Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso ( i /brkinfso/ br-KEE-n FAHsoh; French: [bukina faso]) is a landlocked country in
West Africa around 274,200 square kilometres (105,900
sq mi) in size. It is surrounded by six countries: Mali to
the north; Niger to the east; Benin to the southeast; Togo
and Ghana to the south; and Ivory Coast to the southwest.
Its capital is Ouagadougou. As of 2014, its population
was estimated at just over 17.3 million.[1]

ina Fasos north and northwest regions until sometime in

the 15th or 16th centuries, and many of the other ethnic
groups that make up the countrys population arrived in
the region during this time.

Formerly called the Republic of Upper Volta, the country

was renamed Burkina Faso on 4 August 1984 by thenPresident Thomas Sankara. Residents of Burkina Faso
are known as Burkinab (/brkinbe/ br-KEE-n-bay).
French is an ocial language of government and business.
Before the conquest of what is now Burkina Faso by the
French and other colonial powers during the late 19th
century the country was ruled by various ethnic groups
including the Mossi kingdoms. After gaining independence from France in 1960, the country underwent many
governmental changes. Today it is a semi-presidential re- The cavalry of the Mossi Kingdoms were experts at raiding deep
public. Blaise Compaor was the most recent president into enemy territory, even against the formidable Mali Empire.
and ruled the country from 1987[7] until he was ousted
from power by the popular youth upheaval of 31 October
2014.[8]

History

Main article: History of Burkina Faso

1.1

Early history

The northwestern part of todays Burkina Faso was populated by hunter-gatherers between 14,000 and 5000 BC.
Their tools, including scrapers, chisels and arrowheads,
were discovered in 1973 through archeological excavations. Agricultural settlements were established between
3600 and 2600 BC. The Bura culture was an Iron-Age
civilization centered in the southwest portion of modernday Niger and in the southeast part of contemporary
Burkina Faso.[9] Iron industry, in smelting and forging for
tools and weapons, had developed in Sub-Saharan Africa
by 1200 BC.[10][11]

Resistance to the French invasion at Bobo-Dioulasso in 1892.

During the Middle Ages the Mossi established several separate kingdoms including those of Tenkodogo,
Yatenga, Gourma, Zandoma, and Ouagadougou.[14]
Sometime between 1328 and 1338 Mossi warriors raided
Timbuktu but the Mossi were defeated by Sonni Ali of
Songhai at the Battle of Kobi in Mali in 1483.[15]

Historians debate the exact dates when Burkina Fasos

many ethnic groups arrived. The Proto-Mossi arrived in
the far eastern part of what is today Burkina Faso sometime between AD 700 and the 11th century,[12] the Samo
arrived around the 1400s,[13] the Dogon lived in Burk-

During the early 16th century the Songhai conducted

many slave raids into what is today Burkina Faso.[13] During the 18th century the Gwiriko Empire was established
at Bobo Dioulasso and ethnic groups such as the Dyan,
Lobi, and Birifor settled along the Black Volta.[16]
1

1.2

HISTORY

From colony to independence (1890s

1958)

Starting in the early 1890s a series of British, French and

German military ocers made attempts to claim parts of
what is today Burkina Faso. At times these colonialists
and their armies fought the local peoples; at times they
forged alliances with them and made treaties. The colonialist ocers and their home governments also made
treaties amongst themselves. Through a complex series of
events what is Burkina Faso eventually became a French
protectorate in 1896.[17]
The eastern and western regions, where a stando against
the forces of the powerful ruler Samori Ture complicated
the situation, came under French occupation in 1897.
By 1898, the majority of the territory corresponding to
Burkina Faso was nominally conquered; however, French
control of many parts remained uncertain.
The Franco-British Convention of 14 June 1898 created
the countrys modern borders. In the French territory,
a war of conquest against local communities and political powers continued for about ve years. In 1904, the
largely pacied territories of the Volta basin were integrated into the Upper Senegal and Niger colony of French
West Africa as part of the reorganization of the French
West African colonial empire. The colony had its capital
in Bamako.

The capital, Ouagadougou, in 1930

improve infrastructure and promoted the growth of cotton for export. The cotton policy based on coercion
failed, and revenue generated by the colony stagnated.
The colony was dismantled on 5 September 1932, being
split between the French colonies of Cte d'Ivoire, French
Sudan and Niger. Cte d'Ivoire received the largest share,
which contained most of the population as well as the
cities of Ouagadougou and Bobo-Dioulasso.

France reversed this change during the period of intense

anti-colonial agitation that followed the end of World War
II. On 4 September 1947, it revived the colony of Upper
Volta, with its previous boundaries, as a part of the French
Union. The French designated its colonies as departments
The French imposed their own language as the ocial of the metropole France on the European continent.
one for colonial administration and generally appointed On 11 December 1958 the colony achieved selfFrench colonists or nationals to prominent positions. The government as the Republic of Upper Volta; it joined the
French started some schools and selected top students for Franco-African Community. A revision in the organizaadditional education in France.
tion of French Overseas Territories had begun with the
Draftees from the territory participated in the European passage of the Basic Law (Loi Cadre) of 23 July 1956.
fronts of World War I in the battalions of the Senegalese This act was followed by reorganization measures apRies. Between 1915 and 1916, the districts in the west- proved by the French parliament early in 1957 to ensure
ern part of what is now Burkina Faso and the bordering a large degree of self-government for individual territoeastern fringe of Mali became the stage of one of the most ries. Upper Volta became an autonomous republic in the
important armed oppositions to colonial government: the French community on 11 December 1958.[19]Full independence from France was received in 1960.
Volta-Bani War.[18]
The French government nally suppressed the movement
but only after suering defeats. It also had to organize its
largest expeditionary force of its colonial history to send
into the country to suppress the insurrection. Armed opposition wracked the Sahelian north when the Tuareg and
allied groups of the Dori region ended their truce with the
government.
French Upper Volta was established on 1 March 1919.
The French feared a recurrence of armed uprising and
had related economic considerations. To bolster its
administration, the colonial government separated the
present territory of Burkina Faso from Upper Senegal and
Niger.

1.3 Upper Volta (19581984)

Main article: Republic of Upper Volta
The Republic of Upper Volta (French: Rpublique de
Haute-Volta) was established on 11 December 1958 as
a self-governing colony within the French Community.
The name Upper Volta related to the nations location
along the upper reaches of the Volta River. The rivers
three tributaries are called the Black, White and Red
Volta. These were expressed in the three colors of the
former national ag.

The new colony was named Haute Volta, and Franois Before attaining autonomy, it had been French Upper
Charles Alexis douard Hesling became its rst governor. Volta and part of the French Union. On 5 August 1960,
Hesling initiated an ambitious road-making program to it attained full independence from France. The rst pres-

1.4

Burkina Faso (1984)

3
was appointed prime minister in January 1983. The internal political struggle and Sankaras leftist rhetoric led
to his arrest and subsequent eorts to bring about his release, directed by Capt. Blaise Compaor. This release
eort resulted in yet another military coup d'tat on 4
August 1983.
The coup brought Sankara to power and his government began to implement a series of revolutionary programs which included mass-vaccinations, infrastructure
improvements, the expansion of womens rights, encouragement of domestic agricultural consumption, and antidesertication projects.[20]

Maurice Yamogo (center) was the rst President of Burkina

Faso.

1.4 Burkina Faso (1984)

On 4 August 1984,[19] as a result of President Sankaras

ident, Maurice Yamogo, was the leader of the Voltaic activities, the countrys name was changed from Upper
Democratic Union (UDV). The 1960 constitution pro- Volta to Burkina Faso (land of the upright/honest peovided for election by universal surage of a president and ple).[21][22][23]
a national assembly for ve-year terms. Soon after coming to power, Yamogo banned all political parties other
than the UDV. The government lasted until 1966. After
much unrest, including mass demonstrations and strikes
by students, labor unions, and civil servants, the military
intervened.
The military coup d'tat deposed Yamogo, suspended
the constitution, dissolved the National Assembly, and
placed Lt. Col. Sangoul Lamizana at the head of a government of senior army ocers. The army remained in
power for four years. On 14 June 1970, the Voltans ratied a new constitution that established a four-year transition period toward complete civilian rule. Lamizana remained in power throughout the 1970s as president of
military or mixed civil-military governments. After conPioneers of the Revolution, ca. 1985
ict over the 1970 constitution, a new constitution was
written and approved in 1977. Lamizana was reelected
Sankaras government formed the National Council for
by open elections in 1978.
the Revolution (CNR), with Sankara as its president, and
Lamizanas government faced problems with the coun- established popular Committees for the Defense of the
trys traditionally powerful trade unions, and on 25 Revolution (CDRs) to mobilize the masses and impleNovember 1980, Col. Saye Zerbo overthrew President ment the CNRs revolutionary programs. The regime creLamizana in a bloodless coup. Colonel Zerbo estab- ated a youth program (the Pioneers of the Revolution) for
lished the Military Committee of Recovery for National educating children about Marxist ideals. The government
Progress as the supreme governmental authority, thus also armed and deputized CDR members who began
eradicating the 1977 constitution.
a campaign to weed out suspected anti-revolutionaries,
Colonel Zerbo also encountered resistance from trade causing discontent amongst the countrys population and
unions and was overthrown two years later, on 7 Novem- increasing domestic opposition to Sankaras regime.[24]
ber 1982, by Maj. Dr. Jean-Baptiste Oudraogo and the Sankaras revolution took place within the context of
Council of Popular Salvation (CSP). The CSP continued the Cold War, and his visits to the Soviet Union and Cuba,
to ban political parties and organizations, yet promised a calls for the cancellation of African debts held by Western
transition to civilian rule and a new constitution.
governments and institutions and Marxist political regime
were controversial.
On 15 October 1987, Sankara along with twelve other
ocials were killed in a coup d'tat organized by Blaise
Factional inghting developed between moderates in the Compaor, Sankaras former colleague and Burkina
CSP and the radicals, led by Capt. Thomas Sankara, who Fasos president until October 2014. After the coup and
1.3.1

