at inlet is in radial direction.
90
The relative velocities V and V are parallel to the vane at the inlet and outlet tips.
(In case of diffusion pump, the direction of absolute velocity of liquid leaving the impeller
coincides with the tangent to the inlet tip).
U2
Vw2
Outlet velocity
2
2
V2
Vf2
triangle
Vr2
Tangent to impeller at
Outlet of vane
Tangent to impeller of
inlet of vane
Vr1
1
= 900
u1
Figure 7.7.7
Work-done / sec by the impeller on the liquid = W/g (V
Work Done
W g V
U )
90 W
V
0
V
U )
Q)
V cot
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Page 269
Flow Ratio :
Fluid Mechanics
0.95
0.10
High N impeller
1.25
0.25
is neglected).
4. Efficiencies:
i) Manometric Efficiency
(or)
)
.
X X
Fluid Mechanics
Nu gH
N = speed in r.p.m
H = Total head
gH
.
D
This equation is similar to
0.5 D
for
Specific Speed : Ns =
The speed in r.p.m. of a geometrically similar pump of such a size that under corresponding
conditions it would absorb 1 KW power when working against a head of 1 metre.
Non Dimensional specific speed (or) Shape number of the pump:
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Fluid Mechanics
* For pumps discharging large quantities at low heads. Such as axial flow pumps the N will
have large value.
7. Multi Stage Pumps in series:
Head produced by a C.P. depends on the rim speed of the impeller, which can be increased by
increasing rotative speed or the dia. of the impeller or both, requiring large impellers.
A multi stage pump consists of two or more identical impellers mounted on a common shaft
and enclosed in the same casing.
All the impellers are connected in series.
Total head. H = n (H )
H = head gained in the impeller
= n (H
H ) H = head gained in the guides
H H
H ,Q=Q
Q
8. Pumps in Parallel:
When a large quantity of liquid is required to be pumped against a relatively small head, two
or more pumps are connected in parallel.
Pumps in parallel are so arranged that early pump works separately lifting liquid from a
common sump and delivering it to a common collecting pipe.
.
.
If
H = constant.
9. Priming of Pump:
Pressure developed is specific weight of the liquid in contact. If air is in contact, pressure
developed is for air and cannot pump the liquid.
Priming i.e. filling the liquid in suction pipe impeller casing and in delivery pipe upto
delivery valve with the liquid to be pumped is essential.
- Gain in pressure head between the outlet of the impeller and the outlet of the pump is given
by
K(V /2g), K = 0.4 for volute casing
K = 0.7 for turbine pump or diffusion casing.
10. Limitation of Suction Lift:
When pumps are installed above the level of sump. Pressure at inlet < P .
Applying Bernoullis eq. at pump inlet and the liquid level in sump, the absolute pressure
head.
V = vel. In suction pipe.
ht. of inlet above the sump.
[
It is not possible to create at the pump inlet, an absolute pressure lower than the vapour
pressure. If P = vapour pressure of liquid in Abs, units then P P
P in limiting case.
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Fluid Mechanics
Suction lift in no case shall be greater than the above value otherwise vaporizations of liquid
due to reduction in pressure takes place leading to cavitation.
* Usually h = 6 to 8 m
for water at 10 20 C
h
0m
for water at 65
Positive pressure shall be provided at pump inlet if water is at 65. i.e. the pump to be
installed below sump water level.
11. Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH):
NPSH = Abs. Pr. Head at pump inlet vapour pr. Of liquid to be pumped vel. Head in the
suction pipe.
NPSH
h ]
h
H
= atm. Pr. head, H = vapour pr. head, h = suction head.
h = head loss in suction, H = manometric head, H = total suction head.
N = sp. speed.
Critical
0. 03 (
When hot liquids are to be pumped the pumps have to be installed at liquid surface or even
below the liquid surface
In first case h = 0, in second case h
0 indicating that there is ve pr. at pump inlet.
Suction specific speed
S=N
Range of S for cavitation free operation of C.P. and propeller pumps.
S = 4700 to 6700
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Page 273
Heat Transfer
Electric current (I), Heat flow rate (Q),Voltage (V), Temp. difference (dt), Resistance dx/KA
called thermal resistance (Rt)
Heat Transfer
= K/c called thermal diffusivity and is a physical property of the material. It is more useful in
unsteady conduction situations.
For one dimensional, steady state with
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Page 275
Heat Transfer
Assume one dimensional heat conduction through homogeneous material and wall is insulated on its
lateral faces but different constant temperatures T1 and T2 are maintained at boundary surfaces.
The general heat conduction equation of one dimensional, steady state without heat generation is
on integration and substituting the B.Cs, the temp distribution equation becomes
From temp distribution equation it is seen that it is linear across the wall and it is independent of the
material because it does not involve thermal conductivity. From H.T. equation it can be written as
where
= Thermal resistance = / KA
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Heat Transfer
Hot fluid
hall
on integration and substituting the B.Cs we get the temp distribution equation as
Q=(
where
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Page 277
Heat Transfer
on integration and substituting the B.Cs we get the temp distribution equation as
*
)}
=4
Where rm =
Shape factor : In general all the factors relating to geometry of the section are grouped together into a
single constant called the shape factor. Shape factors for different sections are
Q = K TS, where S = A/ for plane wall
S = 2L/ log (r2/r1) for cylinder
S = 4 r1 r2/(r2 r1) for sphere
The unit of shape factor is length units. From the above it is seen that for a prescribed temp difference
(
), bodies with the same shape factor will allow heat transfer proportional to material K
Shape factor for an edge is
0.54 X length of edge
0.15 X dx
A complete rectangular furnace has 6 walls, 12 edges and 8 corners. The shape factor for complete
furnace is
Stotal = 2/dx (ab + bc + ca) + 4 X 0.54 (a + b + c) + 8 x 0.15 x dx
dx = wall thickness
a, b, c are inside dimensions
the above relation for S is valid when a, b, c > (1/5) dx
if not
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Heat Transfer
Note: For same inside capacity and same amount of fabrication material, same temp and same material
the heat loss is lowest in cylindrical furnace because of lowest shape factor. The ratio of R.T or S.F are
cubical : spherical : cylindrical is 1 : 0.71 : 0.439
Effect of variable thermal coductivity:
Fourier law of heat conduction through a plane wall can be expressed as
Q = -K0(1 + t)A dt/dx
K0 = thermal conductivity at 00C
= constant
On separating the variables and solving it
Q = -Km A (T1 T2) where Km = Ko (1 +
),
= (T1 + T2)/2
Critical radius =
Critical thickness =
When
Heat Transfer
Generally H.T from a surface is calculated based on Q = hA (T Ta), from this it is seen that H.T. can
be increased by increasing h or A or (T Ta) or combination, but h depends on geometry, fluid
properties, flow rate so we cannot increase much amount of h and also (T Ta) is difficult to
increase
So the only way is to increase the surface area of H.T. This can be done by providing extensions to the
surfaces which are called extended surfaces or fins.
Steady flow of heat along a Rod:
For rectangular Fin
Ac = b.t
Perimeter = 2 (b + t)
For circular Fin
Ac =
Perimeter = d
Assumptions
Take a small element of fin which has thickness dx and is located at a distance x from wall. Heat
conducted into the element at plane x = Heat Conducted out from fin at (x + dx) + heat convected
from the fin between plane x and (x + dx)
The general solution for the above equation is
This is the general heat dissipation equation from the fin surface
(i) Infinitely long fin (L )
The boundary conditions are
T = To at x = 0 and = o = To Ta
T = Ta at x = and = 0
On substitution
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Heat Transfer
Generally tapered fin is preferred because it has more lateral area near the base where the difference in
temperature is high.
(ii) Short Fin Insulated at the Tip
The boundary conditions are
= o at x = 0
dt / dx = 0 at x = 1
applying the above BCs, the temp distribution equation is
Heat Transfer
1. = o at x = 0
2. heat conducted to the fin at x = L equals to the heat convected from the end of the fin to
surroundings.
Applying the BCs, the temp distribution equation is
Fin performance:
Efficiency of Fin: It is the ratio of performance of an actual fin to that of an ideal or fully effective fin
Effectiveness of fin: It is the ratio of the H.T. with fin to H.T. without fin.
But from practice the fins on surfaces is justified only if the ratio PK / hAc > 5
Fins are generally made of Al (even though its thermal conductivity is less than that of copper)
because of its lower cost and weight
/Ac increases, the also increases and to accommodate this we use thin fins at less pitch
Fins will always be used where the h.t.c is less. Suppose if there is fluid at one side and gas at the
other side, it is preferred to use fins in gas side. This is the reason for not using fins in steam
condenser tubes:
Heat Transfer
Where
Temperature at the bottom of the well
= Gas temperature
= Temperature of the pipe wall
m=
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Heat Transfer
Note:- The problems which comes under this type requires solids of large K, with areas that are large
in proportion to their volumes like thin metallic wires and plates
Heat treatment of metals by quenching, time response of thermocouples, thermometers etc can be
analyzed by this method.
The process in which
<<
is called Newtonian heating or cooling
In Newtonian heating or cooling the temperature throughout solid is considered to be uniform at a
given time, such an analysis is called lumped heat capacity analysis.
Let us consider a body of
A = surface area, V = volume, = density.
K = Thermal Conductivity, C = Specific heat
Ti = initial temperature, T = temp of surroundings
Rate of change of I.E = Convection H.T
on substitution and simplification, the temp distribution equation becomes
is
Heat Transfer
And on simplification
The above can be reached by decrease wire dia, density and specific heat or by increasing the value of
h, therefore a thin wire should be used in thermocouples
has time units and called time constant
/* = 1
and
This needs graphs correlating (T Ta) / (To Ta) and l/Bi for different values of x/L or r/R etc
If temp distribution is given, Bi is found from graph and then we can calculate Fo, from Fo can
be calculated and vice versa
T.H.C in infinite thick solids (Bi ) (infinite in all directions)
The equation of THC
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Heat Transfer
The temperature distribution at any time
For using infinite solution to body of finite thickness subjected to one dimensional is
Under similar conditions the temp at the center of cylinder or sphere of radius R is
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Where
Also h depends on
Heat Transfer
effects lead to turbulent flow and the associated turbulence level dominates the momentum and energy
flux.
Grashof number (Gr): Indicates the relative strength of the buoyant to viscous force.
l = characteristic length
= fluid coefficient of thermal expansion
g = acceleration due to gravity
t = temp difference (
= density
= fluid viscosity
Grashof number has a role in free convection similar to that played by Reynolds number in forced
convection.
Prandtl number (Pr): It is indicative of the relative ability of the fluid to diffuse momentum and
internal energy by molecular mechanisms.
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Heat Transfer
<<<<< . . . . . . . . . oils
. . . . . . . . gases
>>>>> . . . . . . liquid metals
Nusselt number (Nu): Establishes the relation between convective film coefficient h, thermal
conductivity K, and characteristic length l of the physical system
Nu = hl/K = conduction resistance / convection resistance = (l/K) / (l / hl)
Stanton Number (St): It is the ratio of heat transfer coefficient to the flow of heat per unit
temperature rise due to the velocity of the fluid.
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Heat Transfer
where
= absorptivity
= reflectivity
= transmissivity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
A body that reflects all the incident thermal radiations is called specular body. Specular reflection
implies that angle between the reflected beam and normal equals to the angle made by incident
radiation with normal ex:- highly polished surfaces
In diffused reflection, the incident beam is reflected in all the directions that is directional
independence of reflected beam.
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Heat Transfer
Note: A small hole leading into a cavity thus acts very nearly as a black body because all the radiant
energy entering through it gets absorbed.
