Aircraft fabric covering systems

Rev. 5 page last changed 10 September 2011

Content

15.1 Fabric design and terminology

15.2 Polyester fabric properties
15.3 Sailcloth and laminate sails and skins
15.4 The chemically bonded fabric covering process
15.5 Trade names for fabrics and covering systems

15.6 AC 43.13-1B Chapter 2

Until the late 1950s, the fabrics used for aeroplane fuselage, wing and/or control surface
coverings were invariably woven from natural fibres linen or cotton in various grades.
The fabric was glued, sewn or laced to the wood or metal airframe, soaked with water to
initially shrink the skin and remove wrinkles, then 'doped' to further tauten, seal and protect
it.
Nowadays the natural-fibre fabrics are used only in repair or restoration of vintage aircraft
and the covering fabrics for recreational aircraft have been adapted from other uses yacht
sailcloth for example and are woven chiefly from polyester, with some from glass filament
yarns.
This document chiefly deals with those synthetic fibre fabrics, associated coating systems,
and laminated fabrics generally used for skins for homebuilt three-axis fixed-wing aircraft.
Ram-air parachute wings are only factory manufactured, generally from very light-weight
ripstop nylon fabrics. Hang glider and trike sails are also only factory or specialist
manufactured but the polyester sail materials are mentioned in section 15.3. There is some
reference to the fibreglass fabrics used in epoxy-fibreglass composite structures.

15.1 Fabric design and terminology

The continuously drawn filaments produced in the initial stages of synthetic fibre manufacture (or
manufacture of the glass, aramid or carbon reinforcing fibres used in composites) are formed into
yarn. When yarn is woven into fabric, the yarns running through the length of the roll of fabric are
the warp; the transverse yarns are the fill or weft. The fill threads may be of different dimensions to
the warp. In plain weave fabrics the warp and fill are woven over and under each other, so if
viewed in fabric cross-section, each thread would appear as a series of 'waves'. This is the crimp.
The more crimped the threads are, the more they will straighten out when pulled, and thus the more
the fabric stretches and reduces its mechanical properties. You could say that the crimp is the
difference in length of an individual thread as part of the fabric compared to its length if extracted
from the fabric and pulled taut. By manipulating the relative diameters and spacing of the warp and
fill yarns, the crimp in the warp and fill can be made the same (i.e. balanced), or with significant
orientational differences; the choice affects the amount of stretch under load in the warp, fill and

bias directions.
The selvage is the outer edge(s) of the fabric formed by the reversing of the fill yarn during
weaving. Bias is a diagonal across a piece of fabric, generally at 45 degrees to the warp and the
fill. A rectangular piece of cloth cut 'on the bias' from a bolt of material will have the warp and fill
running at 45 degrees to the edges, somewhat akin to 45 plywood. Woven fabrics tend to stretch
most along the bias and the designer generally aims to reduce that by tightening the weave. The
thread count is the number of threads per inch of material, usually expressed as the warp count
fill count; e.g. 65 58. The count is dependent on both the thickness of the yarns and the tightness
of the weave.
Denier values are the units of weight often used for very fine yarns; the value is the weight in grams
of 9000 metres of the filament or yarn. The threads in women's everyday nylon stockings are
around 15 denier. The higher the denier value of the yarn, the thicker and stronger is the woven
material. Tex values are the weight in grams of 1000 metres of yarn. The weight of woven fabric is
usually expressed in ounces per square yard or grams per square metre. Polyester sailcloth and
some nylon fabrics may be expressed as ounces per sailmaker's yard; the latter being 36 inches
long but only 28.5 inches wide a carry-over from the days of sailing ships and cotton sails and
equivalent to 0.79 square yards. So a fabric described as 1.1 ounce material may in fact weigh, on
average, 1.4 ounces per square yard. (To convert ounces per sailmaker's yard to grams per square
metre multiply by 45.) Also the weight may refer to a generic class rather than a specific average
weight for example 4, 6 and 8-ounce sailcloth.
Porosity is the amount of open space within the fabric, which is dependent on the fibre/yarn
thickness and the tightness of the weave; a porous fabric would tend to be lighter but more
permeable. Permeability is the rate of air flow through the fabric's surface. It is measured in
laboratory conditions using a suction fan to produce a standard, slight differential pressure and the
result expressed in cubic feet per minute [cfm] per square foot of fabric surface. Suppliers tend to
state porosity rather than permeability. Air permeability flows between 0 and 3 cfm are usually
classed as 'zero porosity'. Permeability is of particular concern in the design of ram-air parachute
wings and sections of such wings may be constructed from 0 to 3 cfm fabric coated to lower the
permeability. Such coatings make the canopy more difficult to pack.
'Spectra' and 'Dyneema' are brand names of high-performance polyethylene fibres that are
replacing polyester fibres in the manufacture of parawing suspension lines. 'Kevlar' is also used for
parawing suspension lines.
The tensile strength or breaking strength of fabrics is expressed as a force per linear inch or
centimetre, rather than the force per unit area used for metals. It is the tensile stress necessary to
rupture a strip of fabric of the stated width (one inch or one centimetre), and expressed as pounds
force per inch or newtons per centimetre. Tenacity is the tensile stress at rupture of a fabric or yarn
expressed as force per unit of the cross-sectional area, or perhaps force per denier. The tear
strength is the force needed to start and/or maintain a tear in a fabric under particular conditions.
The modulus is a measure of initial stretch or elasticity of a fabric, usually expressed as load per
unit of stretch for a certain amount of fibre weight; the higher the value, the less the stretch.
Elongation is the difference between the length of a stretched sample and its initial length; it may
be expressed in 1/100ths of an inch per inch.
Drapeability is a term mainly associated with the woven cloths used in composite construction and