1983 coup d'tat

2 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

although Sankara was known to be dead, some CDRs

mounted an armed resistance to the army for several days.

2 Government and politics

Deterioration in relations with neighbouring countries

was one of the reasons given by Compaor for the
coup.[25] Compaor argued that Sankara had jeopardised
foreign relations with the former colonial power France
and neighbouring Cte d'Ivoire (both of which supported
the change in government). Following the coup Compaor immediately reversed the nationalizations, overturned nearly all of Sankaras policies, returned the country back into the IMF fold, and ultimately spurned most
of Sankaras legacy. Limited democratic reforms were
introduced in 1990 by Compaor. Under the new constitution, Compaor was re-elected without opposition
in 1991. In 1998 Compaor won election in a landslide. In 2004 13 people were tried for plotting a coup
against President Compaor and the coups alleged mastermind was sentenced to life imprisonment.[26] As of
2014, Burkina Faso remains one of the least developed
countries in the world.
Compaor's government has played the role of negotiator
in several West-African disputes including the 201011
Ivorian crisis, the Inter-Togolese Dialogue, and the 2012 President Blaise Compaor ruled Burkina Faso from a coup
d'tat in 1987 until he lost power in 2014.
Malian Crisis.
Between February and April 2011, the death of a schoolboy provoked protests throughout the country, coupled
with a military mutiny and a magistrates strike.

1.4.1

October 2014 protests

Main article: 2014 Burkinab uprising

Starting on 28 October 2014 protesters began to march
and demonstrate in Ouagadougou against President Blaise
Compaore who appeared ready to amend the constitution and extend his 27-year rule. On 30 October, some
protesters set re to the parliament[27] and took over The National Assembly building in downtown Ouagadougou.
the national TV headquarters.[28] Ouagadougou International Airport was closed and MPs suspended the vote on Main article: Politics of Burkina Faso
changing the constitution to allow Compaor to stand for
re-election in 2015. Later in the day, the military disWith French help, Blaise Compaor seized power in a
solved all government institutions and set a curfew.[29]
coup d'tat in 1987. He overthrew his long-time friend
On 31 October 2014, President Compaor, facing and ally Thomas Sankara, who was killed in the coup.[33]
mounting pressure, resigned after 27 years in oce.[30]
Lt. Col. Isaac Zida said that he will lead the country dur- The constitution of 2 June 1991 established a semiing its transitional period before the planned 2015 presi- presidential government: its parliament can be dissolved
dential election but there are concerns over his close ties by the President of the Republic, who is elected for a term
to the former president.[31] In November 2014 opposition of seven years. In 2000, the constitution was amended to
parties, civil society groups and religious leaders adopted reduce the presidential term to ve years and set term lima plan for a transitional authority to guide Burkina Faso to its to two, preventing successive re-election. The amendelections.[32] Under the plan Michel Kafando was made ment took eect during the 2005 elections. If passed bethe transitional President of Burkina Faso and Lt. Col. forehand, it would have prevented Compaor from being
Zida became the acting Prime Minister and Defense Min- reelected.
ister.
Other presidential candidates challenged the election re-

2.3

Law enforcement

sults. But in October 2005, the constitutional council

ruled that, because Compaor was the sitting president
in 2000, the amendment would not apply to him until the
end of his second term in oce. This cleared the way
for his candidacy in the 2005 election. On 13 November, Compaor was reelected in a landslide, because of a
divided political opposition.

5
Fasos Army is undermanned for its force structure and
poorly equipped, but has wheeled light-armour vehicles,
and may have developed useful combat expertise through
interventions in Liberia and elsewhere in Africa.

In terms of training and equipment, the regular Army is

believed to be neglected in relation to the lite Presidential Security Regiment (RSP). Reports have emerged in
In the 2010 Presidential elections, President Compaor recent years of disputes over pay and conditions.[40] There
was re-elected. Only 1.6 million Burkinabs voted, out is an air force with some 19 operational aircraft, but no
of a total population 10 times that size.
navy, as the country is landlocked. Military expenses
The 2011 Burkinab protests were a series of popu- constitute approximately 1.2% of the nations GDP.
lar protests that called for the resignation of Compaor, In April 2011, there was an army mutiny; the president
democratic reforms, higher wages for troops and pub- named new chiefs of sta, and a curfew was imposed in
lic servants and economic freedom.[34][35][36] As a result Ouagadougou.[41]
Governors were replaced and wages for public servants
were raised.[37][38]
The parliament consists of one chamber known as the
National Assembly which has 111 seats with members
elected to serve ve-year terms. There is also a constitutional chamber, composed of ten members, and an economic and social council whose roles are purely consultative. The 1991 constitution created a bicameral parliament but the upper house (Chamber of Representatives)
was abolished in 2002.

2.3 Law enforcement

Burkina Faso employs numerous police and security

forces, generally modeled after organizations used by
French police. France continues to provide signicant support and training to police forces. The Gendarmerie Nationale is organized along military lines, with
most police services delivered at the brigade level. The
Gendarmerie operates under the authority of the MinisThe Compaor administration has worked to decentralize ter of Defence, and its members are employed chiey in
power by devolving some of its powers to regions and mu- the rural areas and along borders.[42]
nicipal authorities. But the widespread distrust of politiThere is a municipal police force controlled by the
cians and lack of political involvement by many residents
Ministry of Territorial Administration; a national police
complicates this process. Critics describe this as a hybrid
force controlled by the Ministry of Security; and an audecentralisation.[39]
tonomous Regiment of Presidential Security (Rgiment
Political freedoms are severely restricted in Burkina Faso. de la Scurit Prsidentielle, or RSP), a palace guard deHuman rights organizations have criticised the Compaor voted to the protection of the President of the Repubadministration for numerous acts of state-sponsored vio- lic. Both the gendarmerie and the national police are
lence against journalists and other politically active mem- subdivided into both administrative and judicial police
bers of society.
functions; the former are detailed to protect public order
and provide security, the latter are charged with criminal
investigations.[42]

2.1

Foreign relations

Further information: Foreign relations of Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso is a member of the African Union,
Community of Sahel-Saharan States, La Francophonie,
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, Economic Community of West African States, and United Nations.

2.2

Military

All foreigners and citizens are required to carry photo ID

passports, or other forms of identication or risk a ne,
and police spot identity checks are commonplace for persons traveling by auto, bush-taxi, or bus.[43][44]

3 Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Burkina Faso

Main article: Military of Burkina Faso

3.1 Geography
The army consists of some 6,000 men in voluntary service, augmented by a part-time national Peoples Militia
composed of civilians between 25 and 35 years of age
who are trained in both military and civil duties. According to Janes Sentinel Country Risk Assessment, Burkina

Burkina Faso lies mostly between latitudes 9 and 15N

(a small area is north of 15), and longitudes 6W and
3E.
It is made up of two major types of countryside. The

3 GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

Satellite image of Burkina Faso.

larger part of the country is covered by a peneplain, which

forms a gently undulating landscape with, in some areas,
a few isolated hills, the last vestiges of a Precambrian
massif. The southwest of the country, on the other hand,
forms a sandstone massif, where the highest peak, Tnakourou, is found at an elevation of 749 meters (2,457
ft). The massif is bordered by sheer clis up to 150 m
(492 ft) high. The average altitude of Burkina Faso is
400 m (1,312 ft) and the dierence between the highest
and lowest terrain is no greater than 600 m (1,969 ft).
Burkina Faso is therefore a relatively at country.