8.3.2 Total Emissive Power
Stefan-Boltzmanns Law: The total emissive power E of a surface is defined as the total radiant
energy emitted by the surface in all directions over the entire wavelength range per unit surface area
per unit time
According to Stephen Boltzmann law the amount of radiant energy emitted per unit time from unit
area of black surface is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temp.
Where
)
(
Kirchoffs Law: It can be stated as the emissivity and absorptivity of a real surface are equal for
radiation with identical temps and wave lengths. Therefore it states that a perfect absorber is also a
perfect radiator.
Gray Body: When the emissivity of non-black surface is constant at all temps and throughout the
entire range of wavelength, the surface is called a gray body.
For many materials the emissivity is different for the various wavelengths of the emitted energy. The
radiating bodies exhibiting this behaviors are called the selective emitters.
Emissivities of real bodies: Emissivity of a surface indicates its ability to emit radiation energy in
comparision with a black surface of the same temp level.
(i) Monochromatic emissivity: It is the ratio of the monochromatic emissive power of a surface
to the monochromatic emissive power of a black surface at the same wavelength and temp.
For a gray body the monochromatic emissivity is independent of the wavelength of the
emitted radiation.
(ii) Total emissivity: Ratio of the total emissive power of a surface to the total emissive power of
black surface at the same temp
(iii) Normal total emissivity: Ratio of normal component of the total emissive power of a surface
to the normal component of the total emissive power of a black body at the same temp.
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Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
(C) Small gray bodies: The size of the bodies is very small when compared to distance between them.
That is the energy emitted by body 1 would be partly absorbed by body 2 and remaining is lost in
space and no reflections. Therefore the energy exchange between two bodies is
(
)
=
(
)
where F12 = 1 2 called equivalent emissivity or interchange factor
(D) Small body in a large enclosure:
=
where
8.3.5 Electrical network approach for radiation exchange
The radiation problems can be easily obtained by reducing the actual system to an equivalent electrical
network and then solving that network. Some of the terms in this technique are
(B) Radiant energy exchange between two infinite parallel gray planes
(E) Heat exchange between two black surfaces enclosed by an insulated (adiabatic) surface
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Heat Transfer
(F) Heat exchange between two gray surfaces enclosed by an insulated surface
When third body is black
(G) Radiation H E between 3 gray surfaces. The figure is same as above but Eb3 T3 and Q12
equation is same as above
Radiation shields: It is a thin shield placed between two planes that would neither remove nor
add any heat to the system but used to reduce heat transfer rate.
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Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer
For the HE to be in equilibrium condition always heat lost by hot fluid is equal to heat gained by cold
fluid, so
Heat transferred from hot to cold fluid is = U.A.
where U = overall heat transfer coefficient
A = surface area
= mean temp difference
As we know that
scale h.t.c
For cylindrical type we can calculate U based on outer and inner area
When thickness is small
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If the variation in temp of the fluids are relatively small then the temp variation curves are
approximately straight lines and the accurate results can be obtained through arithmetic mean temp
difference (AMTD)
AMTD = (
Note:
The exchange of heat may rise the temp of the cold fluid to more nearly the temp of the hot
fluid
LMTD is higher and accordingly more heat can be transferred
The unknown exit temp of the cooling water may be found from an energy balance on two
fluids
For multi tube and multi-pass H.E. we should use a correction factor F which can be found out
through graphs which are plotted between P and Z
Where
And F should be less than 1.0
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Crystal Imperfections: Crystals are rarely perfect, i.e, the lattices are not without imperfections.
These imperfections govern most of the mechanical properties of the crystalline solids. The
imperfections in a crystal lattice structure are classified as follows:
Point Defect: If an imperfection is restricted to the neighbourhood of a lattice point, the
imperfection is referred to as a point defect. Point defects are mostly of 3 types, Vacancy,
Interstitial impurity and Substitutional impurity as depicted in below figure.
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(a)Vacancy
X
Y
X
Y
Displaced atoms
Manufacturing Engg
f
c
b
a
d e
Stress 0
Strain,
Fig. 9.1.5 Typical stress-strain diagram for a ductile material
Ductile Materials: Fig 9.1.5 shows the stress-strain diagram for a ductile material such as mild
steel. The curve starts from the origin O showing thereby that there is no initial stress or strain
in the test specimen. Upto point a Hookes law is obeyed and stress is proportional to strain.
Therefore, oa is a straight line and point a is called the limit of proportionality and the stress at
point a is called the proportional limit stress, . The portion of the diagram between ab is not a
straight line but upto point b, the material remains elastic, i.e. on removal of the load, no
permanent set is formed and the path is retraced.
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The point b is called the elastic limit point and the stress corresponding to that is called the
elastic limit stress,
. In actual practice, the point a and b are so close to each other that it
becomes difficult to differentiate between them. Beyond the point b, the material goes to the
plastic stage until the upper yield point c is reached. At this point there is a cross to a lower
value to point d, called the lower yield point. Corresponding to point c, the stress is known as
upper yield point stress,
and corresponding to point d, the stress is known as lower yield
point stress,
. At point d the specimen elongates by a considerable amount without any
increase in stress and upto point e. The portion de is called the yielding of the material at
constant stress. From point e onwards, the strain hardening phenomena becomes predominant
and the strength of the material increases thereby requiring more stress for deformation, until
point f is reached. Point f is called the ultimate point and the stress corresponding to this point is
called the ultimate stress, . It is the maximum stress to which the material can be subjected in
a simple tensile test. At point f the necking of the material begins and the cross-sectional area
starts decreasing at a rapid rate. Due to this local necking, the stress in the material goes on
decreasing inspite of the fact that the actual stress intensity goes on increasing.
Ultimately the specimen breaks at point g, known as the breaking point, and the corresponding
stress is called the nominal breaking stress based upon the original area of cross section.
Whereas the true stress at fracture is the ratio of the breaking load to the reduced area of crosssection at the neck. The initial portions of the diagram are shown in Fig. 9.1.6 on exaggerated
scale.
b
a
b
a
Loading
Loading
Unloading
Unloading
(b)
0
(a)
0
Residual Strain
(b)
0
0.2%
Fig. 9.1.7
Sometimes it is not possible to locate the yield point quite accurately in order to determine the
yield strength of the material. For such materials the yield point stress is defined at some
particular value of the permanent set. It has been observed that if load is removed in the plastic
range then the unloading path line is parallel to the straight portion of the stress-strain diagram
as shown in Fig. 9.1.6 (b). The commonly used value of permanent set for determining the value
of yield strength for mild steel is 0.2 per cent of the maximum strain as shown in Fig. 9.1.7.
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Hardening: Hardening is the heat treatment process in which steel is heated at 20 0C above the
transformation range, soaking at this temperature for a considerable period to ensure thorough
penetration of the temperature inside the component, followed by continuous cooling to room
temperature by quenching in water, oil or brine solution.
Tempering: Tempering is defined as the reheat process done at sub-critical temperatures. Such
reheating permits the trapped martensite to transform into troostite or sorbite depending upon
the tempering temperature and relieves the internal stress.
Case Hardening: Case hardening is type of heat treatment process which is supported by a tough
and shock resisting core. Below are some case hardening techniques:
Carburisation: In this process, the carbonaceous medium is a solid carburiser. The chief
carburiser for pack carburising is activated charcoal with grain size varying from 3.5 to
10 mm in diameter.
Nitriding: It is a process of saturation of surface of steel with Nitrogen by holding it for a
prolonged period (up to 100 hrs) at a temperature ranging from 4800C to 6500C in an
atmosphere of Ammonia.
Cyaniding: It is a process in which both carbon and nitrogen in the form of cyaniding salt
are added to the surface of low and medium carbon steel to increase its hardness and
wear resistance.
Induction Hardening: In process of induction hardening a high frequency current of
about 1000 to 10000 cycles per second is passed through a copper inductor block which
acts as a primary coil of the transformer. In this the heated part is cooled rapidly with
sprays of water delivered through the numerous small holes in the inductor block. This
helps in obtaining hard and wear resistance surface while having soft core.
Flame Hardening: This process is also same as Induction hardening with difference that
heating of the specimen is carried out by flame instead of induction effect. The heating is
generally accomplished by oxy-acetylene flame.
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Pattern making
Heat treatment
Casting Terms
Flask: This holds the sand mould intact. According to position: Drag lower moulding
flask; Cope Upper moulding flask; Cheek intermediate moulding flask used in the
three piece moulding. Made of metal for long term use
Pattern: It is a replica of the final object to be made with some modifications.
Parting line: It is the dividing line between the two moulding flasks that makes up the
sand mould.
Bottom board: Used when at the start of the mould making process, first the pattern is
kept on the bottom board and sand particles sprinkled on it and then the ramming is
done in the drag.
Pouring basin: Funnel shaped cavity at the top of the mould into which the molten metal
is poured. Reduces the eroding force of the liquid metal stream coming directly from the
furnace
Strainer: A ceramic strainer in the sprue removes dross.
Splash core: A ceramic splash core placed at the end of the sprue also reduces the
eroding force of the liquid metal stream
Skim bob: It is trap placed in a horizontal gate to prevent heavier and lighter impurities
from entering the mould.
Sprue: A Passage through which the molten metal from the pouring basin reaches the
mould cavity.
Runner system: It has channels that carry the molten metal from the sprue to the mold
cavity.
Gate: It is an actual entry point through which molten metal enters mould cavity
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Core: It is used for making hollow cavities or otherwise defines the interior surface of the
castings.
Chaplet: It is used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own weight
and overcome the metallostatic forces.
Chill: This is a metallic object which is placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate of
castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
Riser: It is a reservoir of molten metal provided in the casting so that hot metal can flow
back into the mould cavity when there is a reduction in volume of metal due to
solidification.
9.2.2 Pattern
Pattern is a replica of the object to be made by the casting process, with some modifications. The
size of pattern is slightly greater than the casting by an amount called allowances.
Pattern allowances:
Shrinkage allowance
Machining allowance or finishing allowance
Draft or Taper allowances
Distortion allowance
Shake or Rapping allowance
Classifications of Patterns: Various types of patterns depending upon the complexity of the job
the number of castings required and the moulding procedure adopted
Pattern materials: The selection of pattern material is based on the following factors.
Production Quantity
Molding process
Wood, Metals, Plastics and Polyurethane foam are generally used materials
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Pattern color Code: The patterns are normally painted with contrasting colours such that the
mould maker would be able to understand the functions clearly.
Colour
Red or Orange
Code
Unfinished surfaces and cast surfaces
Yellow
Surfaces to be machined
Black
Moulding sand
System sand
Rebounded sand
Facing sand
Parting sand
core sand
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Permeability: The ability of sand to allow the gas to pass through the mould. It depends on size
and shape of grains, moisture content and degree of compaction.
Adhesiveness: Ability of molding sand to adhere to the surface of molding boxes.
Cohesiveness: Ability of sand particles to stick to each other. Increases with increase in clay and
decreases with increase in grain size.
Mold hardness: It is the hardness of mold which is measured similar to Brinell hardness test.
Moulding sand composition: Main ingredients of moulding sand: Silica grains, clay, water and
additives
Silica sand: (Silica grains)
Silica grains forms the major portion of the moulding sand (96%) and rest being the other
oxides such as alumina, sodium (Na2O + K2O) and magnesium oxide (MgO + CaO)
Impurities (oxides) should be minimum because it affects the fusion point of the silica sands.
Clay:
Used as binding agents and this is mixed with the moulding sands to provide the strength,
because of their low cost and wider utility
Types of Clay:
Water:
Additives:
Coal dust:
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It widens the range of water that can be added to get proper green strength.
It reduces the expansion defects while improving the flowability of the moulding sand
Increase resistance to deformation, skin hardness and expansion defects such as scab.
Iron oxide:
Improves surface finish, decreases metal penetration, reduces burn-on, increases the chilling
effect of the mould
It decreases green strength and permeability while improving the hot strength.