refers to the readiness of a cloth to conform to a compound curve during layup.

Ripstop fabrics have heavier, stronger threads woven at fixed intervals into the fabric and form a
discernible pattern of small (perhaps 6 mm) squares, which restrict the spread of small tears.
A gore describes a component (of a parachute for example) that is cut as a long wedge-shaped
piece of fabric. A number of gores (24 for example) are sewn together to form a circular parachute
canopy.

15.2 Polyester fabric properties

Polyester in its polyethylene terephthalate form is a petroleum-derived, synthetic, thermoplastic,
polymeric material used for manufacture of strong, reliable, durable and economic fibres and films.
It has proved most suitable for airframe covering use and for wing sails. Dacron is the registered
trade name of the polyester fibre developed by DuPont from the original 1940s British patent. The
name is now often used as a generic term for fabrics woven from polyester yarn, particularly
sailcloths.
The fabric manufacturing process starts with molten material being extruded through spinnerets
and air cooled. The very fine (around 510 micron) filaments are then heated and drawn (extended
perhaps five times original length) so that the molecular chains are arranged lengthwise and
packed together in a regular manner; i.e. become crystalline. This increases strength, decreases
stretch and improves elasticity while producing a filament of the desired denier. Both the diameter
and the cross-section of extruded fibres are varied according to intended use. A number (perhaps
50100) of filaments are formed into a continuous filament yarn.
When woven into fabrics, the yarns will react in a particular way to the controlled application of
heat. At 250 F [120 C] the fabric will shrink about 5%, while at 350 F [175 C] the fabric will
shrink around 1015% (the maximum obtainable) and will remain at that taut condition if it is not
subsequently exposed to higher temperatures. (Above 375 F [190 C] the fibres start to soften and
the fabric starts losing tension. At 450 F [230 C] the fibres are nearing the melting point.)
This heat-set treatment significantly tightens the weave. Full or partial heat setting may be done at
the mill by passing the fabric through heated rollers after weaving or the fabric may leave the mill
without heat setting. Sailcloths may be passed through the heated rollers under high pressure
(calendered), which also imparts a high sheen to the surface, and minimises porosity and stretch.
Both heat-treated and untreated fabric categories have airframe use. Sailcloth, generally used for
mechanically attaching (rather than chemically bonding) the covering to trikes and slower-speed
three-axis aircraft, is normally heat-set (perhaps calendered), stabilised and colour-dyed at the mill.
Thus it can be cut and sewn to form an aircraft covering, with little further treatment required.
Colour-dyeing processes could alter a sailcloth's elastic properties, which might affect the behaviour
of a trike wing incorporating multicolour panels.
The fabrics for chemical bonding come 'unfinished' from the mill. They are neither dyed (usually
slightly transparent near-white) nor heat-set when received by the homebuilder. They require
considerable further work to produce a finished airframe covering. It may be difficult to obtain these
unfinished, or greige, fabrics other than through a few specialist aviation suppliers. The foregoing
are generalisations; there are many types of polyester-based fabrics produced, each with particular
attributes.

