Gears

There is probably no application of the basic machine

that is used so much in our modern mechanical age as
the gear, or toothed wheel.
We use it in clocks and watches, motor cars and
aircraft and in just about every type of mechanical
device.

Gears
A gear is a component within a transmission device
that transmits rotational force to another gear or
device.
A gear is different from a pulley in that a gear is a
round wheel that has linkages ("teeth" or "cogs") that
mesh with other gear teeth, allowing force to be fully
transferred without slippage.
Depending on their construction and arrangement,
geared devices can transmit forces at different
speeds, torques, or in a different direction, from the
power source.

Gear Fundamentals
Gears may be used:

to gain mechanical advantage.

to change the direction of movement.

to transfer rotational movement from one gear to
another.
They are required to complete these actions smoothly
and positively with no slippage. The gear that causes
the motion is called the driver gear. The gear to which
the motion is transferred is called the driven gear.
Torque could be transmitted by pressing two smooth
wheels together, but friction between the wheels would
be sufficient to prevent slip when a high driving torque
is applied.
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Gear Fundamentals
To obtain a positive drive, teeth are cut on the surface
to form gears. The teeth are formed above and below
the curved surface of the smooth wheels so that the
gears would have the same movement ratio * as the
wheels.

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Spur Gear

Gear Type
There are numerous gear types used in all types of
machinery, the most common being:

Spur gears,

Crossed helical gears,

Helical gears,

Worm gears,

Double helical

Rack and pinion gears,
(Herringbone) gears,

Sector gears,

Straight bevel gears,

Planetary or epicyclic
gears,

Spiral bevel gears,

Differential gears.

Hypoid gears

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A spur gear is a cylinder, wheel or disc on the surface

of which are cut parallel teeth, each in a common
plane with the axis.

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Spur Gear
Spur gears are most commonly used in engine and
machinery applications working under ordinary
conditions, at moderate speeds and with medium
pressures exerted upon the teeth.
If the meshing gears have external teeth, they will
rotate in opposite directions.

Spur Gear
If the gears are required to rotate in the same
direction, one of the gears can have internal teeth.

Note: Gear speed ratio is not affected by the direction

of rotation.
Spur gears are relatively easy to manufacture, but can
be noisy in operation.
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Helical Gear

Helical Gear

To reduce the noise and stress in the gears, helical

gears are introduced.
The helical gear resembles the spur gear in that the
teeth are cut on a cylindrical body.
However, it differs from the spur gear in that the teeth
are spiralled around the body rather than formed
parallel to the axis of the gear body. Spiral teeth
provide smoothness of operation.

The inclination of the helical teeth produces an axial or

end thrust on each gear tending to separate them
axially. These end thrusts need to be resisted by
suitable thrust bearings. Helical gears carry greater
loads at higher speed than equivalent size spur gears.
Their properties of strength and quietness are
attributed to the fact that the teeth engage gradually,
and more teeth are in mesh at the same time.

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Double Helical (HERRINGBONE)

Gear
This system resembles helical gears, having reversed
directions of spiral, placed side by side so that the
teeth come together to form a chevron pattern.
In general, herringbone gears are used with parallel
shafts.
The end thrust is neutralized in this system as the
thrust from one half of a tooth is counteracted by that
from the other half.

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Crossed Helical Gears

Crossed helical gears, also known as 'skew gears' or
'spiral gears', are used between non-intersecting
shafts. They have a sliding action as well as a gear
tooth action.
They can provide a wider variety of speed ratios than
can other gears, but can only carry light loads.

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Bevel gears
Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a shaft's
rotation needs to be changed.
They are usually mounted on shafts that are 90apart,
but can be designed to work at other angles as well.
The teeth on bevel gears can be straight, spiral or
hypoid.

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Straight Bevel Gear

When the axes of shafts intersect, bevel gearing is
used to connect them.
The teeth of the straight bevel gear are cut on an
angular surface, similar to a truncated cone shape.
The intersecting centre lines of these gear shafts is
usually a full 90angle.
With straight toothed bevel gears, the forces between
the teeth in contact tend to separate the gears both
radially and axially, hence, thrust bearings must be
fitted behind each gear.

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Spiral Bevel Gear

Spiral Bevel Gear

This gear, is also adaptable to non-parallel shafting.

When spiral teeth are used, the axial forces on the
gears may tend to separate them or to cause them to
mesh more deeply; it depends upon the angle of the
spiral, whether the spiral is right or left handed and
upon the direction of rotation.
With spiral bevel gears, it is usual to fit double thrust
bearings.

The curved teeth of spiral bevel gears:

provide quieter and smoother operation, and

enable the gear to carry greater loads than equivalent
size spur gears or straight bevel gears.