It reduces collapsibility and makes the shake-out of the mould difficult.
To test the moisture of moulding sand a carefully weighed test sample of 50 g is dried at a
temperature of 105oC to 110oC for 2 hours at the time all the moisture in the sand would
have been evaporated.
Now weigh the sample
% of moisture (weight difference in grams) x 2
Sand is dried by suspending the sample on a fine metallic screen and allowing hot air to flow
through the sample.
Time taken for removal of moisture in a matter of minutes compared to earlier method.
Method III: (Moisture Teller)
Measured amount of calcium carbide in a container along with a separate cap consisting of
measured quantity of moulding sand is kept in the moisture teller.
The apparatus is shaken vigorously such that the following reaction takes place.
CaC2 + 2H2O C2H2 + Ca (OH)2
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The amount (pressure) of acetylene generated is proportional to the moisture present in the
sample.
Clay Content:
The dried clay free sand grains are placed on the top sieve of a sieve shaker which contains
a series of sieves one upon the other with gradually decreasing mesh sizes.
The sieves are shaken continuously for a period of 15 min.
Grain Fineness Number is a quantitative indication of the grain distribution
Grain fineness Number amount retained on each sieve is multiplied by the respective
weightage factor, summed up, and then divided by the total mass of the sample.
MF
GFN
f
Where Mi multiplying factor for the ith sieve;
fi amount of sand retained on the ith sieve;
Permeability:
V H
p AT
Where V = Volume of air = 2000 cm3, H = Height of the sand specimen = 5.08 cm, p = air
pressure, (g/cm2), A = cross sectional area of sand specimen = 20.268 cm2, T = time in
minutes for the complete air to pass through.
Permeability Number P =
501.28
p T
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Test is carried out on the universal sand strength testing machine with a different adapter
fitted in the universal machine so that the loading now be made for the shearing of the sand
sample.
Stress required to shear the specimen along the axis is then represented as the green shear
strength.
Dry Strength:
Mould Hardness:
A spring loaded steel ball with a mass of 0.9 kg is indented into the standard specimen
prepared.
The depth of indentation can be directly measured on the scale which shows units 0 to 100.
Sand Preparation:
The preparation of sand is thorough mixing of its various ingredients. In the mixing process the
clay is uniformly enveloped around the sand grains and moisture is uniformly distributed which
is done by MULLER machine.
Various parameters influencing the sand properties:
Sand grain shape and size
Grain Size Permeability
Coarse grains would have more void space between the grains which increase the
permeability.
Finer grains would have lower permeability and they provide better surface finish to the
casting produced.
Distribution of the grain size widely distributed sand would have higher permeability.
Finer grains & impurities in the sand tend to lower the refractoriness.
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The green compression strength increases with a decrease in the grain size because the fine
grain size provides a large surface area for the binder to act.
Initially the green compression strength increases with increase in water content and then
after reaching the optimum value it starts decreasing.
Additional amount of water increases the plasticity and dry strength but reduces the green
strength.
The degree of ramming increases the bulk density or the mould hardness.
Increased ramming increases the strength
Permeability of green sand decreases with the degree of ramming.
Factors
Permeability
Strength
Decreases
Increases
Clay content
Decreases
Increases
Moisture content
Degree of ramming
Decreases
Increases
Moulding machines: Used for production work involving large batches of the same type of
casting is to be produced. Eliminate arduous labor, offer high quality casting by improving the
application and distribution of forces, and manipulate the mold in a carefully controlled fashion.
Three methods used for ramming the sand into the moulding flasks
Jolting
Squeezing
Sand slinging
Manufacturing Engg
The following are the major defects which are likely to occur in sand castings:
Gas defects: These defects are caused to a great extent by the lower gas passing tendency of the
mould which may be due to lower venting, lower permeability of the mould or improper design
of the casting, lower permeability caused by finer grain size of the sand, higher clay, higher
moisture, or by excessive ramming of the moulds.
Air inclusions:
The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the furnace, in the
ladle, and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to escape, would be
trapped inside the casting and weaken it.
Reasons
Remedy Choose the appropriate pouring temperature and improve gating practices
by reducing the turbulence
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Metal penetration
When the molten metal enters the gap between the sand grains rough casting.
Reasons either the grain size of the sand is too coarse or no mould wash has been
applied to the mould cavity, and by higher pouring temperatures.
Remedy choose appropriate grain size, together with a proper mould wash.
Fusion
Fusion of sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle, glassy appearance on
the casting surface.
Reasons clay in the moulding sand have low refractoriness or high pouring
temperature.
Remedy Choice of correct type and amount of bentonite
Run out
When the molten metal leaks out of the mould
Reasons caused either due to faulty mould making or because of the faulty
moulding flask.
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Swell
Under the influence of the metallostatic forces, the mould wall may move back
causing a swell in the dimensions of the casting.
Reason the faulty mould making procedure adopted
Remedy proper ramming
Drop
Dropping of loose moulding sand or lumps normally from the cope surface into the
mould cavity
Reason improper ramming of the cope flask.
Scabs
Sort of projection on the casting which occur when a portion of the mould face or
core lifts and the metal flows beneath in a thin layer.
Appear as rough, irregular projections on the surface containing embedded sand.
Mis-runs
When the metal is unable to fill the cavity completely and thus leave unfilled
cavities.
Cold shuts:
When two metal streams while meeting in the mould cavity, do not fuse
together properly discontinuity or weak spot in the casting.
Manufacturing Engg
When the heat removal capacity is increased such as in the case of green sand
moulds.
Remedy
To increase the fluidity of the metal by changing the composition or raising
the pouring temperature.
Improving the mould design.
Slag inclusions:
Slag (undesirable oxides and impurities) entering the mould cavity will be
weakening the casting and also spoil the surface of the casting.
Remedy adding flux and proper slag trapping methods.
Metallurgical defects
Hot tears:
Internal or external ragged discontinuities or cracks on the casting surface, caused by
hindered contraction occurring immediately after the metal has solidified.
Metal has low strength at higher temperatures; any unwanted cooling stress may
cause the rupture of the casting.
Reason when the casting is poorly designed and abrupt sectional changes take
place; no proper fillets and corner radii are provided, and chills are inappropriately
placed.
Hot spots
Caused by the chilling of the casting
Remedy proper metallurgical control and chilling practices.
Shift
Results in mismatch of the sections of a casting usually at a parting line.
Causes misalignment of flasks
Remedy by ensuring proper alignment.
Manufacturing Engg
the difference between the temperature at pouring and the temperature at which freezing
begins (the melting point for a pure metal or the liquidus temperature for an alloy)(Super
Heat)
Pouring rate refers to the volumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured into the mold.
If the rate is too slow metal will chill and freeze before filling the cavity
Turbulence in the fluid flow is characterized by erratic variations in the magnitude and direction
of the velocity throughout the fluid.
Effects of Turbulence:
Tends to accelerate the formation of metal oxides that can be become entrapped during
solidification
Aggravates mold erosion, the gradual wearing away of the mold surfaces due to impact of
the flowing molten metal.
P V2
constant
w 2g
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Law of continuity says that the volume of metal flowing at any section in the mould is constant.
Q A1V1 A2V2
The molten metal flow characteristics are often described by the term fluidity, a measure
of the capability of a metal to flow into and fill the mold before freezing.
Spiral mold test standard testing method to measure the fluidity of the molten metal.
Higher pouring temperature relative to the freezing point - increases the fluidity of the
molten metal which also causes some casting problems oxide formation, gas porosity,
and penetration of liquid metal into the interstitial spaces between the grains of sand
forming the mold.
Metal Composition w.r.t. the metals solidification mechanism best fluidity is obtained
by metals that freeze at a constant temperature (pure metals and eutectic alloys).
The freezing mechanism, metal composition also determines heat of fusion the amount
of heat required to solidify the metal from the liquid state.
Factors
With decrease in:
Viscosity
Surface tension
Increase of
Freezing range
Fluidity
With increase in:
Heat content
Permeability
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Solidification time
-
Local solidification time: - actual freezing takes time during which the metals
latent heat of fusion is released into the surrounding mold.
Total solidification time time taken between pouring and complete
solidification.
V
T Cm
A
Rule indicates that a casting with a higher volume-to-surface area ratio will cool and
solidify more slowly than one with a lower ratio.
To perform its function of feeding molten metal to the main cavity, the metal
in the riser must remain in the liquid phase longer than the casting, then only
effects of shrinkage are minimized.
Shrinkage:
Shrinkage occurs in three steps:
(1) liquid contraction during cooling prior to solidification
(2) contraction during the phase change from liquid to solid Solidification shrinkage
(3) thermal contraction of the solidified casting during cooling to room temperature
Solidification shrinkage occurs in nearly all metals because the solid phase has a higher
density than the liquid phase.
Exception in the above category, Cast iron containing high carbon content, whose
solidification is complicated by a period of graphitization during the final stages of
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freezing, which causes expansion that tends to counteract the volumetric decrease
associated with the phase change.
Directional Solidification: In order to minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable
for the regions of the casting most distant from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for
solidification to progress from these remote regions toward the risers. It is attained by locating
sections of the casting with lower V/A ratios away from the riser, freezing will occur first in
these regions and the supply of liquid metal for the rest of the casting will remain open until
these bulkier sections solidify.
Another way to encourage directional solidification is to use Chills.
Internal Chills are small metal parts placed inside the cavity before pouring so that the molten
metal will solidify first around these parts.
External Chills are metal inserts in the walls of the mold cavity that can remove heat from the
molten metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand in order to promote solidification.
( )
( )
Figure (a) External chill to encourage rapid freezing of the molten metal in a thin section of the
casting and (b) the likely result if the external chill were not used
Riser Design:
Riser is used in a sand-casting mold to feed liquid metal to the casting during freezing in
order to compensate for solidification shrinkage.
To function, the riser must remain molten until after the casting solidifies.
The riser represents waste metal that will be separated from the cast part and remelted
to make subsequent castings. It is desirable for the volume of metal in the riser to be
minimum. Since the geometry of the riser is normally selected to maximize the V/A ratio,
this tends to reduce the riser volume as much as possible.
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Open riser exposed to the outside at the top surface of the cope.-dis adv: allowing more
heat to escape, promoting faster solidification.
Blind riser entirely enclosed within the mold
Design of riser is such that the time taken for solidification of liquid metal in the riser should
be more than the time taken for solidification of liquid metal in the cavity.
o
Caines Method
Modulus method
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(b) Stresses on
element
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( )
)e
2 tan
)e ,
The pressure at the neutral point can be determined from either of the above equations for
pressure. So, the value of corresponding to the neutral point ( ) is obtained by equating the
right-hand sides of these equations. Thus,
0 ln 2 .
/3
For typical values of the parameters in a rolling operation, we find that the roll pressure p
increases continuously from the point of entry till the neutral point is reached and decreases
continuously thereafter.
Typical distributions of pressure p are shown in Fig. 9.3.2. The peak pressure at the neutral point
is normally called the friction hill. This peak pressure increases with increasing coefficient of
friction.
Exit
Entry
p (2k)
Neutral
points
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Since the angle is normally very small, the contribution of the roll-strip interface friction force
is negligible in the vertical direction. Thus,
F = p cos d
p d (since is small),
i.e., F =
*(
*(
t)
2 p sin d +
t)
2 p
t)
d +
Accordingly,
T F R = (
Once the driving torque T is determined, the driving power per roll P is obtained as
P
T ,
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9.3.2 Forging
In this section, our analysis is mainly devoted to determining the maximum force required for
forging a strip and a disc between two parallel dies. Obviously, it is a case of open die forging.