Various substances are used as lubricants during the yarn-making and cloth-weaving processes.
These substances may still be in the fabric delivered to the end-user.
Polyester fabric, polyester resins and polyester sewing threads are very durable but will be
deteriorated by exposure to ultraviolet radiation; probably losing sufficient strength to become
unusable after 400500 hours exposure to full sun. However, there are products and complete
coating systems that will fully protect the covering for the life of the airframe if properly maintained.
Salt will also deteriorate polyester, though it is generally resistant to chemical attack. While also
resistant to direct micro-organism attack, any organic substances (bird droppings, dirt, animal dung)
allowed to remain on the surface are themselves subject to biological attack, and the chemical byproducts may be harmful to the fabric or fabric coating. The foregoing also applies to the manual
and machine sewing threads and lacing cords used to assemble the panels to form the covering.
Unprotected polyester is susceptible to oil staining, even from fingers.

15.3 Sailcloth and laminate sails and skins

The wings of the first three-axis minimum

aircraft designed in Australia were very much based on the sail technology used in the yachting
industry, as can be seen in the picture of the 1977 Wheeler Scout. The Scout utilised an aluminium
tube leading-edge spar and a single-surface sailcloth wing, rather than a full aerofoil wing. The
camber is formed by curved aluminium tubing battens inserted into pockets sewn into the wing
fabric. If you are wondering about the VULA designation the image came from the Vintage Ultralight
and Lightplane Association collection.

Single-surface, or part single-surface, sailcloth wings generate lift in exactly the same
way as the mainsail of a Hobie Cat 16 racing catamaran generates lift. Note the similarities
between a Scout half-wing and the Hobie Cat mainsail. The sail structural design and fabrication
techniques used in the sailing community are still utilised by the manufacturers of the machine-cut
and sewn-together components and panels (known as sails) for the wings of trikes, hang gliders
and the slower three-axis aircraft.
Sailcloth is also cut into panels, which are sewn together as close-fitting 'sleeves' that can be
slipped over the wing and empennage structures, and mechanically secured at the root end of the
unit, as in the photo below. The fabric can also be cemented to the rib cap strips. The sleeve forms
the full aerofoil wing skins. Similarly, sailcloth envelopes are used for fuselage enclosures.

Fuselage attachment end of the left wing of Keith Manwaring's SkyRanger showing
front and rear tubular aluminium spars, sewn sailcloth sleeve with formed tubular
battens (black tangs on each end) slipped into sewn pockets in the sleeve and
attached to the spars. There are compression struts between the spars and a
threaded mechanism for tensioning the sails by pushing away from that first visible
compression strut. Stitching is visible where the red sailcloth panel, providing
reinforcement around the leading edge, is sewn to the white. The loose wire is the
aileron control cable.

Sailcloth is very tightly woven (perhaps 150250 threads per inch) but sometimes also structurally
stabilised by impregnation of polyester resins or some other polymer to further limit porosity.
This also provides a harder finish and/or resistance to fabric stretch along the bias, and thus helps
to maintain the aerodynamic shape under flight loads. However the resin is also subject to UV
deterioration. The sailcloth weight used for ultralights is typically 4-ounce, but 6 and 8-ounce fabric
classes are used in wings for the heavier trikes.
Sailcloth is very economical and there are many types available. Generally they display good
strength, low stretch and good durability. They must be protected against deterioration from UV
radiation by some form of UV blocking agent applied to the fabric. There are liquid blockers (for
example, 303 Aerospace Protectant), which should be applied perhaps several times each year. Or
there are two-part, clear lacquers that provide protection for a longer period; particularly so if the
aircraft is kept out of the weather when not being flown.
Sailcloth covering is the lightest, least costly and easiest to apply of all the covering methods
including metal, plywood, glass fibre and chemically bonded polyester fabric. The thread and
stitching used in fabricating the cover must have mechanical and UV resistance properties that are
at least equal to those of the fabric.
A more costly form of sail material is produced in a simple laminate form. Such laminates are lowstretch, zero-porosity materials made by bonding a polyester film to one or both sides of a polyester
scrim, or layers of scrim. Scrim is a loose, open, unwoven grid perhaps 10 threads per inch of
5001000 denier yarns used as the load-carrying material with polyester film, which is heat and

pressure laminated to one or both sides. Films have low stretch in all directions, near-zero
permeability and excellent adherence to scrim, but low tear resistance. Mylar is the registered trade
name of the extruded polyester sheet film developed by DuPont. X-Lam and GT-foil are brand
names for polyester or Kevlar scrim/Mylar film laminates. There are similar laminated fabrics with
names such as Trilam and Ultralam from the UK. Some of the fabrics may incorporate a UVresistant coating.
Sailcloth wing sleeves have no ripstop capability and are usually not bonded to wing ribs, so care
must be taken to avoid applying sudden and excessive aerodynamic loads; read this Bantam B22
fatal accident investigation report.