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Hypoid Gears

Hypoid Gears

These gears are similar to spiral bevel gears, except

their shaft axes are not in the same plane, and
therefore do not intersect.

They are smoother and quieter than spiral bevel gears.

They provide greater strength for a given size and
speed ratio.

By raising or lowering the axis of the pinion gear

relative to the axis of the hypoid or crown gear, the
tooth pitch of the pinion gear can be increased without
changing the gear ratio.
It is therefore possible to make the pinion larger (and
stronger) than that of a spiral bevel gear system
having the same gear ratio and crown wheel size.
There is a sliding action in the direction of the length of
the teeth of hypoid gears that is absent in bevel
gearing and this makes lubrication of the teeth a more
difficult matter.

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Worm Gear

Worm Gear

This gear set comprises a worm wheel (or gear) and a

worm.
The worm may be considered as part of a screw
having a number of 'threads'.
If the wheel is considered to represent a nut it will be
seen that if the worm is prevented from moving in an
axial direction and is rotated, the worm wheel must
revolve also.
This type is known as 'parallel' worm gearing, the
worm being a parallel screw.

The worm is normally the driver and the action of the

worm gear is quite similar to the action of a screw or a
nut.
The worm wheel, which resembles a helical gear, is
throated or curved on the face to partially envelop the
worm.

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Worm Gear

Rack and Pinion Gear

Due to the wedge like action of the worm thread on the

gear tooth, it is relatively easy to obtain quiet operation
with this type of gearing, but, efficiency is not as good
as the bevel system (94% compared to 98% of the
bevel system).
The worm gear system provides a very wide range of
speed reductions.
They carry high loads and are quiet and smooth in
operation. At speed ratios greater than about 20:1
worm gears cannot be back driven, that is, the gear
wheel cannot drive the worm.
The worm may have one or more threads, each
considered a tooth.

This is a specialized form of spur gear where the spur

meshes with gear teeth on a flat rack.
The function of this device is to convert the rotary
motion of the spur gear into linear or reciprocating
motion at the rack assembly.
This is a common steering system employed by light
car manufacturers.

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Sector Gear

vehicle steering system

A sector gear and pinion system is used where a

relatively small movement is required, eg. a sector of a
circle rather than the full circumference.
The sector gear may be part of an actuating arm which
when moved meshes with a pinion gear to cause
rotary motion of the pinion gear.
This is commonly used in mechanical type instruments
to convert reciprocal motion to rotary motion.

EXPLANATION: The
rack and pinion gear
system allows rotary
motion of the steering
wheel to be converted to
linear motion. As the
steering wheel is turned,
the pinion gear also turns,
driving the rack in the
right or left direction,
pointing the wheels in the
desired direction.
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Differential Gears
Differential gears link two shafts with a covering,
forcing the total of the rotational angles of the shafts to
be the same as the rotational angles of the covering.
Arrangement of the system is done in such a way that
one axle turns faster than the other.

Planetary (EPICYCLIC) Gears

Just as planets rotate about the sun, the planetary
gear system comprises of 'planetary' gears which
revolve about a 'sun' gear.
The planetary gear system is ideal for use where large
amounts of power must be handled in a reduction gear
system.
Typical applications are:

propeller drive reductions in radial piston engines and
turbo-propeller engines, and

helicopter rotor systems.
One advantage of the planetary gearing system is that
the centre of propeller thrust and the engine drive are
'in line' ie. concentric.
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Planetary (EPICYCLIC) Gears

There are a number of planetary gear systems.

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Planetary (EPICYCLIC) Gears

Planetary gears consist of:

a fixed gear,

a rotating driving gear,

a spider assembly, and

two or more 'planet gears' meshed between them.
The planet gears are mounted on a 'spider' and can
rotate on their own axes. The spider can also rotate on
their axes. The spider can also rotate on its axis.
(Alternative terms for some of the gears are given in
brackets). The planet gears are so-called because
they move around the inner (sun) gear, rather like the
planets around the sun.
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Planetary (EPICYCLIC) Gears

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Gear Trains

Idler gear

One of the wheels is always connected to a power

source such as a motor and this is referred to as the
DRIVER
The one which is connected to the driver, either by a
belt or teeth is called the DRIVEN.

The idler gear is used so that the rotation of the two

important gears is the same direction.
It does not have any effect other than to change the
direction of motion.

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Gear Geometry

Compound Gears
Compound gears are used in engines, workshop
machines and in many other mechanical devices.

Compound gear train.

Basic spur gear geometry.

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Gear Tooth Nomenclature

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Gear terminology
Gear or wheel: The larger of two interacting gears.
Pinion: The smaller gear in a pair.
Path of contact: The path followed by the point of
contact between two meshing gear teeth.