Savannah near the Gbomblora Department, on the road from

Gaoua to Bati

3.3 Climate
Further information: Climate of Burkina Faso
Burkina Faso has a primarily tropical climate with two
very distinct seasons. In the rainy season, the country
receives between 600 and 900 mm (23.6 and 35.4 in)
of rainfall; in the dry season, the harmattan a hot dry
wind from the Sahara blows. The rainy season lasts approximately four months, May/June to September, and
is shorter in the north of the country. Three climatic
zones can be dened: the Sahel, the Sudan-Sahel, and
the Sudan-Guinea. The Sahel in the north typically receives less than 600 mm (23.6 in)[45] of rainfall per year
and has high temperatures, 547 C (41.0116.6 F).

The country owes its former name of Upper Volta to three

rivers which cross it: the Black Volta (or Mouhoun), the
White Volta (Nakamb) and the Red Volta (Nazinon).
The Black Volta is one of the countrys only two rivers
which ow year-round, the other being the Komo, which
A relatively dry tropical savanna, the Sahel extends beows to the southwest. The basin of the Niger River also
yond the borders of Burkina Faso, from the Horn of
drains 27% of the countrys surface.
Africa to the Atlantic Ocean, and borders the Sahara to its
The Nigers tributaries the Bli, the Gorouol, the north and the fertile region of the Sudan to the South. SitGoudbo and the Dargol are seasonal streams and ow uated between 113' and 135' north latitude, the Sudanfor only four to six months a year. They still can ood and Sahel region is a transitional zone with regards to rainfall
overow, however. The country also contains numerous and temperature. Further to the south, the Sudan-Guinea
lakes the principal ones are Tingrela, Bam and Dem. zone receives more than 900 mm (35.4 in)[45] of rain each
The country contains large ponds, as well, such as Oursi, year and has cooler average temperatures.
Bli, Yomboli and Markoye. Water shortages are often a
Burkina Fasos natural resources include manganese,
problem, especially in the north of the country.
limestone, marble, phosphates, pumice, salt and small deposits of gold.

3.4 Wildlife and the environment

3.2

Administrative divisions

Further information: Wildlife of Burkina Faso

Main articles: Regions of Burkina Faso, Provinces of Burkina Faso has a larger number of elephants than many
Burkina Faso and Departments of Burkina Faso
countries in West Africa. Lions, leopards and bualo can
also be found here, including the dwarf or red bualo,
The country is divided into 13 administrative regions. a smaller reddish-brown animal which looks like a erce
These regions encompass 45 provinces and 301 depart- kind of short-legged cow. Other large predators live in
ments. Each region is administered by a Governor.
Burkina Faso, such as the cheetah, the caracal or African

7
lynx, the spotted hyena and the African wild dog, one of Burkinabe emigrants, forced many to return home. Rethe continents most endangered species.[46]
mittances now account for less than 1% of GDP.
Burkina Fasos fauna and ora are protected in four na- Burkina Faso is part of the West African Monetary and
tional parks:
Economic Union (UMEOA) and has adopted the CFA
Franc. This is issued by the Central Bank of the West
African
States (BCEAO), situated in Dakar, Senegal.
The W National Park in the east which passes BurkThe
BCEAO
manages the monetary and reserve policy of
ina Faso, Benin, and Niger
the member states, and provides regulation and oversight
The Arly Wildlife Reserve (Arly National Park in of nancial sector and banking activity. A legal framework regarding licensing, bank activities, organizational
the east)
and capital requirements, inspections and sanctions (all
The Lraba -Como Classied Forest and Partial applicable to all countries of the Union) is in place, having
Reserve of Wildlife in the west
been reformed signicantly in 1999. Micro-nance institutions are governed by a separate law, which regulates
The Mare aux Hippopotames in the west
micro-nance activities in all WAEMU countries. The
insurance sector is regulated through the Inter-African
and several reserves: see List of national parks in Africa, Conference on Insurance Markets (CIMA).[49]
Nature reserves of Burkina Faso.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Burkina Faso

The value of Burkina Fasos exports fell from $2.77 bil-

Processing facilities at the Essakane Mine in Burkina Faso.

There is mining of copper, iron, manganese, gold,

cassiterite (tin ore), and phosphates.[50] These operations
provide employment and generate international aid. Gold
production increased 32% in 2011 at six gold mine sites,
making Burkina Faso the fourth-largest gold producer in
Africa, after South Africa, Mali and Ghana.[51]
Burkina Fasos exports in 2009. Every year gold and cotton constitute more than 70% of the countrys exports and the prices
of these commodities have uctuated signicantly in the past 10
years.

lion in 2011 to $754 million in 2012.[47] Agriculture represents 32% of its gross domestic product and occupies
80% of the working population. It consists mostly of
rearing livestock. Especially in the south and southwest,
the people grow crops of sorghum, pearl millet, maize
(corn), peanuts, rice and cotton, with surpluses to be sold.
A large part of the economic activity of the country is
funded by international aid.

Burkina Faso also hosts the International Art and Craft

Fair, Ouagadougou. It is better known by its French name
as SIAO, Le Salon International de l' Artisanat de Ouagadougou, and is one of the most important African handicraft fairs.
Burkina Faso is a member of the Organization for the
Harmonization of Business Law in Africa (OHADA).[52]

While services remain underdeveloped, the National Ofce for Water and Sanitation (ONEA), a state-owned
utility company run along commercial lines, is emerging
as one of the best-performing utility companies in Africa,
.[53] High levels of autonomy and a skilled and dedicated
management has driven ONEAs ability to improve pro[53]
Burkina Faso was ranked the 111th safest investment duction of and access to clean water.
destination in the world in the March 2011 Euromoney Since 2000, nearly 2 million more people have access to
Country Risk rankings.[48] Remittances used to be an im- water in the four principal urban centres in the country;
portant source of income to Burkina Faso until the 1990s, the company has kept the quality of infrastructure high
when unrest in Cte d'Ivoire, the main destination for (less than 18% of the water is lost through leaks one of

5 SOCIETY
Rail transport in Burkina Faso consists of a single line
which runs from Kaya to Abidjan in Cte d'Ivoire via
Ouagadougou, Koudougou, Bobo Dioulasso and Banfora.
Sitarail operates a passenger train three times a week
along the route.[55]
There are 12,506 kilometres of highway in Burkina Faso,
of which 2,001 kilometres are paved.

5 Society
5.1 Demographics
The Grand march in Koudougou, Burkina Faso.

the lowest in sub-Saharan Africa), improved nancial reporting, and increased its annual revenue by an average of
12% (well above ination).[53] Challenges remain, including diculties among some customers in paying for services, with the need to rely on international aid to expand
its infrastructure.[53] The state-owned, commercially run
venture has helped the nation reach its Millennium Development Goal (MDG) targets in water-related areas, and
has grown as a viable company.[53]
The growth rate in Burkina Faso is high although it continues to be plagued by corruption and incursions from
terrorist groups from Mali and Niger.[54]

4.1

Transport

A Burkinabe Tuareg man in Ouagadougou.

Main article: Demographics of Burkina Faso

The railway station in Bobo Dioulasso was built during the colonial era and remains in operation.

Main article: Transport in Burkina Faso

Transport in Burkina Faso is hampered by a largely underdeveloped infrastructure.

Burkina Faso is an ethnically integrated, secular state.

Most of Burkinas people are concentrated in the south
and center of the country, where their density sometimes
exceeds 48 per square kilometer (125/sq. mi.). Hundreds of thousands of Burkinabe migrate regularly to
Cte d'Ivoire and Ghana, mainly for seasonal agricultural
work. These ows of workers are aected by external
events; the September 2002 coup attempt in Cte d'Ivoire
and the ensuing ghting meant that hundreds of thousands
of Burkinabe returned to Burkina Faso. The regional
economy suered when they were unable to work.[56]

The main airport is at Ouagadougou and as of June 2014

it had regularly scheduled ights to many destinations in
West Africa as well as Paris, Brussels and Istanbul. There
is another international airport at Bobo Dioulasso which
has ights to Ouagadougou and Abidjan.
The total fertility rate of Burkina Faso is 5.93 children

5.5

Health

born per woman (2014 estimates), the sixth highest in the

world.[57]
In 2009 the U.S. Department of State's Tracking in Persons Report reported that slavery in Burkina Faso continued to exist and that Burkinab children were often the
victims.[58] Slavery in the Sahel states in general, is an entrenched institution with a long history that dates back to
the Arab slave trade.[59]

5.2

Ethnic groups

Main article: Ethnic groups in Burkina Faso

Burkina Fasos 17.3 million people belong to two major West African ethnic cultural groupsthe Voltaic and
the Mande (whose common language is Dioula). The
Voltaic Mossi make up about one-half of the population.
The Mossi claim descent from warriors who migrated to
present-day Burkina Faso from the area of Ghana Empire about 1100. They established an empire that lasted
more than 800 years. Predominantly farmers, the Mossi
kingdom is led by the Mogho Naba, whose court is in
Ouagadougou.[56]

5.3

Languages

Further information: Languages of Burkina Faso

Burkina Faso is a multilingual country. An estimated
69 languages are spoken there,[60] of which about 60
are indigenous. The Mossi language (Mossi: Mor) is
spoken by about 40% of the population, mainly in the
central region around the capital, Ouagadougou, along
with other, closely related Gurunsi languages scattered
throughout Burkina.