15.4 The chemically bonded fabric covering process

Fabrics. There are a number of companies who produce packaged aircraft fabric and fabric coating
systems. The polyester fabrics supplied in their proprietary covering systems are similar although
they are likely to have had differing post-weaving treatment. Generally there are three fabric
weights offered: light (~1.6 ounce) is used for medium-speed ultralights and for protective covering
of plywood skins; medium (~2.7 ounce) is suitable for all RA-Aus aircraft and heavy (~3.6 ounce) is
intended for agricultural, high-speed and aerobatic aircraft. Medium fabric probably costs 25% more
than light fabric, while heavy fabric is 10% more costly than medium. Fabrics of different weights
may be used on the same aircraft: for example, light weight on the top and sides of the fuselage;
and medium on the wings, under-fuselage and empennage.
The medium (~2.7 ounce) and heavy (~3.6 ounce) fabrics sold by the covering 'system' companies
will most likely be marked as certified materials and, as such, much more expensive than similar
weight non-certified material possibly available from other sources. All light (~1.6 ounce) fabric is
non-certified. There is no Australian requirement to use certified materials in homebuilt CAO 95.10
and CAO 95.55 aircraft.
When unshrunk fabric is bonded to the airframe the heat-shrinking property of polyester allows the
builder to cement the fabric to the parts of the structure with which it comes in contact, then to
tauten it in two (possibly three) stages during the covering process. Perhaps it will be first tautened
at 250 F [120 C] where it will shrink about 5%, maybe again at 300 F [150 C] and, if required, a
final tensioning at 350 F [175 C] where it will shrink to the maximum. The fabric cements used
must withstand the high shear loads imposed in the tensioning process and also the subsequent
aerodynamic loads. The heat is applied to the fabric with a full-size domestic clothes iron precalibrated using a thermometer to ensure accurate setting of the thermostat control. Normally the
fabric will be tautened as much as is possible to provide the tension necessary for flight without
distorting lighter parts of the structure wing ribs for example. So, for ultralight aircraft, it may be
inadvisable to go much above 300 F [150 C]. The lightweight fabric is more subject to flexing
under flight loads than the heavyweight. Excessive flexing will crack and peel the surface coating,
and destroy the airworthiness of the covering.
Properties of polyester fabrics (typical values) [incomplete]
Unshrunk

Sailcloth

Property

Light

Medium

Heavy

Light

Medium

Heavy

Weight (oz/sq yd)

1.7

2.7

3.6

Breaking strength (lb/in)

60

100

125

Tension (oz/in)

35

50

60

Thread count

98 98

68 68

65 58

150 250

Width (inch)

64

6672

6672

If obtainable the use of the more expensive 45 bias cloth has the safety advantage that all rips
would be stopped at a rib rather than possibly progressing along the full chord of the wing or
tailplane.
Coatings. The fabric coating products and methods differ from those used to paint metal-skinned
aircraft because fabric coatings form part of the aerodynamic load resisting structure. There are
three basic types: polyester-vinyl, two-part polyurethane (urethane) and aircraft dope; although
some flexible acrylic enamels and lacquers might be used. Aircraft dopes are plasticised lacquers
used to treat woven fabrics while on the airframe, to provide adherence, sealing, additional fabric
tension and protection. Nitrate cellulose, and later, cellulose acetate butyrate were historically used
for doping cotton and linen fabrics. 'Non-tautening' versions of those lacquers are now used with
polyester fabrics. Cellulose acetate butyrate dope must not be applied directly to polyester but it
can be used as a build-up coat if clear nitrate cellulose dope is first worked into the polyester fabric.
Non-tautening dopes will still shrink somewhat as they age, so an allowance must be made for this
during the initial heat shrinking of the fabric, otherwise excessive tension developing later may pull
ribs and similar light structures out of line. Dopes are highly flammable and, if ignited, freshly doped
fabric will flash burn.
Clear dopes produce a strong coating film; the aluminium powder pigmented dopes that block UV
radiation develop less tensile strength, and the colour-pigmented finishing dopes are the weakest.
Coating methods. All cements and coatings do not adhere very well to woven polyester. The
coating techniques used must ensure that the fabric weave is encapsulated within the cement
(where it is attached to the airframe elements) and within the first applied coating elsewhere. Thus,
apart from the strength and flight characteristics, the big difference between sailcloth covering and
these chemically bonded systems is that the brushed and sprayed-on cement and coating
chemicals form a load-carrying film (if correctly applied) and transfer the aerodynamic loads to the
airframe the fabric carries little load unless the coating is damaged. The coating adds weight to
the aircraft perhaps 1520 kg for a completely fabric-covered, two-seat, RA-Aus aircraft and
requires considerable outlay. But, if done well, is aesthetically pleasing, handles the weather and is
very long-lasting when adequately maintained.
After cementing and heat shrinking, primer/sealer coats are applied. These are followed by build-up
coats, then coats containing UV blocking/reflecting solids (usually aluminium flakes and called