Forging of strip:
Figure 9.3.4(a) shows a typical open die forging of a flat strip. To simplify our analysis, we shall
make the following assumptions:
(i)
(ii)
The forging force F attains its maximum value at the end of the operation.
The coefficient of friction between the work piece and the dies (platens) is
constant.
(iii) The thickness of the work piece is small as compared with its other dimensions,
and the variation of the stress field along the y-direction is negligible.
(iv) The length of the strip is much more than the width and the problem is one of
plane strain type.
(v) The entire work piece is in the plastic state during the process.
At the instant shown in Fig. 9.3.4(a), the thickness of the work piece is h and the width is 2l. Let
us consider an element of width dx at a distance x from the origin. [In our analysis, we take the
length of the work piece as
Workpiece
Moving
plate
Fixed
plate
2 dx = 0,
2K or d
, we get
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dp =
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dx
Near the free ends, i.e., when x is small (and also at x 2l; the problem being symmetric about
the midplane, we are considering only one-half in our analysis, i.e., x l), a sliding between
the workpiece and the dies must take place to allow for the required expansion of the workpiece.
However, beyond a certain value of x (in the region x l), say, x , there is no sliding between
the workpiece and the dies. This is due to the increasing frictional stress which reaches the
maximum value, equal to the shear yield stress, at x = x and remains so in the rest of the zone,
x x l. Hence, for x x ,
p
and, for x x l
K.
However, it should be noted that this assumption is incorrect as the shear stresses
planes on which p is acting (Fig. 9.3.4b).
act on the
or
ln p
or
x x ).
Now, at x = 0,
C
C (
ln 2K
p = 2Ke
( xx )
or
dp
dx
p=
C (x x l)
If = p = p at x = x , then C
pp
(x
2Kx h. Thus,
x ).
Also,
or
p = 2K*exp(2 x h)
Ax=x ,
2K exp(2 x h)
(x
x )+
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2K exp(2 x h) = K
or
or
ln ( )
x
ln ( )
ln ( )-
+,
x xl
The total forging force per unit length of the workpiece is given as
F = 2* p dx
p dx+,
9.3.3 Drawing
In a drawing operation, in addition to the work load and power required, the maximum possible
reduction without any tearing failure of the workpiece is an important parameter. In the analysis
that we give here, we shall determine these quantities. Since the drawing operation is mostly
performed with rods and wires, we shall assume the workpiece to be cylindrical, as shown in
Fig. 9.3.5 A typical drawing die consists of four regions, viz.,
Die
Job
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interface. The degree of a drawing operation (D) is normally expressed in terms of the reduction
factor in the cross-sectional area. Thus,
D=
( )
),
A and A being the initial and the final cross-sectional areas of the workpiece.
F
Blank
holder
Job
t
r
r
r
Die
The radii of the punch, the job, and the die are r , r and r , respectively. Obviously, without
taking the thickening and thinning into account, the clearance between the die and punch
(r
r ) is equal to the job thickness t. The corners of the punch and the die are provided with
radii r and r respectively. A clearance (c) is maintained between the punch and the blank
holder.
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-Job axis
Z
(a) Stresses acting on element during drawing
To start with, let us consider the portion of the job between the blank holder and the die. Figure
9.3.7(a) shows the stress acting on an element in this region. It should be noted that the
maximum thickening (due to the decreasing circumference of the job causing a compressive
hoop stress) takes place at the outer periphery, generating a line contact between the holder and
the job. As a result, the entire blank holder force F is assumed to act along the circumference
Fig. 9.3.7(b). Thus, the radial stress due to friction can also be represented by an equivalent
radial stress 2F (2 r t) at the outer periphery.
Now, considering the radial equilibrium of the element shown in Fig. 9.3.7(a), we get
rd
As
is
and
dr
dr
are the principle stresses, the equation we obtain by using Trescas yield criterion
) = 2K
ln r
F ( r t), as already mentioned. Hence,
ln r
, we have
ln
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So, the radial stress at the beginning of the die corner (i.e., at r = r
|
r
t) is given by
ln ( )
Job axis
|r r
rd
rd
Friction
Z
Fig. 9.3.8 Effect of friction at corners.
As the job slides along the die corner, the radial stress, increases to
due to the frictional
forces, as shown in Fig. 9.3.8 This increment can be roughly estimated by using a belt-pulley
analogy.
Thus,
where is the coefficient of friction between the workpiece and the die.
There is a further increase in the stress level around the punch corner due to bending. As a
result, the drawn cup normally tears around this region. However, to avoid this, an estimate of
the maximum permissible value of (r r ) can be obtained with
equal to the maximum
allowable stress of material. Since r is the final outside diameter of the product, it is easy to
arrive at such an estimate. This estimate is based on the consideration of fracture of the material.
However, to avoid buckling (due to the compressive hoop stress in the flange region), (r r )
should not, for most materials, exceed 4t.
Normally, the blank holder force is given as
F
r K,
where is between . 2 and . 8. An estimate of the drawing force F (neglecting the friction
between the job and the die wall) can easily be obtained,
F
2 r t
9.3.5 Bending
In a bending operation, apart from the determination of work load, an estimate of the amount of
elastic recovery (spring back) is essential. When the final shape is prescribed, a suitable amount
of overbending is required to take care of this spring back. In this section, we shall work out
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these quantities and also illustrate how the stock size for a given job is computed. Figure 9.3.9
shows a bending operation with characteristic dimensions.
F
Punch
Job
Die
) (
(
(
.
.
ln [
assuming a 5% shift of the neutral plane. Depending on the ductility of the job material,
a limiting value beyond which a fracture takes place. The limiting value of
(
can determine the smallest punch radius for a given job thickness.
has
), we
Determination of Work Load: Since the job undergoes plastic bending, the stress distribution at
the cross section along the centre line (XX) is as shown in Fig. 9.3.10(a). This distribution is
obtained by neglecting all other effects of curvature except the shift of neutral line. It is obvious
that in the zone on either side of the neutral plane the strain level is within the elastic range.
When the strain (both in the tensile and the compressive zones) reaches the yield limit, plastic
deformation starts. Assuming the yield stress to be
(same in both tension and compression)
and linear strain
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Neutral
line
Plastic compression
zone
Elastic zone
Plastic tension
zone
X
+1
-
Neural line
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hardening, the stress distribution will be as shown in the figure. The magnitude of
and
is
different due to the shift of the neutral plane. For the sake of simplicity, the stress distribution
for large plastic bending is idealized as shown in Fig. 9.3.10(b). When the strain hardening rate
is n, then
n
.
n ln [
n ln [
The loading due to this stress distribution can be represented by a bending moment M and a
force P (per unit width of the job), shown in Fig. 9.3.10(c), Expressed as
M=( .
t) (
P= [ .
)
.
( .
.
t) (
),
Now, let us consider the right half of the job (of unit width) and the forces and moments acting
on it (see Fig. 9.3.11). Since P arises from the shift of the neutral plane which is very small, it can
be neglected in comparison
N sin
or F
2N(cos
sin )
(cos
sin cos )
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cos 2 )
cos(tan
sin(tan
)]
9.3.6 Extrusion
The basic nature of the deformation in extrusion is, to some extent, similar to that in drawing.
Here instead of applying a tensile load at the exit end, a compressive load is applied at the other
end. However, a number of complexities arise as the die is commonly flat-face (i.e., the
equivalent half-cone angle is very large unlike in the drawing die). Consequently, with the same
assumptions as in drawing, the results become highly inaccurate. In our analysis here, we shall
determine the work load and the frictional power loss for a simple forward extrusion with a flatface die. For doing this, we shall use two approaches; of these, one is in line with that used for
drawing, whereas the other is based on the energy consideration. Since both involve rather
drastic assumptions, we shall compare the results obtained from the two approaches.
Determination of work Load from Stress Analysis
With a flat-face die and high friction between the material and the container wall, a dead zone,
shown in Fig. 9.3.12(a), develops where no flow of material takes place. We assume that the
dead zone can be approximated by a half-cone angle of
. The material undergoing
deformation can be divided into two regions, namely, (i) section AA to BB, where the flow of
material is considered as a rigid body motion and (ii) section BB to CC, where the flow is
analogous to that in a drawing operation (of course, with a compressive load). Figure 3.15(b)
shows an element in the region BB-CC along with the stresses acting on it. Comparing Fig.
9.3.12(b)
with
Die
B
H
Product
d, = 2r,
C
x
dx
B
H
+d
2r
2(r, =
dr)
d(r, = 2r)
Ram
Dead zone
(b)Stresses on element
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The figure for drawing the similarity between extrusion and drawing is easily discernible. The
only change here is that
is compressive. Therefore, following the same analysis as in drawing
equation can be rewritten as
( )
( )
],
where
= 0 and F A is nothing but the compressive stress at the section BB. Thus,
considering the compressive nature here, we have
|
[( )
where
],
(because tan
tan
Let us now consider the stresses acting on the boundaries of the region between the sections AA
and BB. The frictional stress at the container wall is assumed as the shear yield stress K, i.e., p=
K. At the section BB, the value of p is given by p =
criterion). Hence [taking K =
=
BB
)0( )
It should be noted that equation was derived assuming that the half-cone angle is small,
whereas here we have taken
. This introduces some inaccuracy in the analysis but the
solution becomes unwieldy without this assumption.
|BB d
d lK
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F= d
|BB
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dl
d lKV
dV l
To determine the loss in the first region, we can use either of the two approaches followed in
computing the work load. According to the first of these approaches, the frictional power loss in
the conical region is given as
P
2 d p 2 V dr
where V = V ( )
The yield criterion can be written as p =
(
) [( )
, where
is expressed, with
, as
2 V d
2
Finally, P
{( )
V d
V d [
( )
{( )
}] dr
]dr
ln ( )]
P
=
d V ln ( )
dV *
d ln ( )+
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removed in block by using a die and a punch. The shape and size of the portion removed are
determined by the geometry of the die and the punch. If the final product happens to be the
removed portion, then the operation is termed as blanking. On the other hand, if the pierced
sheet metal is the final product, then the operation is called punching. Since the basic mechanics
of material removal is the same in both the operations, we shall discuss these under a single
heading, namely punching.
Punch
Job holder
Job
Die
d
Clearance c
Powder manufacture
Mixing or Blending
Compacting
Sintering
Powder Manufacture: The properties of powder metallurgy are highly dependent on the
characteristics of metal or material powders that are used. Some important properties or
characteristics include chemistry and purity, particle size, size distribution, particle shape and
the surface texture of the particle. The commercial powder is produced by some form of melt
atomization where a liquid is fragmented into molten droplets which then solidify into particles.
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Powder Mixing and Blending: It is rare that a single powder will posses all of the characteristics
desired in a given process and product. Most likely, the starting material will be a mixture of
various grades and sizes of powder, with additions of lubricants or binders.
The final product chemistry is often obtained by combining pure metal or non metal powders
rather than using prealloyed material. Sufficient diffusion must occur during the sintering
operation to produce a uniform chemisty and structure in the final product.
Blending or mixing operations can be done either dry or wet, where water or other solvent is
used to improve mixing, reduce dusting and lessen explosion hazards.
Compacting: It is one of the most important process of powder metallurgy. Loose powder is
compressed and densified into a shape known as a green compact, usually at room temperature.
High product density and the uniformity of that density throughout the compact are generally
desired characteristics. In addition the compact should posses sufficient green strength for inprocess handling and transport to the sintering furnace.
Sintering: In the sintering operation, the pressed powder compacts are heated in a controlled
atmosphere to a temperature below the melting point but high enough to permit sold state
diffusion, and held for sufficient time to permit bonding of particles. Most metals are sintered at
temperatures of 70%-80% of melting temperature.
When product is composed of more than one material, the sintering temperature may even be
above the melting temperature of one or more components.
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contact area. An excessive oxide contamination is always harmful, resulting in a poor joint
efficiency.