The Grand Mosque of Bobo-Dioulasso.

Islam and Christianity are often practiced in tandem with

indigenous religious beliefs. The Government of Burkina
Faso 2006 census reported that 60.5% of the population
practice Islam, and that the majority of this group belong
to the Sunni branch,[61][62] while a small minority adheres
to Shia Islam. There are also large concentrations of the
Ahmadiyya Muslims.[63]
A signicant number of Sunni Muslims identify with
the Tijaniyah Su order. The government estimated that
23.2% of the population are Christians (19% being Roman Catholics and 4.2% members of Protestant denominations); 15.3% follow traditional indigenous beliefs,
0.6% have other religions, and 0.4% have none (atheism
is virtually nonexistent).[61][62]
A popular saying in Burkina Faso claims that 50% are
Muslim, 50% are Christian, and 100% are animist".
This shows the wide level of acceptance of the religions amongst each other. Muslims and Christians also
value ancient animist rites. The Great Mosque of BoboDioulasso was built by people of dierent faiths working
together.

In the west, Mande languages are widely spoken, the most

predominant being Dyula (also known as Jula or Dioula), 5.5 Health
others including Bobo, Samo, and Marka. The Fula language (Fula: Fulfulde, French: Peuhl) is widespread, par- Main article: Health in Burkina Faso
ticularly in the north. The Gourmanch language is spoken in the east, while the Bissa language is spoken in the
In 2012, the average life expectancy was estimated at 57
south.
for male and 59 for female. The under ve mortality rate
The ocial language is French, which was introduced and the infant mortality rate were respectively 102 and
during the colonial period. French is the principal lan- 66 per 1000 live births.[64] In 2014, the median age of
guage of administrative, political and judicial institutions, its inhabitants is 17 and the estimated population growth
public services, and the press. It is the only language for rate is 3.05%.[57]
laws, administration and courts.
In 2011, health expenditures was 6.5% of GDP; the maternal mortality ratio was estimated at 300 deaths per
100000 live births and the physician density at 0.05/1000
5.4 Religion
population in 2010. In 2012, it was estimated that the
adult HIV prevalence rate (ages 1549) was 1.0%.[65] AcMain article: Religion in Burkina Faso
cording to the 2011 UNAIDS Report, HIV prevalence is
declining among pregnant women who attend antenatal
Statistics on religion in Burkina Faso are inexact because clinics.[66] According to a 2005 World Health Organiza-

10

6 CULTURE

tion report, an estimated 72.5% of Burkina Fasos girls 6 Culture

and women have suered female genital mutilation, administered according to traditional rituals.[67]
Main article: Culture of Burkina Faso
Central government spending on health was 3% in Literature in Burkina Faso is based on the oral tradi2001.[68] As of 2009, studies estimated there were as few
as 10 physicians per 100,000 people.[69] In addition, there
were 41 nurses and 13 midwives per 100,000 people.[69]
Demographic and Health Surveys has completed three
surveys in Burkina Faso since 1993, and had another in
2009.[70]

5.6

Education

Main article: Education in Burkina Faso

Education in Burkina Faso is divided into primary, sec-

A masked Winiama dancer, ca.1970

The Gando primary school. Its architect, Dibdo Francis Kr,

received the Aga Khan Award for Architecture in 2004.

tion, which remains important. In 1934, during French

occupation, Dim-Dolobsom Ouedraogo published his
Maximes, penses et devinettes mossi (Maximes, Thoughts
and Riddles of the Mossi), a record of the oral history of
the Mossi people.[73]
The oral tradition continued to have an inuence on Burkinab writers in the post-independence Burkina Faso of
the 1960s, such as Nazi Boni and Roger Nikiema.[74]
The 1960s saw a growth in the number of playwrights
being published.[73] Since the 1970s, literature has developed in Burkina Faso with many more writers being
published.[75]

ondary and higher education.[71] High school costs approximately CFA 25,000 ($50 USD) per year, which is
far above the means of most Burkinab families. Boys
receive preference in schooling; as such, girls education
and literacy rates are far lower than their male counterparts. An increase in girls schooling has been observed
because of the governments policy of making school The theatre of Burkina Faso combines traditional Burkinab performance with the colonial inuences and postcheaper for girls and granting them more scholarships.
colonial eorts to educate rural people to produce a disTo proceed from elementary to middle school, middle tinctive national theatre. Traditional ritual ceremonies of
to high school or high school to college, national ex- the many ethnic groups in Burkina Faso have long inams must be passed. Institutions of higher education volved dancing with masks. Western-style theatre beinclude the University of Ouagadougou, The Polytech- came common during colonial times, heavily inuenced
nic University of Bobo-Dioulasso, and the University of by French theatre. With independence came a new style
Koudougou, which is also a teacher training institution. of theatre inspired by forum theatre aimed at educating
There are some small private colleges in the capital city and entertaining Burkina Fasos rural people.
of Ouagadougou but these are aordable to only a small
portion of the population.
There is also the International School of Ouagadougou 6.1 Arts and crafts
(ISO), an American-based private school located in Ouagadougou.
Main article: Art of Burkina Faso
The 2008 UN Development Program Report ranked In addition to several rich traditional artistic heritages
Burkina Faso as the country with the lowest level of liter- among the peoples, there is a large artist community in
acy in the world, despite a concerted eort to double its Burkina Faso, especially in Ouagadougou. Much of the
crafts produced are for the growing tourist industry.
literacy rate from 12.8% in 1990 to 25.3% in 2008.[72]

6.4

Sports

11
lmmakers are known internationally and have won international prizes.

Artisan garland of decorative painted gourds in Ouagadougou.

6.2

Cuisine

For many years the headquarters of the Federation of

Panafrican Filmmakers (FEPACI) was in Ouagadougou,
rescued in 1983 from a period of moribund inactivity by the enthusiastic support and funding of President
Sankara. (In 2006 the Secretariat of FEPACI moved to
South Africa, but the headquarters of the organization
is still in Ouagaoudougou.) Among the best known directors from Burkina Faso are Gaston Kabor, Idrissa
Ouedraogo and Dani Kouyate.[79] Burkina produces popular television series such as Bobodjiouf. The internationally known lmmakers such as Ouedraogo, Kabore,
Yameogo, and Kouyate make popular television series.

6.4 Sports

Main article: Burkinab cuisine

Typical of West African cuisine, Burkina Fasos cuisine

Burkina Faso national football team in white playing a football

match.
A plate of fufu (right) accompanied with peanut soup.

Main article: Sport in Burkina Faso

is based on staple foods of sorghum, millet, rice, maize,

peanuts, potatoes, beans, yams and okra.[76] The most
common sources of animal protein are chicken, chicken
eggs and fresh water sh. A typical Burkinab beverage is Banji or Palm Wine, which is fermented palm sap;
and Zoom kom, or grain water purportedly the national
drink of Burkina Faso. Zoom-kom is milky-looking and
whitish, having a water and cereal base, best drunk with
ice cubes.[77]

Sport in Burkina Faso is widespread and includes football (soccer), basketball, cycling, Rugby union, handball, tennis, athletics, boxing and martial arts. Football
is very popular in Burkina Faso, played both professionally, and informally in towns and villages across the country. The national team is nicknamed Les Etalons (the
Stallions) in reference to the legendary horse of Princess
Yennenga.

6.3

In 1998, Burkina Faso hosted the Africa Cup of Nations

for which the Omnisport Stadium in Bobo-Dioulasso was
built. In 2013, Burkina Faso qualied for the African Cup
of Nations in South Africa, reached the nal, but then lost
to Nigeria by the score of 0 to 1. The country is currently
ranked 71st in the FIFA World Rankings.[80]

Cinema

Main article: Cinema of Burkina Faso

The cinema of Burkina Faso is an important part of West

African and African lm industry.[78] Burkinas contri- 6.5 Media
bution to African cinema started with the establishment
of the lm festival FESPACO (Festival Panafricain du Main articles:
Media of Burkina
Cinma et de la Tlvision de Ouagadougou), which was Communications in Burkina Faso
launched as a lm week in 1969. Many of the nations

Faso

and

12

REFERENCES

eral death threats.[86]

Samas personal car was later burned outside the private
radio station Ouaga FM by unknown vandals.[87] In response, the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) wrote
to President Compaor to request his government investigate the sending of e-mailed death threats to journalists and radio commentators in Burkina Faso who were
critical of the government.[83] In December 2008, police
in Ouagadougou questioned leaders of a protest march
that called for a renewed investigation into the unsolved
Zongo assassination. Among the marchers was JeanClaude Meda, the president of the Association of Journalists of Burkina Faso.[88]
A member of the Burkinab media at work in Ouagadougou.