silver coat, aluminium undercoat or similar) then final colour finish coats. Some of the proprietary
systems incorporate the UV-blocking function with the primer/sealer.
It is most important that the proprietary system coating methods and materials are not inter-mixed.
Otherwise the finished coating will not be a single, strong, monolithic structure bonded at the
molecular level, but rather two or more loosely conjoined and much weaker covering layers.
The process outlined in the covering system supplier's manual should be followed, otherwise the
results are most unlikely to meet expectations of strength, appearance and continuing
airworthiness.
For more information see Surface coatings and finishes.

15.5 Trade names for fabrics and covering systems

The US Federal Aviation Administration issues Parts Manufacturing Authorisations [FAA/PMAs] to
companies who have proven they can consistently manufacture designated aircraft parts (for
example, fabrics or fabric adhesives) that meet required standards and can also maintain
traceability of all production lots. The best-known brands of FAA/PMA approved polyester fabrics
are Ceconite, Poly-Fiber [Stits] and Superflite.

Ceconite: the trade name for woven polyester fabric, heat-set after bonding to the
aircraft and usually coated with non-tautening nitrate/butyrate dope.

Stits: a generic name for a top-of-the-range polyester fabric covering process of gluing,
heat tightening, sealing and build-up, ultraviolet radiation protection and colour finish
coating. The process was originally developed by Ray Stits but subsequently sold to
Consolidated Aircraft Coating and now available as Poly-Fiber.
Poly-Fiber or Stits Poly-Fiber: trade names for a non-shrunk woven polyester fabric and
the associated solvent-based, polyester-vinyl, flexible bonding/coating system of PolyFiber products.
Superflite and Air-Tech: trade names for non-shrunk woven polyester fabric and twopart polyurethane coating systems providing high-gloss finishes.

The table provides a rough guide to the sequence of operations necessary to apply these
fabric coatings. Step 4 includes rib lacing, which is unlikely to be necessary for non-aerobatic
aircraft with Vne less than 130 knots; but it is a good belt-and-braces approach that doesn't
entail that much extra effort. See section 2.10 in AC 43.13-1B below. The systems
represented all have PDF manuals downloadable from their websites.
Some well-known fabric bonding and coating processes [incomplete]

Operation

Superflite
Air-Tech

Ceconite
(Randolph
dopes)

Poly-Fiber

1. Cement fabric to airframe

Urethane adhesive

Nitrate fabric cement

Poly-Tak cement

(and) 2. Heat shrink.

3. Initial seal coat

Three-part
polyurethane
primer/filler/UV

Non-tautening
nitrate dope

1 coat Poly-Brush

4. Glue reinforcing tape to rib

caps, lace ribs, apply
finishing tape

Attach with urethane

adhesive

Non-tautening
nitrate dope

Attach with Poly-Brush

5. Apply build-up coats

23 coats three-part
polyurethane
primer/filler

3 coats clear
butyrate dope

2 coats Poly-Brush

6. Apply UV reflector/blocker

Incorporated with
primer/filler

23 coats silver
(aluminium powder)
dope

3 coats silver (aluminium

powder) Poly-Spray

7. Finishing colour

2 coats Superflite
polyurethane two-part
finish

23 coats pigmented
butyrate dope

2 coats polyester-vinyl
Poly-Tone or polyurethane
Aero-Thane

The wing of Leo Powning's Jodel. Wood and fabric construction. Wing fabric 2.7 ounce
polyester with Poly-Brush base and Poly-Spray silver UV blocker applied, ready for Poly-Tone
finishing colours.