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Gear terminology
Circular pitch (Pc): The distance measured along
the circumference of the pitch circle from a point on
one tooth to a corresponding point on the adjacent
tooth. It will be equal to the pitch circle circumference
divided by number of teeth on the wheel.
PC =

T
D = diameter of pitch circle
T = number of teeth
PC = circular pitch

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Gear terminology
Pitch circle diameter: The diameter of a circle which
by pure rolling action would produce the same motion
as the toothed gear wheel. It is also known as the
pitch diameter.
Pitch Point: the point of contact of two pitch circles
of mating gears.
The diameteral pitch (Pd): the number of teeth per
unit length of the pitch circle diameter.
T
Pd =
D
D = diameter of pitch circle
T = number of teeth
P d = diametral pitch

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Gear terminology
Module (m). The module of a gear is equal to the
pitch diameter divided by the number of teeth.
D
T
m = Module in meter
D = diameter of pitch circle
T = number of teeth
m=

Gear terminology
Base circle: An imaginary circle used in involute
gearing to generate the involutes that form the tooth
profiles.

Module is the reciprocal of the diameteral pitch

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Gear terminology
Addendum : The radial distance from the pitch
surface to the outermost point of the tooth. Its value is
normally one module and usually denoted by a.
Dedendum : The radial distance from the depth of the
tooth trough to the pitch surface. Its value is generally
1.157 module or (/20) module.

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Gear terminology
Line of action, also called 'Pressure line'. The line
along which the force between two meshing gear
teeth is directed. It has the same direction as the
force vector. In general, the line of action changes
from moment to moment during the period of
engagement of a pair of teeth.
For involute gears, however, the tooth-to-tooth force is always
directed along the same line -- that is, the line of action is constant.
this implies that for involute gears the path of contact is also a
straight line, coincident with the line of action -- as is indeed the
case.

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Gear terminology

Gear Meshing

Pressure angle (). The complement of the angle

between the direction that the teeth exert force on
each other, and the line joining the centres of the two
gears.
For involute gears, the teeth always exert force along the line of
action, which, for involute gears, is a straight line; and thus, for
involute gears, the pressure angle is constant.

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Involute Profile
On an involute profile gear tooth, the contact point
starts closer to one gear, and as the gear spins, the
contact point moves away from that gear and toward
the other.
If you were to follow the contact point, it would
describe a straight line that starts near one gear and
ends up near the other.
This means that the radius of the contact point gets
larger as the teeth engage.

Involute Profile

Interference in Involute Gears

Methods to avoid Interference

In general, the phenomenon, when the tip of tooth

undercuts the root on its mating gear is known as
interference.

Height of the teeth may be reduced.

Under cut of the radial flank of the pinion.

Centre distance may be increased. It leads to
increase in pressure angle.

By these tooth correction, the pressure angle, centre
distance and base circles remain unchanged, but
tooth thickness of gear will be greater than the
pinion tooth thickness.

Backlash

Backlash

Backlash is the error in motion that occurs when

gears change direction.
The term "backlash" can also be used to refer to the
size of the gap, not just the phenomenon it causes;
thus, one could speak of a pair of gears as having, for
example, "0.1 mm of backlash."
A pair of gears could be designed to have zero
backlash, but this would presuppose perfection in
manufacturing,
uniform
thermal
expansion
characteristics throughout the system, and no lubricant.

Therefore, gear pairs are designed to have some

backlash. It is usually provided by reducing the tooth
thickness of each gear by half the desired gap
distance.
In the case of a large gear and a small
pinion, however, the backlash is usually
taken entirely off the gear and the pinion
is given full sized teeth.
Backlash can also be provided by moving the gears
farther apart. For situations, such as instrumentation
and control, where precision is important, backlash can
be minimized through one of several techniques.

Gear Ratio

Velocity Ratio

The ratio of the number of teeth on the gear to that on

the pinion is known as gear ratio.

The ratio of the angular velocity of the follower to the

angular velocity of the driving gear is known as the
velocity ratio.

GR =

VR =

tp

2
1

N1
( 2 = 2N1 and 2 = 2N 2 )
N2

D1
D
N
D1 N1 = D2 N 2 and 1 = 2
D 2
D 2 N1

t1
D D
D
t
PC = 1 = 2 and 1 = 1
t2
t1
t2
D2 t2

where t g = number of teeth on the gear

t p = number of teeth on the pinion
and GR = gear ratio

Sign Usage
When calculating angular velocities in gear trains we use
+/ sign to indicate direction of rotation
Example:
assume + cw
(clockwise)

1 = +100 rpm

Angular velocity of follower

Angular velocity of driver

tg

ccw
(counter clockwise)

2 = ?

Direction of rotation is
reversed in this gear train

2 =

t1
1
t2

20
100
40
= 50 rpm

2 =
t1 = 20
t 2 = 40

counter clockwise
(ccw)