The nations principal media outlet is its state-sponsored

combined television and radio service, RadiodiusionTlvision Burkina (RTB).[81] RTB broadcasts on two
medium-wave (AM) and several FM frequencies. Besides RTB, there are privately owned sports, cultural, music, and religious FM radio stations. RTB maintains a
worldwide short-wave news broadcast (Radio Nationale
Burkina) in the French language from the capital at Ouagadougou using a 100 kW transmitter on 4.815 and 5.030
MHz.[82]
Attempts to develop an independent press and media in
Burkina Faso have been intermittent. In 1998, investigative journalist Norbert Zongo, his brother Ernest, his
driver, and another man were assassinated by unknown
assailants, and the bodies burned. The crime was never
solved.[83] However, an independent Commission of Inquiry later concluded that Norbert Zongo was killed for
political reasons because of his investigative work into
the death of David Ouedraogo, a chaueur who worked
for Franois Compaor, President Blaise Compaor's
brother.[84][85]
In January 1999, Franois Compaor was charged with
the murder of David Ouedraogo, who had died as a result of torture in January 1998. The charges were later
dropped by a military tribunal after an appeal. In August 2000, ve members of the Presidents personal security guard detail (Rgiment de la Scurit Prsidentielle, or
RSP) were charged with the murder of Ouedraogo. RSP
members Marcel Kafando, Edmond Koama, and Ousseini Yaro, investigated as suspects in the Norbert Zongo
assassination, were convicted in the Ouedraogo case and
sentenced to lengthy prison terms.[84][85]
Since the death of Norbert Zongo, several protests regarding the Zongo investigation and treatment of journalists have been prevented or dispersed by government
police and security forces. In April 2007, popular radio
reggae host Karim Sama, whose programs feature reggae songs interspersed with critical commentary on alleged government injustice and corruption, received sev-

6.6 Cultural Festivals and Events

Every two years, Ouagadougou hosts the Panafrican Film
and Television Festival of Ouagadougou (FESPACO), the
largest African cinema festival on the continent(February,
odd years).
Held every two years since 1988, the International Art
and Craft Fair, Ouagadougou (SIAO), is one of Africas
most important trade shows for art and handicrafts (late
October-early November, even years).
Also every two years, the Symposium de sculpture sur
granit de Laongo takes place on a site located about 35
km from Ouagadougou, in the province of Oubritenga.
The National Culture Week of Burkina Faso, better
known by its French name La Semaine Nationale de la
culture (SNC), is one of the most important cultural activities of Burkina Faso. It is a biennial event which takes
place every two years in Bobo Dioulasso, the secondlargest city in the country.

7 See also
Holidays in Burkina Faso
Index of Burkina Faso-related articles
List of cities in Burkina Faso
Music of Burkina Faso
Outline of Burkina Faso
Tourism in Burkina Faso
Transport in Burkina Faso

8 References
[1] Burkina Faso population projection.
French). 2014. Retrieved 1 October 2014.

insd.bf (in

13

[2] Burkina Faso. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved

1 October 2014.

[24] The Upright Man Thomas Sankara Documentary, 201504-17, retrieved 2015-05-21

[3] Burkina Faso. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved

1 October 2014.

[25] Kasuka, Bridgette (2011). African Leaders. 3rd Paragraph: Bankole Kamara Taylor. p. 13. ISBN 9781468114362. Retrieved 30 October 2014.

[4] Distribution of family income Gini index. The World

Factbook. CIA. Retrieved 1 September 2009.
[5] 2014 Human Development Report Summary (PDF).
United Nations Development Programme. 2014. pp. 21
25. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
[6] CFA Franc BCEAO. Codes: XOF / 952 ISO 4217 currency names and code elements. ISO.
[7] Tens of thousands attend Burkina Faso protest, Protesters
voice opposition to referendum that would allow Blaise
Campaore to extend his presidential term, Reuters, Last
updated: 1 June 2014 01:34.
[8] Violent Protests Topple Government in Burkina Faso,
BBC.
[9] UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Site archologique de
Bura. unesco.org.
[10] Miller, D. E.; Van Der Merwe, N. J. (2009). Early
Metal Working in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review of Recent Research. The Journal of African History 35: 136.
doi:10.1017/S0021853700025949. JSTOR 182719.
[11] Stuiver, Minze; van der Merwe, Nicolaas J. (1968). Radiocarbon Chronology of the Iron Age in Sub-Saharan
Africa. Current Anthropology 9 (1): 5458. JSTOR
2740446.
[12] Rupley, p. 27
[13] Rupley, p. 28
[14] Encyclopedia of the Nations. History. Advameg, Inc.,
n.d. Web. 8 October 2014.
[15] Rupley, p. xxvioi
[16] Rupley, p. xxvix
[17] Rupley, pp. 3033
[18] Mahir Saul and Patrick Royer, West African Challenge to
Empire, 2001
[19] More (Language of the Mossi Tribe) Phrase Book.
World Digital Library. Retrieved 16 February 2013.
[20] Sankara, Thomas The Upright Man, (video), youtube,
[21] Kingsher Geography Encyclopedia. ISBN 1-85613-5829. Page 170
[22] Manning, Patrick (1988). Francophone Sub-Saharan
Africa: 1880-198. Cambridge: New York.
[23] The name is an amalgam of More burkina (honest, upright, or incorruptible men) and Jula faso (homeland";
literally fathers house). The "-be sux in the name for
the people Burkinabe comes from the Fula plural sufx for people, -e.

[26] Burkina Faso Prole. Burkina Faso Prole. BBC

NEWS AFRICA, 21 March 2014. Web. 24 September
2014.
[27] BBC News Burkina Faso parliament set ablaze. BBC
News. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[28] Burkina Faso protesters set parliament on re, take over
state TV and march on presidency. The Sydney Morning
Herald. Retrieved 30 October 2014.
[29] Gongo, Simon and Bax, Pauline. Burkina Faso General Takes Power After President Resigns. Businessweek.com.
[30] Herve, Taoko and Cowelloct, Alan (31 October 2014)
Burkina Fasos President Resigns, and General Takes
Reins. New York Times.
[31] BBC News Army backs new Burkina Faso leader Isaac
Zida. BBC News.
[32] Burkina Faso talks agree on plan for return to civilian
rule. Reuters. Retrieved 9 November 2014.
[33] Burkina Fasos Blaise Compaore sacks his government,
BBC News, 15 April 2011
[34] Burkina opposition calls anti-president demo. The Daily
Star. 23 April 2011. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
[35] Taoko, Herv; Nossiter, Adam (27 April 2011). Mayors
Home Burned as Burkina Faso Protests Continue. The
New York Times. Archived from the original on 29 April
2011. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
[36] Gongo, Simon (28 April 2011). Burkina Faso Riot Police Join Wave of Protests After Government Dissolved.
Bloomberg L.P. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
[37] Burkina Faso teachers strike: Union agrees deal. BBC
News. 25 May 2011. Archived from the original on 27
May 2011. Retrieved 28 May 2011.
[38] Burkina Faso government replaces its governors. Taiwan News. 9 June 2011. Retrieved 11 June 2011.
[39] Tiendrebeongo, Aristide (March 2013). Failure Likely.
dandc.eu.
[40] Janes Sentinel Security Assessment West Africa, 15 April
2009
[41] Burkina Faso capital under curfew after army mutiny.
BBC News. 16 April 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
[42] Das, Dilip K. and Palmiotto, Michael J. (2005) World Police Encyclopedia, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-94250-0. pp.
139141
[43] U.S. Dept. of State, Burkina Faso: Country Specic Information

14

[44] Foreign and Commonwealth Oce, Sub-Saharan Africa:

Burkina Faso at the Wayback Machine (archived 27 August 2009). fco.gov.uk
[45] SIM Country Prole: Burkina Faso. Archived from the
original on 9 March 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2006.
[46] Geography & Wildlife. our-africa.org
[47] OEC: Products exported by Bulgaria (2012)". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Retrieved 30 October
2014.
[48] Euromoney Country Risk. Euromoney Country Risk.
Euromoney Institutional Investor PLC. Retrieved 15 August 2011.
[49] Burkina Faso Financial Sector Prole at the Wayback Machine (archived 16 December 2013), MFW4A
[50] Prole Burkina Faso. Inadev.org. Retrieved on 5 April
2014.
[51] York, Jeorey (15 April 2012). Iamgolds growing
investment in Burkina Faso. The Globe and Mail
(Toronto).
[52] OHADA.com: The business law portal in Africa. Retrieved 22 March 2009.
[53] Peter Newborne 2011. Pipes and People: Progress in Water Supply in Burkina Fasos Cities, London: Overseas Development Institute
[54] Burkina Faso. Retrieved 17 October 2014.
[55] European Rail Timetable, Summer 2014 Edition
[56] Burkina Faso, U.S. Department of State, June 2008.
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in
the public domain.
[57] Burkina Faso. CIA World Factbook
[58] June 2009 the U.S. Department of State Tracking
in Persons Report, http://gvnet.com/humantrafficking/
BurkinaFaso-2.htm
[59] West Africa slavery still widespread". BBC News. 27
October 2008.
[60] Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of
the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International. (Page on Languages of Burkina Faso.)
[61] Comit national du recensement (July 2008).
Recensement gnral de la population et de l'habitation
de 2006. Conseil national de la statistique. Archived
from the original (PDF) on 2011-04-21. Retrieved 20
January 2011.
[62] International Religious Freedom Report 2010: Burkina
Faso. United States Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights
and Labor (17 November 2010). This article incorporates
text from this source, which is in the public domain.
[63] Breach of Faith. Human Rights Watch. June 2005. p. 8.
Retrieved 4 June 2014. Estimates of around 20 million
would be appropriate

REFERENCES

[64] Statistics in Burkina Faso. World Health Organization.

[65] UN AIDS: HIV/AIDS adult prevalence rate. Retrieved
on 25 July 2014.
[66] UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report 2011 (PDF), UNAIDS,
retrieved 29 March 2012
[67] Female genital mutilation and other harmful practices,
WHI.int
[68] Globalis an interactive world map Burkina Faso
Central government expenditures on health. Globalis.gvu.unu.edu. Archived from the original on 16 May
2011. Retrieved 1 October 2009.
[69] WHO Country Oces in the WHO African Region
WHO | Regional Oce for Africa. Afro.who.int. Retrieved 20 June 2010.
[70] Burkina Faso DHS Surveys, measuredhs.com
[71] Education Burkina Faso. Nationsencyclopedia.com.
Retrieved 1 October 2009.
[72] UNDP Human Development Report 2007/2008 at the
Wayback Machine (archived 29 April 2011). Palgrave
Macmillan. 2007. ISBN 978-0-230-54704-9
[73] Salhi, Kamal (1999). Francophone Voices. Intellect
Books. p. 37. ISBN 1-902454-03-0. Retrieved 26 April
2014.
[74] Allan, Tuzyline Jita (1997). Womens Studies Quarterly: Teaching African Literatures in a Global Literary.
Feminist Press. p. 86. ISBN 1-55861-169-X. Retrieved
26 April 2014.
[75] Marchais, Julien (2006). Burkina Faso (in French). Petit
Fut. pp. 9192. ISBN 2-7469-1601-0. Retrieved 26
April 2014.
[76] Oxfams Cool Planet Food in Burkina Faso. Oxfam.
Archived from the original on 17 May 2012. Retrieved 21
May 2008.
[77] article in French on Burkinabe Zoom-kom
[78] Spaas, Lieve (2000) Burkina Faso, in The Francophone
Film: A Struggle for Identity, pp. 232246. Manchester:
Manchester University Press, ISBN 0719058619.
[79] Turgano, Teresa Hoefert (2005) African Cinema and Europe: Close-Up on Burkina Faso, Florence: European
Press Academic, ISBN 888398031X.
[80] The FIFA/Coca-Cola World Ranking. FIFA.com. Retrieved 10 July 2013.
[81] Radiodiusion-Tlvision Burkina. Rtb.bf. Retrieved
1 October 2009.
[82] Radio Station World, Burkina Faso: Governmental Broadcasting Agencies
[83] Committee to Protect Journalists, Burkina Faso
[84] Reporters Sans Frontieres, Whats Happening About The
Inquiry Into Norbert Zongos Death?

15

[85] Reporters Sans Frontieres, Outrageous Denial Of Justice

21 July 2006
[86] IFEX, Radio Station Temporarily Pulls Programme After
Host Receives Death Threats, 26 April 2007
[87] FreeMuse.org, Death threat against Reggae Radio Host, 3
May 2007
[88] Keita, Mohamed, Burkina Faso Police Question Zongo
Protesters, Committee to Protect Journalists, 15 December 2008

Bibliography

LeFaso.net, a news information site.

Burkina Faso from UCB Libraries GovPubs.
Burkina Faso at DMOZ
Burkina Faso prole from the BBC News.
Wikimedia Atlas of Burkina Faso
News headline links from AllAfrica.com.
Overseas Development Institute
Country prole at New Internationalist.
Key Development Forecasts for Burkina Faso from
International Futures.

Rupley, Lawrence; Bangali, Lamissa and Diamitani,

Boureima (2013). Historical Dictionary of Burkina
Faso. The Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108- Trade
6770-3.
World Bank 2011 Trade Summary for Burkiana
Faso

10

Further reading

Engberg-Perderson, Lars, Endangering Development: Politics, Projects, and Environment in Burkina

Faso (Praeger Publishers, 2003).
Englebert, Pierre, Burkina Faso: Unsteady Statehood in West Africa (Perseus, 1999).
Howorth, Chris, Rebuilding the Local Landscape:
Environmental Management in Burkina Faso (Ashgate, 1999).
McFarland, Daniel Miles and Rupley, Lawrence A,
Historical Dictionary of Burkina Faso (Scarecrow
Press, 1998).
Manson, Katrina and Knight, James, Burkina Faso
(Bradt Travel Guides, 2011).
Roy, Christopher D and Wheelock, Thomas G B,
Land of the Flying Masks: Art and Culture in Burkina Faso: The Thomas G.B. Wheelock Collection
(Prestel Publishing, 2007).
Sankara, Thomas, Thomas Sankara Speaks: The
Burkina Faso Revolution 19831987 (Pathnder
Press, 2007).
Sankara, Thomas, We are the Heirs of the Worlds
Revolutions: Speeches from the Burkina Faso Revolution 19831987 (Pathnder Press, 2007).

11

External links

Premier Ministre, ocial government portal.