The following is an estimate made by Aircraft Spruce & Specialty Co for the amount of

material needed to cover a Piper J-3 Cub using the Poly-Fiber process. The Cub is all fabric
and fits into the LSA category. The volumes are expressed in US gallons (3.8 litres).
45 yards of Poly-Fiber fabric
6 rolls of 2-inch medium finishing tape
1 roll of 4-inch medium finishing tape
1 roll of rib lacing cord
2 rolls of inch reinforcing tape
2 rolls of inter-rib bracing tape
1 roll of cloth anti-chafe tape
100 plastic or aluminum drain grommets
30 inspection rings
25 inspection ring covers
8 gallons of Poly-Brush fabric sealer
1 gallon of Poly-Tak adhesive
11 gallons of Poly-Spray aluminium undercoat for UV protection
5 gallons of reducer for thinning Poly-Brush
11 gallons of Poly-Tone top coat colour
A general conclusion regarding cost seems to be that the finished costs, for each of the
chemically bonded covering systems, are much the same.
A comparison of design and performance properties
Daryl Irving Hammond, Oklahoma State University, published in 1999 the results of a study
of design and performance properties for selected aircraft fabric covering processes. Of
course the material compositions and recommended techniques may have changed since
1999 but the following is the abstract:
Scope and method of study. The purpose of this study was to examine the design and
performance properties of aircraft fabric covering using the Grade-A cotton with Randolph
dope, Ceconite with Randolph dope, Cooper Superflite II, Air-Tech Coatings, and Stits PolyFiber processes. The design properties studied were characteristics of the base fabric and
nonweathered coated material. The performance properties investigated were coating
surface changes of gloss and yellowing, strength degradation, and response to heat and
flame throughout an accelerated weathering cycle. The hypotheses were written to answer
questions about how a selected fabric covering method performs over its intended life and in
a variety of functional areas.
Findings and conclusions. There were significant differences in design and performance
properties among the five Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approved covering
processes. An investigation of the design properties pointed out differences in elongation,
weight, and breaking strength. Ceconite 101 was thicker and stronger, yet stretched more
than the other samples. Air-Tech and Superflite processes had higher than average weight
per square foot values. An investigation of the performance properties indicated that
Superflite and Air-Tech had excellent gloss retention over the accelerated weathering cycle.
Ceconite with Randolph dope was the least stable in yellowing degradation while Stits was
the best performer. Strength degradation was most pronounced in the Superflite process,
decreasing rapidly during weathering. Thermal stress testing showed all processes exhibited
heat and flame resistance loss due to weathering. Ceconite with Randolph dope was a

volatile combination, bursting into flames with the application of heat, while Air-Tech and
Stits resisted sustained burning after ignition. Superflite burn characteristics included
emission of thick black acrid smoke. An overall performance index and best performer is
provided in the author's research search implications.

15.6 AC 43.13-1B Chapter 2

More detailed information can be found in the FAA advisory circular "Acceptable methods,
techniques and practices aircraft inspection and repair". I have placed the complete Chapter 2
'Fabric covering' of AC 43.13-1B on this website for download in PDF format.
The chapter covers:
2-1 General
2-2 Problem areas
2-3 Aircraft fabric synthetic
2-4 Aircraft fabric natural
2-5 Recovering aircraft
2-6 Preparation of the structure for covering
2-7 Fabric seams
2-8 Covering methods
2-9 Reinforcing tape
2-10 Lacing
2-11 Stitch spacing
2-12 Fasteners
2-13 Finishing tape
2-14 Inspection rings and drain grommets
2-20 Application of dope general
2-21 Dope application procedure
2-22 Covering over plywood
2-23 Coating application defects
2-30 Inspection and testing general
2-31 Fabric identification
2-32 Coating identification
2-33 Strength criteria for aircraft fabric
2-34 Fabric testing
2-35 Rejuvenation of dope film
2-42 Repairs to fabric covering general
2-43 Repair of tears and access openings
2-44 Sewn patch repair
2-45 Doped-on patch repair

The next module in this fabrics, composites and coatings group is 'Plastics and thermosets'
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