A solid phase welding done at the room temperature does not allow recrystallization and gain
growth at the interface. This reduces the ductility of the joint to some extent. An increase in
working temperature not only increases the ductility but also eliminates some other defects. The
phenomenon of diffusion, though it has not been studied extensively, has an important bearing
on the performance of a solid phase weld. The shape and the size of the voids at the interface are
modified considerably depending on the amount of diffusion.
Electrode
Electric source
Arc
Work
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Finally, the current density rises to such a high value that the bridges start boiling. Under such
conditions, the electrons come out of both the surfaces by a process known as thermionic
emission. Obviously, the electrons (having the negative charge) coming out of the anode are
pulled back, whereas those coming out of the cathode are also attracted towards the anode.
The rate at which the electrons are emitted from a hot surface is given by
I=C
exp(
),
(eV)
Aluminium
6.0
4.1
Copper
7.9
4.4
Iron
7.83
4.4
Tungsten
8.1
4.5
Sodium
5.1
2.3
Potassium
4.3
2.2
Nickel
7.61
5.0
Arc structure, characteristics, and power: Structurally, we can distinguish five different zones in
an electric arc. These are as follows.
(i) Cathode spot: This is a relatively very small area on the cathode surface, emitting the
electrons.
(ii) Cathode Space: It is a gaseous region adjacent to the cathode and has a thickness of the order
of
cm. This region has the positive space charge, so a voltage drop is necessary as the
electrons are to be pulled across this region.
(iii)
Arc Column: This is the visible portion of the arc consisting of plasma (hot ionized gas)
where the voltage drop is not sharp.
(iv)Anode Space: This, again, is a gaseous region (thickness
cm) and is adjacent to the
anode surface where a sharp drop in the voltage takes place. This is because the electrons
have to penetrate the anode surface after overcoming the repulsion of the therminicallyemitted electrons from the anode surface.
(v) Anode Spot: This is the area on the anode surface where the electrons are absorbed. This
area is larger than the cathode spot.
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The potential drop across an arc is schematically shown in Fig. 9.4.2. The voltage drop shown in
this figure is for given spacing, current, and electrode materials. A change in the materials alters
all the values. However, a change in the spacing and the current essentially changes only then
drop in the arc column.
Anode
Anode space
Cathode
Arc column
Cathode space
Cathode
Potential
Voltage
50
100
500
Current (amp)
Fig. 9.4.3 Current-voltage characteristic of arc
As a first approximation, we can assume the conductivity of the arc column to be independent of
the arc length l. The electrode drops are also independent of the arc length. Hence, we can write
the voltage drop across the entire arc as
V = A + Bl,
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wk
),
h(
),
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where
V = arc voltage (V),
I = arc current (A),
C = fraction of total time during which the arc is on.
Cooling of fusion weld
The three important effects intimately connected with the cooling of a fusion weld are (i)
contraction, (ii) residual stress, and (iii) metallurgical phase transformation. All these effects
significantly control the quality of a weld.
(i) Contraction: During the freezing of the weld pool, a decrease in the volume takes place.
Moreover, the direction of freezing, and thus the effect of contraction, depends on the type of
joint.
(ii) Residual Stress: During the fusion welding of plates, as the weld pool contracts on cooling,
this contraction is resisted by the rest of the plates (which have not melted). As such, a
tensile stress is generated in the weld, and this is balanced by the compressive stress in the
parent metal. This residual stress may result in the cracking of a brittle material and is not
important as far as a ductile material is concerned.
(iii)
Metallurgical Changes: These changes are due to the heating and subsequent cooling of
the weld and the heat affected zones of the parent materials. Such changes significantly
affect the quality of the weld. The wide variety of changes that may take place depend on
various factors, e.g.,
a) the nature of material, i.e., single-phase, two-phase,
b) the nature of the prior heat treatment, if any, and
c) the nature of the prior cold working.
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9.5.1 Machining
Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material
to leave the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining involves shear
deformation of the work material to form a chip; as chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.
Advantages of Machining:
Limitations
Wasteful of material
Time consuming
The process of removing metal can be done by using two types of cutting tools.
Ground type
Tipped type
Drill bit
Milling cutter
MRR obtained from multipoint cutting tool is more than that from single point cutting tool
The life of multipoint cutting tool is more than single point cutting tool.
Single point cutting tools are fed axially at a uniform feed per revolution. But multipoint
cutting tools are fed perpendicularly to the cutter axis of rotation.
Method of machining
Manufacturing Engg
Rake angle
Chip
thickness
Uncut
thickness
Rake surface
Tool
Clearance
angle
Work
v
Flank
surface
Primary shear zone: the uncut layer deforms into a chip after it goes through a severe plastic
deformation in the primary shear zone.
Secondary shear zone: after the chip formation, the chip flows over the rake surface of the
tool and the strong adhesion between the tool and the newly-formed chip surface results in
some sticking. Due to that, it undergoes a further plastic deformation at the interface
between tool and chip.
Cutting speed
Feed rate
Depth of cut
Minor factors
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Types of Chips:
Continuous chip
Continuous with built-up edge
Discontinuous chip
Non-homogeneous chip
Downward direction
According to ASA system, the single point cutting tool can be designated as
Notation
Name of the angles
Order of Reading
Nose radius
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Z ,V
X
s Y
Y
X
Back rake angle (b): It is the angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of
the tool and measured in a plane (perpendicular) through the side cutting edge.
Side rake angle (s): It is the angle between the tool face and a line parallel to the base of the tool
and measured in a plane perpendicular to the base and the side cutting edge.
End relief angle ( e): It is the angle between the portion of the end flank immediately below the
end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to
the end flank.
Side relief angle ( s): It is the angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the
side cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool, and measured at right angle to
the side flank.
End cutting edge angle (e): It is the angle between the end cutting edge and a line normal to the
tool shank.
Side cutting edge angle (s) or Lead angle: It is the angle between the side cutting edge and the
side of the tool shank.
Nose radius (r): Radius curvature of the tool tip. It provides strengthening of the tool nose and
better surface finish.
Importance of various angles:
Back rake angle (b):
Purpose:
Manufacturing Engg
Controls the directions of the resultant force on the tool and chip flows.
Rake angle influences the cutting forces, power and surface finish:
Effect on performance:
Strength of tool: Tool with large rake angle is weak and the tool point may break off readily and
on the contrary tools with negative rake angle are stronger.
cutting force
+
back rake
back
compression
rake
shear
Heat conduction: Tool with large rake angle do not conduct heat readily whereas tools with
negative rake angles have better heat conductivity.
rake
rake
Heat
Dissipation
Heat
Dissipation
Cutting force: With decrease in rake angle the shear plane angle () decreases and for the same
depth of cut, the extent of the shear plane increase and thereby the cutting force increases ( at
the tool-chip interface assumed to be constant)
+ve
For same
depth of cut
l1>l2
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Power consumption: With large rake angle the cutting forces are less thereby the power required
for making the cut is also reduced.
The back rake angle controls the point of initial contact between the tool and the
workpiece and there by exercises a control over strength of tool point.
ve rake angle
subjected to impact
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Work
Piece
Heat Generation:
A fairly large part of the power required to part and bend the chip is transformed into
heat.
As the side rake angle decreases, the heat generation also increases (because power
consumption increases ) but the temperature at the tool point decreases because the
area of heat dissipation increases with decrease in side rake angle.
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Feed/rev:
The thickness of the chip is largely determined by the amount of feed/rev.
The feed/rev increase, the chip thickness increases and consequently the power
expended to part the chip also increases resulting in higher amount of heat generated.
For a high feed/rev, the side rake angle should be decreased in order to increase the area
of heat dissipation.
Surface finish:
The side rake angle increases, the size of built up edge that adheres to the top face near
to the cutting edge becomes smaller and therefore, the resulting surface finish is smooth.
Side rake angle has a greater effect on the chips breakage than does the back rake angle
Positive side Rake angle
Discontinuous
chips
and
more
To avoid rubbing between the edge of the tool and the workpiece.
If a large part of the end cutting edge is in contact with work which increases the radial force
and this may lead to chatter and vibration.
Main function of end cutting edge angle is to prevent chatter and vibration
Too greater an angle leaves the tool pointy, which results in a tool which is not able to
conduct away the heat fast enough.
No relation with the power consumption but it affects the tool life.
On finishing tool, a small flat is ground on the front portion of the edge next to the nose
radius.
Tools like, cut off tools and necking tools often have no end cutting edge angle.
Less Positive angle
Manufacturing Engg
The angle distributes the cutting stresses favourably at the start and at the end of a cut.
With s the tool first contacts the workpiece some distance away from the tip and hence
Depth of cut
Edge
Leaving
Gradually
Edge Entering
Gradually
the starting load is better withstood and also s allows the tool to enter and leave the workpiece
gradually, so there is no extra load comes into play and therefore tool life increases.
Chip produced will be thinner and wider which will distribute the cutting and heat produced
over more of the cutting edge.
A gentle back pressure is created against the tool by the introduction of side cutting edge
angle and thereby the chatter and vibration are reduced in the machine tool.
The back pressure keeps the cross slide tight against the lead screw which prevents any
backlash.
L ength of the cutting
action of the tool
Depth of
cut (d)
Direction
of
feed.
Feed
pressure
Side Pressure
Direction
of
feed.
Feed Pressure
Back pressure
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It has a significant influence on the life of the tool under normal conditions. Because by
producing a wider chip it distributes the cutting force and heat produced over larger cutting
edge.
No influence on the power consumed or on the total force necessary to cut the metal for a
given cut of feed.
Size of this angle influences chatter (ie) greater angles cause chatter
Helps to avoid the formation of a built up edge on the tool.
No side cutting edge angle is desirable when machining castings and forgings with hard and
scaly skins, because the least amount of tool edge should be exposed to the destructive
action of the skin.
Less Positive angle
Allows the tool cutting edge to penetrate into the metal and promotes free cutting by
preventing the side flank f the tool from rubbing against the work.
Tool will rub against the work which promotes the formation of wear land and finish
on the work will be spoiled.
If it is too large the cutting edge will be very weak and obviously the tool life will be lowered.
Higher values
Lower values
Used to
materials
machine
the
harder
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If tool tip is above centre line, the tool will destroyed due to friction
If tool tip is below centre line, the tool tip will dull rapidly
To reduce the above two effects the tool is filled at slightly inclined position, due to this the
back rake and end relief angles will get changed. The effective rake and relief angles can be
calculated as follows:
Let Of
radius of work;
Of r
The increase in nose radius avoids high heat concentration at a sharp point, improvement in
tool life and an improvement in surface finish is obtained.
Chatter will result if nose radius is too large; because a large nose radius thins the chip and
increases radial pressure.
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w/p
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Chip thickness
decreases at point of
tool.
w/p
Depth of
cut
Depth of
cut
Feed marks are closer together when feed rate is reduced; a feed rate equal to the nose
radius gives a poor finish.
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Cost and method of manufacture: Cost should be low and method of manufacture should be easy
Tool materials:
Carbon steels (High carbon steels):
Composition C = 0.8 to 1.3%; Si = 0.1 to 0.4%; Mn = 0.1 to 0.4%
High speed steel (HSS)
Composition of General HSS:
18% - Tungsten used to increase hot hardness and stability
4 % - Chromium used to increase strength
1 % - Vanadium used to maintain keenness of cutting edge.
Cast nonferrous tools (Stellite):
Cemented Carbides: It is produced by powder metallurgy technique with sintering at 1500oC.
The two basic groups of carbides used for machining operations are tungsten carbide and
titanium carbide.