(French)
Burkina Faso entry at The World Factbook

16

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Burkina Faso Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso?oldid=663445466 Contributors: The Epopt, Koyaanis Qatsi, -- April,
LA2, Scipius, Youssefsan, Danny, Rmhermen, William Avery, SimonP, Drbug, Fonzy, Olivier, Ericd, Edward, Liftarn, Gabbe, Menchi,
Mic, CORNELIUSSEON, Ixfd64, Arpingstone, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, Stan Shebs, Docu, TUF-KAT, Notheruser, TUFKAT, Jiang, GCarty, Lancevortex, Tobias Conradi, Hashar, Pascal, RickK, Lfh, WhisperToMe, Wik, Grendelkhan, Morwen, Metasquares,
Bloodshedder, Jason M, Jeq, Denelson83, SD6-Agent, Bearcat, Nufy8, Robbot, Vardion, Fredrik, Kristof vt, Dittaeva, Romanm, Tim
Ivorson, Nach0king, Ojigiri~enwiki, Meelar, ThaGrind, Timrollpickering, Bkell, Conrad Leviston~enwiki, David Edgar, Ianml, Mushroom,
Scythian99, Lupo, SoLando, Alan Liefting, David Gerard, Fabiform, DocWatson42, Chemica, Netoholic, Everyking, Snowdog, Varlaam,
Cantus, Zbihniew, DO'Neil, Pteron, Archie, BillyH, Jason Quinn, Gzornenplatz, Avala, Bobblewik, Golbez, Sesel, Wmahan, Gugganij, Stevietheman, Chowbok, Gadum, Pgan002, Andycjp, Knutux, Jonel, Pm, Domino theory, PDH, Oneiros, Secfan, Burgundavia, Zfr, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Urhixidur, Sarcelles, Klemen Kocjancic, Sonett72, Atlastawake, D6, Sdrawkcab, R, A-giau, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Cnyborg, Freestylefrappe, Wikiacc, HeikoEvermann, Bender235, Violetriga, Pedant, SElefant, Taksim25, CanisRufus,
MBisanz, El C, Kwamikagami, Mjk2357, Aude, Art LaPella, Xed, Dm526, Bobo192, Circeus, NetBot, Func, Zarateman, Cwolfsheep,
Acntx, Jojit fb, Darwinek, Thewayforward, Shorne, Polylerus, Jumbuck, Red Winged Duck, Alansohn, Buaidh, Mr Adequate, Sade, Walkerma, BanyanTree, NAshbery, Jost Riedel, Cburnett, Sciurin, Siddheshk, Gene Nygaard, Redvers, Nightstallion, Jakes18, Zntrip, Benoni,
Bobrayner, Newnoise~enwiki, Martiniano, Firsfron, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, LOL, Rocastelo, Miaow Miaow, MONGO, Tabletop, Kralizec!, Ruziklan, Halcatalyst, Allen3, King of Hearts (old account 2), Graham87, BD2412, Dvyost, Electionworld, Rjwilmsi, Coemgenus,
Koavf, , Red King, BlueMoonlet, Adamacious, Daniel Collins, SeanMack, Schaengel89~enwiki, Ucucha, Jor, Syced,
Yamamoto Ichiro, Baryonic Being, FayssalF, FlaBot, Ian Pitchford, CalJW, Doc glasgow, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Jrtayloriv, Codex Sinaiticus, McDogm, Yamagu~enwiki, Imnotminkus, Idaltu, Chobot, DaGizza, ScottAlanHill, Guliolopez, Korg, Bgwhite, Kdehl, YurikBot,
Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Dannycas, RussBot, AVM, Pigman, RadioFan, Hyperbole, Gaius Cornelius, Alifazal, MosheA, Wiki alf, Wwilly,
Aeusoes1, Stheman, Nightmare X, Moe Epsilon, Ezeu, Nigel Campbell, Denihilonihil, Lockesdonkey, Samir, BOT-Superzerocool, Bota47,
Hakeem.gadi, Martinwilke1980, Eurosong, FF2010, Nikkimaria, Closedmouth, Newguineafan, Chanheigeorge, DGaw, Allens, Ief, GrinBot~enwiki, Random task, Roke, Rehevkor, West Virginian, SmackBot, Unschool, Enlil Ninlil, David Kernow, DMellis, Bravo-Alpha,
Pgk, Thunderboltz, Big Adamsky, EncycloPetey, Rajah9, Kintetsubualo, Srnec, Kudzu1, Gilliam, Brianski, Quidam65, Ohnoitsjamie,
Hmains, Oscarthecat, Polaron, FaveoKatro, Timbouctou, Ottawakismet, Jprg1966, Thumperward, Dvermeirre, Mattythewhite, Preslav,
MalafayaBot, Kemet, Hibernian, Akanemoto, Bazonka, DHN-bot~enwiki, Darth Panda, Scwlong, Tsca.bot, Skidude9950, MJCdetroit,
KevM, JonHarder, Folksong, Addshore, Vosit, Rarelibra, Khoikhoi, NoIdeaNick, BradBjorkman, Magore, RandomP, Daniel.o.jenkins,
RichAromas, Aaker, Richard0612, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, Drunken Pirate, Ohconfucius, Will Beback, SashatoBot, Ser Amantio di Nicolao,
Harryboyles, Srikeit, Rodney Boyd, Demicx, SilkTork, Gobonobo, Kingsherswift, Green Giant, Vanished user 56po34it12ke, NongBot~enwiki, IronGargoyle, Ckatz, BillFlis, Tasc, Noah Salzman, Abdullah Geelah, InedibleHulk, Maksim L., McTrixie, Mets501, Xania,
Sharcho, Ryulong, Halaqah, Peter Horn, Jose77, Peyre, Kvng, Hu12, Js farrar, V6g3h7, WGee, Paul venter, Theone00, Rnb, Amakuru,
Billgunyon, Anak 1, Ewulp, Thricecube, Tawkerbot2, Ghaly, Eastlaw, JForget, Brutzman, CmdrObot, Dgw, WeggeBot, Jac16888, Cydebot, Kanags, ArgentTurquoise, Zeppelin462, Gogo Dodo, Fuxya bxl, Yannickilboudo, Pascal.Tesson, 79spirit, Optimist on the run,
Omicronpersei8, Zalgo, JonBroxton, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Kablammo, CopperKettle, Nonagonal Spider, Marek69, Missvain, SirYoda,
Tapir Terric, Merbabu, Marco Schmidt, Therequiembellishere, Bob the Wikipedian, MinnesotanConfederacy, F l a n k e r, AlefZet,
Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, RobotG, Chicgeek, Lmaltier, Ozzieboy, Carolmooredc, EdmundSS, Danger, Credema, Random user 8384993,
Spencer, Alphachimpbot, Hoo0001, Dreaded Walrus, Res2216restar, Uusitunnus, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Deective, T L Miles, The Transhumanist, Matthew Fennell, Scythian1, Arch dude, Taospark, Jimwalsh01, RR, .anacondabot, Magioladitis, A12n, Connormah, VoABot
II, Scanlan, MJD86, Hullaballoo Wolfowitz, Buckshot06, CTF83!, Nyttend, Recurring dreams, Wfaldas, Noahlaws, Bharathiya, Bjbeamish,
Rif Wineld, JaGa, Starsky31, Hellerick, Spankie09, S3000, Jerem43, MartinBot, Rob Lindsey, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, Sastrugi1, DBlomgren, Simulacrist, Lilac Soul, BR64, RockMFR, J.delanoy, Trusilver, Numbo3, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro,
Nigholith, Yonidebot, Ginsengbomb, Johnbod, Kemi Akapo, Naniwako, Skier Dude, Ipigott, Salazar45, Belovedfreak, SJP, Ahuskay,
Ljgua124, Aeonimitz~enwiki, Flatterworld, E.cassimatis, Cometstyles, Bonadea, Oscargsol, Andy Marchbanks, Battlecrabs, CardinalDan,
Conte di Cavour, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Highelds, Omegacc, VolkovBot, Leebo, Je G., Vlma111, KmHaaheim, AlnoktaBOT, DarthGator, Mikael Hansson, Maxtremus, Philip Trueman, Marekzp, DoorsAjar, TXiKiBoT, XavierGreen, Sumpro, Quizimodo, Simmid3093,
Coldplay201, MINGESELLE299, JhsBot, DyceBot, Andylu, HuskyHuskie, Andrewrost3241981, Maxim, Richard Trillo, Zeis~enwiki,
Taharqa, Y, Neonstar, Synthebot, Insanity Incarnate, AlleborgoBot, Logan, Munci, NHRHS2010, Sanderkr, EmxBot, SPQRobin, SieBot,
Calliopejen1, Sheppa28, BotMultichill, Gerakibot, Mangostar, Bentogoa, Flyer22, HkCaGu, Oxymoron83, Charlie, Awesome-Articlist of
Wonder, Lightmouse, Bogande, Cjvasco, Kumioko (renamed), Mitch1981, Moeng, Max Entrepreneur, GiveItSomeThought, Jacob.jose,
Nn123645, Denisarona, Jp n steve369, Aleayre, Gr8opinionater, Atif.t2, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Elassint, ClueBot, Dvl007, Sonictrey,
PipepBot, TransporterMan, Kotniski, Lexington1, Mgarriss, Drmies, Iuhkjhk87y678, Parkwells, FenrisMAQ, DragonBot, Detroiterbot,
The Wikipedist, Excirial, Cenarium, MikeHalpert, Jotterbot, Dn9ahx, Iohannes Animosus, Searcher 1990, Mlas, Chrono1084, Protozoon,
Another Believer, Tired time, 7, Samantha555, Cpt.schoener, Peacheshead, IJA, MelonBot, Plagosky, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, To
lead you in the summer to join the black parade!, DumZiBoT, Bearsona, AlanM1, Pichpich, Joseph031164, Dthomsen8, Jjjfbbb, Sebastian Vogel~enwiki, Avoided, Jprw, Romanceor, MystBot, Good Olfactory, Gggh, HexaChord, Jhendin, Addbot, Narayansg, Ronhjones,
CanadianLinuxUser, NjardarBot, Mauz, Jaydec, ViskonBot, Numbo3-bot, Ondewelle, Dubbleup99, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Iune, Bonatto, Gail, WikiDreamer Bot, HerculeBot, Legobot, Middayexpress, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Dooptastic, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Amirobot,
Dfgxx, KamikazeBot, UWh20m, AnomieBOT, Jfry3, Jim1138, Kingpin13, Materialscientist, MoonshineMedia, Sven70, Dewan357, GB
fan, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, MauritsBot, Xqbot, The Banner, Capricorn42, Khajidha, Dontbesuspicious, Getoutait, Jsharpminor, Dellant,
Anna Frodesiak, BritishWatcher, TheIntersect, JonC0001, Naur, Resident Mario, ProtectionTaggingBot, Microltered, RibotBOT, Masaul,
CHJL, Brutaldeluxe, Jared.sager, Moxy, MerlLinkBot, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, MontseBL, LucienBOT, Tobby72, SisuUnlimited, Mistakender, Adrianbrodal, Portugal 11, Tonguim, A Werewolf, VoodooIsland, Aordictator, Armigo~enwiki, DivineAlpha, Citation bot 1, Diwas, Bestpay, DrilBot, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Unnachamois, Fat&Happy, CHawc, Drewski46, Nicole2197, IJBall, Kgrad, FoxBot,
Kahr7, TheoloJ, Snakey12, Jonkerz, GRUM75, Lotje, Aligherio, Comet Tuttle, RoadTrain, January, Reaper Eternal, Diannaa, Suusion of
Yellow, Tbhotch, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Lilly granger, Kobac, Ripchip Bot, VernoWhitney, Peaceworld111, Nyro1980, Blackmatrixrox, Rayman60, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Hectorconcorny, Sakyle, GoingBatty, Mesgul82, Marcos canbeiro, Solarra, Tommy2010,
AsceticRose, Josve05a, Doddy Wuid, Therapdog, Netknowle, Bxj, Unreal7, SporkBot, Fradeb, Breeshaddock, Thine Antique Pen, Isarra,
Tableclothes, ChuispastonBot, Lou234, Manytexts, ClueBot NG, Madunyak, Spsafw, HeadlessMaster, SpacemanOpus, Frietjes, Mesoderm, Toromono, Nassara78, Widr, Salomon533, Mightymights, Helpful Pixie Bot, Electriccatsh2, Yatwinds, DBigXray, Emma 409,

