Introduction

Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) is a seen as a research and planning

methodology which uses a set of participatory and largely visual techniques for
assessing group and community resources, identifying and prioritizing problems and
appraising strategies for solving them (Chambers 1992). The formulation of the PRA
Method has a background of the long experience from an expert in, Robert
Chambers (1983), in the field of community development working in various
developing countries. PRA has systematically evolved from the fields of Andragogy
of Education (Freire, 1971) and research and science (Chambers, 1992) borrowing
principles from Field Research, Applied Anthropology, Ecosystem Analysis and
Participatory Action Research.
The growth of PRA has seen a proliferation in social research of its application and
use. This growth and wide spread use has resulted in questions of the applicability
of its techniques in research as also observed by Chambers (2004). A need
therefore to explain how the PRA techniques can be made use of by a research is
imperative which is the aim of this essay. This essay therefore is a frantic effort at
explaining five PRA techniques that can be considered during data collection for
triangulation. In an effort to do so, this essay defines PRA, triangulation,
participation and data collection. Further the essay outlines the major available PRA
techniques and explains at least three of them after which a conclusion follows.
Definitions of key concepts
PRA is an acronym that stands for Participatory Rural Appraisal. It is a research
methodology based on the concept of community participation and involvement in
investigating, analysing and solving particular social phenomenon. Kalim (2011)
defines it as qualitative multidisciplinary approaches to learn about local peoples
perspectives and local-level conditions applicable in social research, policy
formulation, monitoring and evaluation and project management and monitoring and
evaluation.
PRA is composite of three key words which are critical to its definition and
understanding and these include participation, rural and appraisal. Appraisal refers
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to an evaluation of the real condition, outcome or impact of a project, policy or social

phenomenon. Appraisal is also seen as a process or act of finding out information
about problems, needs, and potentials hence is an investigation of ways, means
and ends surrounding a particular social phenomenon, project or policy.
Participation here implies that PRA is a method involving data collection and
analysis techniques which ensures the research takes an active role during the
appraisal or/and ensures that the community is actively involved in the lifeline of the
whole project. Rural on the other hand does not necessarily imply that it is a
methodology applicable only in a rural setting but that its techniques can be used in
any situation, urban or rural, with both literate and illiterate people. The rural aspect
of its name springs from the criticism of the questionnaire method which was seen
as more effective for literate elites and not the rural community.
Triangulation as revealed by Davis (2001) Is simply a method of linking different
survey methods in order to crosscheck the information collected from each method.
He reveals further that triangulation is often carried out in groups of at least three to
increase the credibility of each survey technique. According to ODonoghue and
Punch (2003), triangulation is a method of cross-checking data from multiple
sources to search for regularities in the research data. Cavestro (2003:9) states that
Triangulation is a principle employed in choosing different methods, locations,
interviewees, team members (often a minimum of three, thus the term
triangulation) in order to improve the accuracy of the picture generated by the
learning process. Furthermore Davis (2001) argues that triangulation is of particular
use when employing mapping, ranking and scoring, flow diagrams, venn diagrams
and wealth ranking techniques, as these involve group participation which may
require some verification.
Major PRA Data Collection Techniques for Triangulation
There are many PRA techniques useful in data collection for triagulalation prime
amids these are the ones noted by Davis (2001) above are Time line, Ranking,
Mapping, Transient walk and venn diagram however there are noted to be more
analytical tools than data collection tools (Cavestro 2003). Kalim (2011) actually
classifies them as follows:

1. Interviews/ discussions: Individuals, households, focus groups, community

meetings
2. Mapping: community maps, personal maps, institutional maps
3. Ranking: problem ranking, preference ranking, wealth ranking
4. Trend Analysis: historical diagramming, seasonal calendars, daily activity
charts
From these however, many more data collection techniques can be identified.
Actually, Mercado (2006) identified a total of 31 techniques used in the PacificGerman Regional Forestry Project manual of Processing and Reporting of
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) Data for Natural Resource Management. This
essay however just extracts five of these which are in exemption of the five major
ones revealed by Davis (2001) above. This essay discusses the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1.