Ceramics and sintered oxides: There are two principle families of ceramic cutting tool materials
Alumina base ceramic and silicon-nitride (SiN) base ceramic
Cermets:
Diamond: Single crystal diamond & Poly-crystalline diamond (compacts)
Cubic boron nitride (CBN)
UCON: It is developed by union carbide in USA. It is consists of
Columbium 50 % ; Titanium 30 %; Tungsten 20%
Cutting fluids: Cutting fluids are sometimes called cutting oil or coolant or lubricant.
Purposes of cutting fluid:
Reduce friction and wear, thus improving tool life and surface finish.
Reduce forces and energy consumption
Cool the cutting zone, thus reducing workpiece temperature and distortion.
Wash away the chips.
Protect the newly machined surfaces from environmental corrosion.
Water
Oils
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Soluble Oil: It contains 80% water, soap and mineral oil. Soap helps as an emulsifying
agent.
o Straight Oil: It contains mineral oils, Kerosene and low viscosity petroleum products.
o Mixed Oil: It is a combination of straight, mineral and fatty oils.
emulsions, semi-synthetics, and synthetics
Fracture
Plastic deformation
Flank wear
Crater Wear
Tool life:
It can be defined as the time a newly sharpened tool will cut satisfactorily before it becomes
necessary to remove it and regrind or replace.
Change in the magnitude of the cutting force resulting in changes in machine and
workpiece dimensions to change
The selection of the correct cutting speed has an important bearing on the economics of all
metal-cutting operations. To measure the tool life the Taylor tool life relationship is used
VT n C
Where V = Cutting speed, m/min
T = Tool life, minutes (it is time that it takes to develop a certain flank wear land)
C = a constant equal to the intercept of the curve and the ordinate or the cutting speed.
Actually it is the cutting speed for a tool life of one minute.
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tan
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logV1 logV2
logT2 logT1
VT n d x f y C
Where d is the depth of cut, f is the feed rate (mm/rev)
Variables affecting tool life:
Process variables
Tool material
Tool geometry
Workpiece material
Cutting fluid
Economics of machining: Economics of machining is not but selection of cutting speed for
optimum conditions which can be done based on the following criteria:
The maximum production rate consideration will lead to higher tool cost, where as the minimum
cost consideration will lead to reduced production rate.
For minimum production cost: The total cost of a part can be written in the form
R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + R5
R Total cost/piece
R1 material cost/piece
R2 set up and idle time cost /piece
R3 Machining cost/piece
R4 tool changing cost/piece
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LD
1000fV
Tm
T
1
Tm
LD V n
Tool changing cost/piece = y1 x Tct x
= y1
Tct
T
1000fV C
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LD V n
= y2
1000fV C
LD
LD V n
LD V n
Total Cost per piece R = R1 + y1Ts + y1
+ y1
Tct + y 2
1000fV
1000fV C
1000fV C
To obtain minimum total cost per piece,
dR
0
dV
Differentiating the above equation w.r.t. V, (In above equation the first two terms are constant)
Vopt
ny1
C
1 - ny1Tct y2
y
1
Corresponding Tool-life T = 1 Tct 2
y1
n
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Basic Size
Tolerance
Fig. 9.6.1Unilateral Tolerance
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. , 2
. , 2
. , 2
. etc.
2
Unilateral system is preferred in interchangeable manufacture, especially when precision fits are
required, because:
(i) It is easy and simpler to determine deviations.
(ii) Another advantage of this system is that Go gauge ends can be standardized as the
holes of different tolerance grades have the same lower limit and all the shafts have
same upper limit.
(iii) This form of tolerance greatly assists the operator, when machining of mating
parts. The operator machines to the upper limit of shaft (lower limit for hole)
knowing fully well that he still has some margin left for machining before the parts
are rejected.
Bilateral System: In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both the sides of
the basic size i.e., the limits of tolerance lie on either side of the basic size; but may not be
necessarily equally disposed about it,
Tolerance
Tolerance
Basic Size
Fig. 9.6.2 Bi-lateral tolerance
.
.
.
e.g., 2
, 2
In this system it is not possible to retain the same fit when tolerance is varied and the basic size
of one or both of the mating parts is to be varied. This system is used in mass production where
machine setting is done for the basic size.
Cost
Work Tolerance
Fig. 9.6.3 Relation between Cost and Tolerance
(i)
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es = ei + IT
For hole
IT = ES EI
ES = EI + IT.
Fundamental Deviation. Fundamental deviation is that one of the two deviation (either the
upper or the lower) which is the nearest to the zero line for either hole or a shaft. It fixes the
position of the Tolerance Zone in relation to the zero line as shown in Fig. 9.6.
Tolerance
Zone
Tolerance
Fundamental
Deviation
(Lower Deviation)
Zero line
Low
limit
size
High
limit
size
Basic
size
Low
limit
size
High
limit
size
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From Fig. 9.6.5 it is clear that when the tolerance zone is above the zero line, lower deviation is
the fundamental deviation. While, when the tolerance zone is below the zero line, upper
deviation is the fundamental deviation.
Basic shaft: Basic shaft is the shaft whose upper deviation is zero. Thus the upper limit of the
basic shaft is the same as the basic size. It is denoted by letter h.
Basic Hole: Basic hole is the hole whose lower deviation is zero i.e., its low limit is the same as
the basic size. It is denoted by a letter H.
Tolerance Zone: It is the zone bounded by two limits of size of a part in the graphical
representation of tolerance. It is defined by its magnitude and by its position in relation to the
zero line as shown in Fig. 9.6.5
Tolerance grade: The tolerance grade is an indication of the degree of accuracy of manufacture
and it is designated by the letters IT followed by a number, where IT stands for International
Tolerance grade. Tolerance grades are IT , IT , IT , up to IT 6, the larger the number larger
will be the tolerance.
Standard Tolerance Unit: A unit which is a function of basic size and which is common to the
formula defining the different grades of tolerances. It is denoted by the letter i and expressed in
terms of microns. It serves as a basis for determining the standard tolerance (IT) of the system.
Fit: Fit may be defined as a degree of tightness or looseness between two mating parts to
perform a definite function when they are assembled together.
It is the relationship between the two mating parts with respect to the amount of loose or
tightness which is present when they are assembled together.
Accordingly, a fit may result either in a movable joint or a fixed joint. For example, a shaft
running in a bearing can move in relation to it and thus forms a movable joint, whereas, a pulley
mounted on the shaft forms a fixed joint.
Classification of Fits
On the basis of positive, zero and negative values of Clearance, there are three basic types of fits:
(1) Clearance Fit
(2) Transition Fit and,
(3) Interference Fit.
These are further classified in the following manner:
Fits
Clearance Fit
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Slide Fit
Easy slide Fit
Running Fit
Slack running Fit
Loose running Fit
Transition Fit
(a) Push fit
(b) Wringing Fit
Interference Fit
(a) Force Fit
(b) Tight Fit
(c) Shrink fit
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Clearance Fit: In this type of fit shaft is always smaller then the hole i.e., the largest permissible
shaft diameter is smaller than the diameter of the smallest hole. So that the shaft can rotate or
slide through with different degrees of freedom according to the purpose of mating part.
Max.
Clearance
minimum clearance
Hole Tolerance
Zero line
Shaft Tolerance
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Interference
Shaft
Hole
Shaft
Hole
Fig. 9.6.8 Transition fit
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In this type of fit the tolerance zones of the hole and shaft overlap completely or in part.
1. Wringing Fit: A wringing fit provides either zero interference or a clearance. These are used
where parts can be replaced without difficulty during minor repairs.
2. Push Fit: The fit provides small clearance. It is employed for parts that must be disassembled during operation of a machine for example, change gears, slip bushing etc.
Allowance
Allowance is the prescribed difference between the dimensions of two mating parts for any type
of fit.
It is the intentional difference between the lower limit of hole and higher limit of the shaft.
The allowance may be positive or negative. The positive allowance is called clearance and the
negative allowance is called interference.
Allowance ( ve)
(Interference)
Allowance ( )
(clearance)
Fig. 9.6.9
Allowance
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Zero line
Shaft tolerance
(a) Clearance Fit
The hole basis system is most commonly used because it is more convenient to make correct
holes of fixed sizes, since the standard drills, taps, reamors and broaches etc. are available for
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producing holes and their sizes are not adjustable. On the other hand size of shaft produced by
turning, grinding etc. can be very easily varied.
Shaft basis system is used when the ground bars or drawn bars are readily available. These bars
do not require further machining and fits are obtained by varying the sizes of hole.
Difference between Hole Basis and Shaft Basis Systems
Hole Basis System
1.
Size of hole whose lower deviation is zero (Hhole) is assumed as the basic size.
Size of shaft whose upper deviation is zero (hshaft) is assumed as assumed as basic size.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
and
gap
Manufacturing Engg
(iii)
They give quick results about the conformance or non-conformance of the part
with the specified tolerances.
Plain Gauges: Plain gauges are used for checking plain, that is, unthreaded holes and shafts. They
are classified in the following ways.
(1) According to their type:
(a) Standard gauges
(b) Limit gauges
(2) According to purposes:
(a) Workshop gauge
(b) Inspection gauge
(c) Reference or master gauge.
(3) According to the form of the tested surface:
(a) Plug gauge
(b) Snap, Gap or Ring gauge.
(4) According to their design:
(a) Single limit and double limit gauges
(b) Single-ended and double-ended gauges
(c) Fixed and adjustable gauges.
Standard Gauges: If a gauge is made as an exact copy of the mating part of the component to be
checked, it is called as standard gauge. For example, if a bushing is to be made which is to mate
with a shaft. Shaft is the mating part. Then, the bushing is checked by a gauge which is a copy of
the mating part in form of its surface and size. A standard gauge cannot be used to check an
interference fit. It has limited applications.
Limit Gauges: Limit gauges are very widely used in industries. As there are two permissible
limits of the dimension of a part, high and low, two gauges are needed to check each dimension
of the part, one corresponding the low limit of size and other to the high limit of size of that
dimension. These are known as GO and NO-GO gauges.
The difference between the sizes of these two gauges is equal to the tolerance on the workpiece.
GO gauges check the Maximum Metal Limit (MML) and NO-GO gauge checks the Minimum Metal
Limit (LML). In the case of a hole, maximum metal limit is when the hole is as small as possible,
that is, it is the low limit of size. In case of hole, therefore, GO gauge corresponds to the low limit
of size, while NO-GO gauge corresponds to high limit of size. For a shaft, the maximum metal
limit is when the shaft is on the high limit of size. Thus, in case of a shaft GO gauge corresponds
to the high limit of size and NO-GO gauge corresponds to the low limit size.
While checking, each of these two gauges is offered in turn to the work. A part is considered to
be good, if the GO gauge passes through or over the work and NO-GO gauge fails to pass under
the action of its own weight. This indicates that the actual dimension of the part is within the
specified tolerance. If both the gauges fail to pass, it indicates that hole is under size or shaft is
over size. If both the gauges pass, it means that the hole is over size or the shaft is under size.
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Tolerance
Tolerance
LL
HL
NOT
LL
HL
GO
NO GO
GO
HOLE
(a) For Hole
Manufacturing Engg
Now, the plug gauges are used to check the hole, therefore the size of the GO plug gauge should
correspond to the low limit of hole, while that of NO-GO plug gauge should corresponds to the
high limit of hole.
Tolerance
Zone
GO
Max. Limit
Tolerance
Max.
Zone
Limit
NO
GO
GO
NO GO
Mini.
Limit
Fig. 9.6.13
Similarly, the GO Snap gauge on the other hand corresponds to the high limit of shaft, while
NO-GO Snap gauge corresponds to the low limit of shaft.
The difference in size between the GO and NO GO plug gauges, as well as the difference in size
between GO and NO-GO Snap gauges is approximately equal to the tolerance of the tested hole or
shaft in case of standard gauges.
(2) GO gauges should check all the related dimensions (roundness, size, location etc).