12.2

Images

17

Vokesk, Northamerica1000, Generaal klei, PhnomPencil, HIDECCHI001, Brad097, MusikAnimal, AvocatoBot, Philpm930, Mark Arsten, Scientistmohamed, CarterL2011, OttawaAC, RayeRaye121, Sherri J1990, Socialistguy, Shredder2012, Liam987, Trini1988, Dk203,
ChrisGualtieri, Mediran, Khazar2, Emperortikacuti, JYBot, APerson, Treemapper, FlatTire1, Webclient101, Charles Essie, Jackninja5,
Humberto del Torrejn, Cerabot~enwiki, Alexgrim, Lugia2453, Eleventhblock, Graphium, AbstractIllusions, Wedlass, 123lewis, Lassane, Passengerpigeon, Mfw4a, Epicgenius, CsDix, TrollishTackyBling, EvergreenFir, Emefaush, D Eaketts, Werddemer, Blondeguynative, ThecentreCZ, Mevagiss, Baller7878, Sleven436, Blolay, Mothernature1, Make savings at our nearest store, Monkbot, Septate, Why
should I have a User Name?, Monopoly31121993, Communpedia Tribal, ArteDeGuerra, Bezanger, Jeremy Bezanger, LW86, Signedzzz,
, Stamboliyski, Anselm Simeon, PunSoc, FriarTuck1981, Katougandan, Balsus100, ISO mulet boy, Hulda C, Meryl
on, ISO Jacoboss, TheBadSeeds2012, Vmp4523, Kingsclassroom, Stdevin, Omo Obatal, Dtjonb, Hvaara, Clmoatt, Poop1234567891,
Poop12343, Joshuagro, Shiga01, Yajeepms, Joseph2302, Cryinglama, Buttlicker77, Conbe101, Jekim2, HereToTrolololol, Iz1909, Bentritton and Anonymous: 723

12.2

Images

File:Africa_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Africa_%28orthographic_

projection%29.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Martin23230
File:Africa_satellite_orthographic.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/21/Africa_satellite_orthographic.jpg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:African_Union_(orthographic_projection).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/African_Union_
%28orthographic_projection%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist:
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Heraldry' title='User:Heraldry'>Heraldry</a>
File:Assemblee_Nationale_Burkina_Faso.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Assemblee_Nationale_
Burkina_Faso.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Sputniktilt
File:Blaise_Compaor_2014_White_House.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/Blaise_Compaor%
C3%A9_2014_White_House.png License: Public domain Contributors: File:Blaise Compaor with Obamas 2014.jpg Original artist:
Amanda Lucidon / White House
File:Burkina_Faso_media_2010.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Burkina_Faso_media_2010.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/dayapragm/5272975403/sizes/z/in/photostream/ Original artist:
DamienHR
File:Burkina_faso_artisan_painted_gourds.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Burkina_faso_
artisan_painted_gourds.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/dayapragm/5287911484/sizes/z/in/
photostream/ Original artist: DamienHR
File:Burkina_sat.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c6/Burkina_sat.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Burkina_team.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Burkina_team.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: kyselak
File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_Nunuma_of_Winiama_maskerdanser_TMnr_20031569.jpg Source:
https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Een_Nunuma_of_Winiama_maskerdanser_
TMnr_20031569.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Tropenmuseum Original artist: Fotograaf / photographer: niet bekend /
unknown
File:Coat_of_arms_of_Burkina_Faso.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Coat_of_arms_of_
Burkina_Faso.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.wipo.int/ipdl/IPDL-IMAGES/SIXTERXML-IMAGES/images/bf2.
jpg Original artist: F l a n k e r
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Essakane_Mill_in_Burkina_Faso.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/05/Essakane_Mill_in_
Burkina_Faso.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.iamgold.com/English/News/News-Releases/News-Release-Details/
2010/IAMGOLD-Officially-Opens-its-Essakane-Mine-in-Burkina-Faso1122901/default.aspx Original artist: Iamgold
File:Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Flag_of_Burkina_Faso.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Flag_of_La_Francophonie.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Based on Image:Francophonie 1987.png. Original artist: Denelson83
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Fufu.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Fufu.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work
Original artist: Londonsista
File:Gando-School-Burkina-Faso.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/42/Gando-School-Burkina-Faso.
JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Helge Fahrnberger / www.helge.at
File:Grand_march_de_Koudougou.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/Grand_march%C3%A9_de_
Koudougou.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Julien CHIARETTO
File:Hymne_National_du_Burkina_Faso.ogg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Hymne_National_du_
Burkina_Faso.ogg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.navyband.navy.mil/anthems/national_anthems.htm Original artist:
United States Navy Band
File:Location_Burkina_Faso_AU_Africa.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Location_Burkina_
Faso_AU_Africa.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alvaro1984 18

18

12

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Maurice_Yamogo_-_Golda_Meir_1961.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a3/Maurice_Yam%

C3%A9ogo_-_Golda_Meir_1961.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Israel National Photo Collection Original artist: Paul Goldman
File:Mittelholzer-ouagadougou.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Mittelholzer-ouagadougou.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own scan from book Tschadseeug by Walter Mittelholzer, published in 1932 in Switzerland (publisher: Verlag Schweizer Aero-Revue in Zrich). Original artist: Walter Mittelholzer (1894-1937)
File:Moschee_von_Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/03/Moschee_von_
Bobo-Dioulasso.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: Flickr: Moschee von Bobo-Dioulasso Original artist: qiv
File:MossiCavalry.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/MossiCavalry.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: English Wikipedia [1] Original artist: J. W. Buel
File:Ouagadougou_(3839513403).jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Ouagadougou_
%283839513403%29.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Ouagadougou Original artist: Steve Evans from Citizen of the World
File:Pg381_Des_hommes_sur_les_toits_s{}opposent.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e6/Pg381_
Des_hommes_sur_les_toits_s%27opposent.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Image extracted from page 381 of Du Niger au golfe de Guin e, par le pays de Kong et le Mossi , by BINGER, Louis Gustave. Original
held and digitised by the British Library. Copied from Flickr.
Original artist: ?
File:Pionniers_de_la_rvolution.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Pionniers_de_la_r%C3%
A9volution.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: I took this picture myself in Wayen - Burkina Faso (it was during Franois
Mitterands visit, I think in 1987) with a Minolta XD-7 and a 100-200 f/5.6 Rokkor lens. Original picture was a Kodakchome slide, it has
been scanned from a print and digitally edited (cropping, color balance). Original artist: User Conversion script on en.wikipedia
File:Speakerlink-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Speakerlink-new.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kelvinsong
File:Steady2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Steady2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Tomchen1989
File:Sudanese_Style_Railway_Station_Bobo_Dioulasso_Burkina_Faso.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/9/91/Sudanese_Style_Railway_Station_Bobo_Dioulasso_Burkina_Faso.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/adam_jones/4801973514/sizes/l/in/photostream/ Original artist: Adam Jones, PhD
File:Terrestrial_globe.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6b/Terrestrial_globe.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Tree_map_export_2009_Burkina_Faso.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Tree_map_export_
2009_Burkina_Faso.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Electronic Complexity Observatory, MIT Media Lab and the Center
for International Development at Harvard University. http://atlas.media.mit.edu Original artist: R Haussmann, Cesar Hidalgo, et. al.
File:WP_35,_SDr9776.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/WP_35%2C_SDr9776.JPG License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Own work (own foto) Original artist: Stefan Dressler
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
Simon.
File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw
File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

12.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0