Trend Analysis
Participant observation
Matrices
Transects
Semi-structured interviews
Trend Analysis

This involves using information gotten from peoples accounts of the past in relation
to the present, how things close to them have changed and the causes of the
changes and trends. Though often used synonymously with the Time-line approach,
trend analysis encompasses the timeline by going further into a cause-effect
relationship hence while time line gives a more descriptive perspective,
Trend analysis gives a more explanatory and analytical perspective. Here, a
descriptive approach involves giving and information related to their characteristics,
nature and features such that a vivid picture is given that describes and shows the
changes that have occurred while the explanatory approach gives the cause-effect
factor relationship analysis such that it provides information on why things are as
they are.
Here therefore, in a triangulation, the researcher combines both time-line and trend
analysis to obtain both descriptive and explanatory information such that the two
approaches complement and supplement each other.

2. Participant Observer
The researcher tries to assimilate into the milieu in which research is to be done, and
the target groups are encouraged to teach the researcher how to do various activities
their way. The researcher will learn how much skill and strength are required to do
day-to-day rural activities, gaining an insiders perspective on a situation.
This is therefore a data collection technique for triangulation which complements the
public participation such that even the researcher learns to observe and see the
phenomenon as the community being investigated sees it. The researcher therefore
does not only allow a one sided participation to occur such that the people provide all
the information but a more insightful dimension is also obtained of integrating the
researchers personal experience.
3. Matrices
Matrices are multi-dimensional/multi-facet cause effect relationships of factors,
principles, phenomenon or problems. Here, the researcher looks not only at one side
cause-effect relationships of trend analysis of that of factor analysis but looks at the
interrelations with the other interrelated variables to create relational matrices hence
avoid factor biases brought out from specific hypothesising of phenomenon which
results from trend analysis, time-line and factor analysis.
Matrices therefore can be used to establish and investigate relationships between
different variables and to help facilitate or focus analyses and discussions and find real
factor trend and time-line factor relations needful to find new and better solutions.
4. Transects
Transects Spring from Transect walk approach and involves data collection from the
researcher and key-informants such that there is a creation of cross sectional data
collection maps. Transects therefore are cross-sectional maps or diagrams of an area
constructed as a joint exercise with key informants during walks through the area for
observing, discussing. The difference however is in that while transect walks are taken
as preliminary familiarisation data collection, transacts create data collection centers

for participation hence integrates in a triangulation the mapping, transect walk and
trend analysis mapped areas.
Transect also help create controlled investigations for effective impact assessments
and evaluations of projects, policies or programs. Transects can also be observed over
time hence can triangulate even the time line approach/technique.
5. Semi-structured interviews
A semi structured interviewing and listening technique uses some predetermined
questions and topics but allows new topics to be pursued as the interview develops.
The interviews are informal and conversational but carefully controlled. The
researcher here not only has to be an effective communicator but also a good
listener and quick thinker.
This technique involves three approaches namely, the individual interview in which
the researcher gets representative information about the society form individual
informants, specialises informants and/or groups. The researcher may interview one
person at a time (individual), and gets specialized information a specialised
informant or from a group of persons.
In triangulation, they help in deciding how indigenous and traditional research
methods can fit into a common framework and mutually support each other in
implementing the research. Furthermore they supplement direct observation and
participant observations and also provide useful insights on the gaps available for
further triangulation through providing methodological gaps.
Conclusion
PRA in the past few years, has become the most popular and ubiquitous research,
policy and project tool and has such emerged as an almost obligatory aspect of
research, policy and project design and implementation and even monitoring and
evaluation. The need to therefore effectively utilise its techniques in data collection
and analysis which require an effective triangulation of each other is indisputable. It
is evident therefore that trend analysis, participant observation, matrices, transects
and semi-structured interviews though considered minor data collection techniques,
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are

still

major

triangulation

approaches

imperative

comprehensive study of a particular phenomenon.

Bibliography

in

ensuring

more

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