Simultaneously whereas NO-GO gauge should check only one element of the dimension at a
time.
According to this rule, GO plug gauge should have a full circular section and be of full length of
the hole it has to check. This ensures that any lack of straightness, or roundness of the hole will
prevent the entry of full length GO plug gauge. If this condition is not full filled, the inspection of
the part with the gauge may give wrong results.
For example, suppose the bush to be inspected has a curved axis and a short GO plug gauge is
used to check it. The short plug gauge will pass through all the curves of the bent busing. This
will lead to a wrong result that the workpiece (hole) is within the prescribed limits. Actually,
such a busing with a curved hole will not mate properly with its mating part and thus defective.
A GO plug gauge with adequate length will not pass through a curved busing and the error will
be detected. A long plug gauge will thus check the cylindrical surface not in one direction, but in
a number of sections simultaneously. The length of the GO plug gauge should not be less than
1.5 times the diameter of the hole to be checked.
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Bush
GO
Plug Gauge
Fig. 9.6.14 Checking a bush with curved axis
Hole
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with the graduations of the scale. Linear measuring instruments are designed either for line
measurements or end measurements. In end measuring instruments, the measurement is taken
between two end surfaces as in micrometers, slip gauges etc.
The instruments used for linear measurements can be classified as:
(i) Direct measuring instruments
(ii) Indirect measuring instruments
The direct measuring instruments are of two types:
(i) Graduated
(ii) Non-graduated.
The graduated instruments include rules, vernier callipers, vernier height gauges, vernier depth
gauges, micrometers, dial indicator etc. The non-graduated instruments include callipers,
trammels, telescopic gauges, surface gauges, straight edges, wire gauges, screw pitch gauges,
radius gauges, thickness gauges, slip gauges etc. They can also be classified as :
(i) Non-precision instruments such as steel rule, calliper etc.
(ii) Precision measuring instruments, such as vernier instruments, micrometers, dial gauges
etc.
Steel Rule
Steel rule is a line measuring instrument. It is a part replica of the international prototype meter.
It compares an unknown length to be measured with the previously calibrated length. It is made
of hardened steel or stainless steel having series of equally spaced line engraved on it.
Steel rule is most commonly used in workshop for measuring components of limited accuracy.
The marks on a good class rule vary from 0.12 mm to 0.18 mm wide, so that we cannot expect to
obtain a degree of accuracy much closer than within 0.012 mm. The quickness and ease with
which it can be used and its low cost, makes it a popular and widely used measuring device.
Callipers
To measure the diameter of a circular part it is essential that the measurement is made along the
largest distance or true diameter. The steel rule alone is not a convenient method of measuring
directly the size of the circular part. A calliper is used to transfer the distance between the faces
of a component to a scale or micrometer. It thus converts an end measurement situation to the
line system of the rule.
The accurate use of callipers depends upon the sense of feel that can only be acquired by
practice. While using callipers the following rules should be followed:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
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Surface plate
Surface plate forms the basis of measurement. They are extensively used in workshops and
metrological laboratories where inspection is carried out. They are used as:
(i)
(ii)
Surface plates are massive and highly rigid in design. They have truly flat level planes. They are
generally made up of C.I. free from blow holes, inclusions and other surface defects and are heat
treated to relieve internal stresses.
Vernier Callipers
The vernier callipers consists of two scale: one is fixed and the other is movable. The fixed scale,
called main scale is calibrated on L-shaped frame and carries a fixed jaw. The movable scale,
called vernier scale slides over the main scale and carries a movable jaw. The movable jaw as
well as the fixed jaw carries measuring tip. When the two jaws are closed the zero of the venier
scale coincides with the zero of the main scale. For precise setting of the movable jaw an
adjustment screw is provided. Also, an arrangement is provided to lock the sliding scale on the
fixed main scale.
Least Count: Vernier instruments have two scales, main scale and the vernier scale. The main
scale is fixed and the vernier scale slides over the main scale. When zero on the main scale
coincides with the zero on the vernier scale, the vernier scale has one more division than that of
the main scale with which it coincides. So, the value of a division on vernier scale is slightly
smaller than the value of a division on the main scale. This difference is the least count.
Least count (L.C.) is the difference between the value of main scale division and vernier scale
division. Thus least count of a vernier instrument = Value of the smallest division on the main
scale The value of the smallest division on the vernier scale.
Micrometer
The accuracy of the vernier calliper is 0.02 mm ; most engineering precision work has to be
measured to a much greater accuracy than this, especially to achieve interchangeability of
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component parts. To achieve this greater precision, measuring equipment of a greater accuracy
and sensitivity must be used. Micrometer is one of the most common and most popular forms of
measuring instrument for precise measurement with 0.01 mm accuracy. Micrometers with
0.001 mm accuracy are also available. Micrometers can be classified as :
(a) Outside Micrometer
(b) Inside Micrometer
(c) Screw Thread Micrometer and,
(d) Depth gauge Micrometer.
Principle of Micrometer
Micrometers work on the principle of screw and nut. We know that when a screw is turned
through nut through one revolution, it advances by one pitch distance i.e., one rotation of screw
corresponds to a linear movement of a distance equal to pitch of the thread. If the circumference
of the screw is divided into number of equal parts say n, its rotation through one division will
cause the screw to advance through (
) length. Thus, the minimum length that can be
measured by such arrangement will be (
). By reducing the pitch of the screw thread or by
increasing the number of divisions on the circumference of screw, the length value of one
circumferential division can be reduced and accuracy of measurement can be increased
considerably.
Least Count of Micrometer
Least count is the minimum distance which can be measured accurately by the instrument. The
micrometer has a screw of 0.5 mm pitch, with a spindle graduated in 50 divisions to provide a
.
direct reading of (
)=
= 0.01 mm.
Least count of a micrometer is thus, the value of one division on a spindle, which is connected to
the screw.
L. C. of micrometer
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obtain these fine accuracies for high precision work, use is made of sine bar, angle gauges, and
optical instruments. The spirit level and the dividing head are also employed.
The following instruments are generally are generally used for angular measurements
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Product Design
Product design for which interactive computer aided design (CAD) system allows the drawing
and analysis tasks to be performed. These computer graphics systems are very useful to get data
out of designers mind into a presentable form and enable analysis in fraction of time required
otherwise and with greater accuracy. Design process is speeded up considerably.
Manufacturing Planning
Computer aided process planning helps to establish optimum manufacture routines and
processing steps, sequences and schedules so that the process is optimum.
Manufacturing
Computer aided manufacturing (CAM) helps indentify manufacturing problems and
opportunities. Distributed intelligence in the form of microprocessors could be used to control
machines and material handling and collect the data on current shop conditions.
Computer Aided Inspection and Reporting
Computer aided inspection and reporting provides a feedback loop.
Advantages of Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Remarkable flexibility for manufacturing diverse components in the same setup by easy and
quick manipulation of software.
High rates of production with consistent high quality
Uninterrupted production with negligible supervision.
Economical production even where product demand is only moderate in volume
Drastic reduction of lead times where drastic changes in design are called for.
Integrating and fine tuning of all factory functions
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NC part programming, tool fabrication, assembly, jig and fixture design, quality control and
testing.
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Capital planning
Plant location
Sales planning
Production planning
Inventory planning
Purchasing
Overtime decision
Job scheduling
Machine maintenance
Inventory planning
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Extrapolation is one of the easiest ways to forecast. In this method, based on the past few
values of production capacity, next value may be extrapolated on a graph paper.
Where:
Wi= Relative weight of data for ith period
and
It may be noted that when more weight is given to the recent values, the forecast is nearer to
likely trend. Weighted moving average is advantageous as compared to simple moving
average as it is able to give more importance to recent data.
4. Exponential smoothing
In exponential smoothing method of forecasting, the weightage of data diminishes
exponentially as the data become older. In this method all past data is considered. The
weightage of every previous data decreases by (1-), where is called as exponential
smoothing constant.
Ft
t-1 + (
- )
t-2+ (
- )2 Dt-3+ ( - )3 Dt-3..
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Where:
Di= One period ahead forecast made at time t
Dt= Actual demand for Ith period
Smoothing constant (0 )
Comments regarding Smoothing constant :
Smaller is the value of , more is the smoothing effect in forecast.
Higher value of gives more robust forecast and response more quickly to changes.
Higher value of gives more weightage to past data as compared to smaller value.
Statistical Forecasting:
Statistical forecasting is based on the past data. We evaluate the expected error for the statistical
technique of forecasting. Some common regression functions are as follows:
Let:
Ft= Forecast for time period t
dt= Forecasted demand for time period t
t= time period
1. Linear Forecaster
Ft= a+bt
Where a and b are parameters
2. Cyclic Forecaster
Ft= a+ uCos (2/N)t + vSin (2/N)t
Where a, u and v are parameters and N is periodicity
3. Cyclic Forecaster with Growth
Ft= a+ bt+ uCos (2/N)t + vSin (2/N)t
Where a, b, u and v are parameters and N is periodicity
4. Quadratic Forecaster
Ft=a +bt+ct2
Where a, b and c are parameters
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Accuracy of Forecast:
Many factors affect the trend in data therefore it is impossible to obtain an exact right forecast.
Below are the tools that are used to determine the error in the forecasted value.
1. Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
This is calculated as the average of absolute value of difference between actual and
forecasted value.
|
n
Where:
Ft= Actual demand for period t
Dt= Forecasted demand for period t
n= number of periods considered for calculating the error
2. Mean Sum of Square Error (MSE)
The average of square of all errors in the forecast is termed as MSE. Its interpretation is
same as MAD.
)
n
3. BIAS
BIAS is measure of the average of all errors in the forecast. Its intern. A positive bias
indicates underestimation while a negative BIAS indicates over-estimation
S
)
n
Process design
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Industrial Engineering
Material
Method
Machine
Men
Control
o
Inspection
Expedition
Evaluation
Dispatching
Conduct an analysis of the product to determine the part/ component/ subassemblies required to be produced.
Conduct the analysis to determine the material needed for the product.
2. Scheduling
Scheduling involves fixing the priorities for different jobs and deciding the starting and
finishing time of each job. Main purpose of scheduling is to prepare a time-table indicating
the time and rate of production, as indicated by starting and finishing time of each activity.
Scheduling will be discussed in detail in next section.
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3. Dispatching
Dispatching is the selection and sequencing of available jobs to be run at the individual
workstations and assignments of those jobs to workers. Functions of dispatching are as
under.
o
Ensuring right material, tools, parts, jigs and fixtures are available.
4. Expediting
This is the final stage of production planning and control. It is used for ensuring that the
work is carried out as per plans and due dates are met. The main objective is to arrest
deviations from the plan. Another objective is to integrate different production activities to
meet the production target. The following activities are done ine expediting phase:
o
10.1.3 Scheduling
Scheduling is used to allocate resources over time to accomplish specific tasks. It should take
account of technical requirement of task, available capacity and forecasted demand. The output
plan should be translated into operations, timing and schedule on the shop floor. Detailed
scheduling encompasses the formation of starting and finishing time of all jobs at each
operational facility.
Scheduling Methods:
Gantt Chart
Gantt chart is a graphical tool for representing a production schedule. Normally, Gantt chart
consists of two axis. On X-axis, time is represented and on Y-axis various activities or tasks,
machine centres and facilities are represented.
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Industrial Engineering
Let us further assume that lead time is zero; which means that the inventory is delivered
instantaneously after the order is placed.
Total cost during the year is the sum of the inventory carrying cost during year and total
ordering cost.
Thus,
TC = (Ordering Cost) (Number or Orders placed in a year)
+ (Carrying cost per unit) (Average inventory level during year)
.. (i)
Number of orders to be placed in a year
verage inventory carried during the year
emand in a year
uantity ordered each time
0
2
2
This is because the inventory level is uniformly decreasing from Q to zero (Fig. 10.2.1).
Hence, from (i):
TC = C ( ) C ( )
..(ii)
What level of inventory should be ordered (i.e., ), so that total cost will be minimum? To
answer this, equation (ii) is differentiated with respect to Q and equated to zero. Second
differential should be positive for cost minimization:
(
( / )
..(iii)
Industrial Engineering
or,
or,
Q=
( C)
(a positive quantity)
Quantity
(Q)
Q/2
Lowest
Total Cost
Carrying
Cost ( )
Cost
Ordering
Cost ( )
(EOQ)
Quantity (Q)
Fig. 10.2.2 Economic Order Quantity
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2
1.5
1.25
1
[
0.5
1.0
( /
1.5
)
2.0
as Q in equation (ii).
2C C
. . . (iv)
)
)
If we increase or decrease the EOQ by twice, the increase in total cost is only 25% (Fig.10.2.3).
Thus, total cost is not very sensitive in the vicinity of EOQ. The physical significance of this
observation is quite important. If there is a slight error in deciding the EOQ, the total inventory
cost is insignificantly affected.
Now, let us summarize the concept of EOQ. Economic Order Quantity (EOQ) is that size of order
which is able to minimize the total cost of carrying inventory and cost of ordering for a given
period under the assumption of known and certain demand.
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Therefore, for high cost items (i.e., high value of C ), the average inventory level should be low.
Optimum Ordering Interval ( )
Since, EOQ = demand rate Optimum ordering interval
or,
t
or, t
=
Optimum Number of Orders ( )
The optimum number of orders per year is obtained by dividing annual demand by economic
order quantity.
or, N
days
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Z=
Industrial Engineering
Cx
a x ( or or ) b : for all i; i = 1, 2, . . . . m
Cx
is equivalent to
Minimize Z =
Cx
Cx
is equivalent to
Minimize
Cx
x = 24
Industrial Engineering
x 24
and, x
x 24
. . . . (1)
Since one job (i) can be assigned to any one of the operators, we have following constraint
set:
for all j j
, 2, . . . n
. . . . (2)
Similarly for each operator, there may be only one assignment of job. For this, the
constraint set is:
for all i i
, 2, . . . n
. . . . (3)
. . . . (4)
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Minimize
Industrial Engineering
Subject to
for all
, 2, . . . n
for all
, 2, . . . n
0 for all
and all . Problem
Fig. 10.3.32 Mathematical Formulation
of Assignment
Solution of Assignment Problem
The assignment problem is solved in the following manner:
Start
Is the
solution
optimal?
No
Revise the solution
Find
Yes
Assignment of row
with column of
matrix
Total cost of
assignment
Industrial Engineering
The important aspect of the queuing problem is the arrival pattern. The arrival pattern is
generally governed by probabilistic distribution. The organizations have to come to a
compromise between a good service and less cost in running the service points.
Characteristics of queuing model
Arrival Characteristics
o
Size of input source: The size of the input source can be considered as limited or
infinite.
Arrival Pattern at the system: The number of arrivals per unit time (rate of arrival) is
estimated by Poissons distribution. he probability distribution of inter-arrival
times, which is the time between two consecutive arrivals, may also be governed by a
probability distribution.
For x = 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . . . .
where:
P(x) : Probability of x arrival.
x : Number of arrivals per unit time.
: verage arrival time.
/ :
Queue
o
Size: The queue may be considered to be limited when its length cannot exceed a
certain number. It may be limited or infinite
Queue discipline: Queue discipline is the rule by which customers waiting in queue
would receive service. Some examples are FIFO (First-In-First-Out), LIFO (Last-InFirst-Out) or SIRO (Service-In-Random-Order)
Service Facility
o
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Kendall Notations
Kendall (1951) proposed a set of notations for queuing models. This is widely used in
literature. The common pattern of notations of a queuing model is given by:
(a/b/c) : (d/e)
Where:
a: Probability distribution of the inter-arrival time
b: Probability distribution of the service time
c: Number of servers in the queuing model
d: Maximum allowed customers in the system
e: Queue discipline
In a queuing model notation, M is traditionally indicative of exponential distribution. Therefore,
( / / ): (/
) indicates a queuing model when the inter-arrival time and service time are
distributed exponential with distribution (equivalent to this: M stands for Poisson arrivals and
departures). There is 1 server, the permissible number of customers in the system are infinite
and the service discipline is first-in-first-out (FIFO).
Single-Line-Single-Server Model
Queuing models may be formulated on the basis of some fundamental assumptions related
to following five features:
Arrival process
Queue configuration
Queue discipline
Service discipline, and
Service facility.
Let us understand the M/M/1 model first. Following set of assumptions is needed:
1. Arrival Process: The arrival is through infinite population with no control or restriction.
Arrivals are random, independent and follow Poisson distribution. The arrival process is
stationary and in single unit (rather than batches).
2.
3.
4.
5.
Queue Configuration: The queue length is unrestricted and there is a single queue.
Queue Discipline: Customers are patient.
Service Discipline: First-Come-First-Serve (FCFS)
Service Facility: There is one server, whose service times are distributed as per
exponential distribution. Service is continuously provided without any prejudice or
breakdown, and all service parameters are state independent.
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. . . (10.3.1)
. . . (10.3.3)
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. . . (10.3.5)
. . . (10.3.8)
. . . (10.3.9)
. . . (10.3.10)
. . . (10.3.11)
. . . (10.3.12)
. . . (10.3.13)
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CPM can be represented as directed graph in which time (or cost) estimates are
deterministic.
Methodology of CPM
Critical path is the path on the network of project activities which takes longest time form
start to finish. The way by which we construct and analyze CPM or PERT network, the
analysis is called as critical path analysis (CPA). A general methodology for CPA is as follows:
Step 1: Break the project in terms of specific activities and/or events. Find the time of each
activity. In CPM, it is a deterministic estimate, while in PERT it is a probabilistic, three time
estimate.
Step 2: Establish the interdependence and sequence of specific activities (also called as
precedence relationship).
Step 3: Prepare the network of activities and/or events.
Step 4: Assign time-estimates and/or cost-estimates to all the activities of the network.
Step 5: Identify longest path (time-wise) on the network. It is the critical path of the network.
The project completion takes time equal to critical path time.
Step 6: Determine slack (or float) for each activity, not contained on the critical path.
Step 7: Use regular monitoring, evaluation and control of the progress of the project by
replanning, rescheduling and relocation of resources (Such as money, manpower, etc.).
We have seen in step 5 that the critical path determines the project completion time. It the
project time needs to be compressed, we have to focus on activities on critical path.
Similarly, if any activity of the critical path gets delayed by t time, then the total project will
be delayed by t time. Same is not true for activities, not lying on critical path. This is due to
slack (or float) associated with them. This offers flexibility in scheduling the resources. From
the to time, some resources from non-critical activities may be diverted to the critical
activity.
Terminology used in CPM/PERT
1. Activity: Distinct part of a project, involving some work, whose completion requires
some amount of time. Examples of activity are: drilling a hole, starting a bus, issuing the
work order, floating a tender, etc.
2. Activity Duration: It is the physical time required to complete an activity. In CPM, it is the
best estimate of the time to complete an activity. In PERT, it is the expected time or
average time to complete an activity.
3. Critical Activity: This activity has no room for schedule deviation. In case of deviation or
slips, the entire project completion will slip. An activity with zero slack is also same.
4. Critical Path: The sequence or chain of critical activities for the project constitutes critical
path. It is the longest duration path through the network.
5. CPM: Project management technique that is used when activity times are deterministic
(Critical Path Method).
6. Crashing: The process of reducing an activity time by adding fresh resources and hence
usually increasing cost. Crashing is needed for finishing the task before estimated time.
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7. Crash Cost: Cost associated with an activity when it is completed in the possible time
(Crash time), which is lesser than the expected or normal time.
8. Dummy Activity: An activity that consumes no time but shows precedence among
activities. It is useful for proper representation in the network.
9. Earliest Finish (EF) Time: The earliest time that an activity can finish, from the beginning
of the project.
10. Earliest Start (ES) Time: The earliest time that an activity can start, from the beginning of
the project.
11. Event: It is the beginning, completion point, or milestone accomplishment within the
project. An activity begins and ends with events. An event triggers an activity of the
project.
12. Expected Activity Time: The average activity time that is used in the project scheduling.
13. Free Slack (float): The length of time upto which an activity can be delayed for
channeling resources or re-adjustments, without affecting the starts of the succeeding
activities.
14. Immediate Predecessor: An activity, which should immediately precede the activity
under consideration.
15. Latest Finish (LF) Time: It is the latest time that an activity can finish, from the beginning
of the project, without causing a delay in the completion of the project.
16. Latest Start (LS) Time: It is the latest time that an activity can start, from the beginning of
the project, without causing a delay in the completion of the project.
17. Most Likely Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity that is the best estimate;
under the given conditions (used in PERT).
18. Normal Cost: Cost associated with an activity when it is completed in normal time.
19. Optimistic Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity if everything in the project
goes well (used in PERT).
20. Pessimistic Time ( ): It is the time for completing an activity if everything in the project
goes wrong (used in PERT).
21. Predecessor Activity: An activity that must occur before another activity in the project
which is decided on precedence relationship.
22. Project: Set of activities which are interrelated with each other and are to be organized
for a common goal or objective during a specified time-frame.
23. Project Network: A visual representation of the interdependence between different
activities of a project which are normally associated with a time-wise sequencing.
24. PERT: It is the project management technique used when activity times are probabilistic.
(Program Evaluation and Review Technique).
25. Resource Allocation Methods: Allocation of resources to the activities so that project
completion time is as small as possible and resources are well utilized.
26. Slack: It is the amount of time that an activity or a group of activities can delay in getting
completed without causing a delay in the completion of the project. An activity having
slack cannot be critical activity.
27. Successor Activity: It is the activity that must occur after another activity (which is
predecessor).
28. Total Slack (Float): The time upto which an activity can be delayed without affecting the
start of the succeeding activities.
29. Updating: It involves some revision of the project schedule after partial completion with
revised information.
30. Variance: It is the measure of the deviation of the time distribution for an activity.
Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT)
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PERT incorporates probabilistic time estimates for each activity. It employs a betadistribution for the time estimates. The procedure for making the network and determining
the critical path is same as CPM. However, there is a specific calculation approach for finding
the most expected time for every activity and for finding the measure of certainity in
meeting this estimate.
Time estimate in PERT
PERT allows uncertainty in the estimates for time of each activity. there are three time
estimates in PERT. These are.
Optimistic time (t )
Pessimistic time (t )
Most likely time (t )
Optimistic time for an activity is that estimate for the completion of the activity which
happens when every best thing happens to facilitate the execution. Thus, when everything
goes well, the estimate is optimistic time. On the other extreme, when every thing goes
worst, the duration of time-estimate is the pessimistic time. Most likely time is in between
the optimistic and pessimistic times. Under normal circumstances, this is the probable time
in which an activity is completed.
In PERT, it is assumed that the three time estimates are random variables, distributed as
Beta-distribution. The probability of most likely time is four times that of either of the
remaining two. Mathematically, the expected time (t ) for an activity is related with the
three time estimates as follows.
t
Once, expected time (t ) is known from the three time estimates, the algorithm for network
calculations is similar to CPM approach.
The variance (
PERT
CPM
1.
2.
Event oriented
Activity oriented
3.
Focussed on time
4.
More suitable
projects
for
repetitive
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Reference Books
Reference Books
Mathematics:
Engineering Mechanics:
Strength of Material:
Theory of Machine:
Machine Design:
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Reference Books
Heat Transfer:
Manufacturing Engineering:
Industrial Engineering:
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