CHAPTER 8 NOTES

2.1 Scientific Modeling

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scientific model conveys info

models help picture reality
derive models from observations
process of modeling for the atomic scientist is very much like modeling
that took place with the discovery of dinosaurs
could not see the subjects to develop models
years of refined data to get the atomic model of today
models of atoms are based on scientific discoveries
John Dalton first to develop model of atom
o proposed that the atom was the smallest particle of matter,
indivisible sphere with a uniform density
o all atoms of the same element had the same mass and same
chemical behavior
o able to combine in fixed number ratios to produce specific
compounds
o knew nothing about electric nature

2.2 Discovery of Electron

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atom is electrical in nature

Cookes
o experimented with a partially evacuated tube
gas at low pressure, implanted were two electrodes, which
were conductors
discovered electrical nature of atom
beam of particles is negative
negative is called cathode
positive is anode
tube is known as cathode ray tube
repeated this many times, same result
1897 JJ. Thomson
o tested the nature of cathode rays
o reconstructed CRT
o had a way of measuring the amount of deflection that occurred
o deflection of a charged particle depends on the mass of the
particle and the size of its charge
o duplicated by positioning a magnet close to the tube
o beam deflected downward by magnet, deflected back upwards
as it passed between second set
o deflection was constant
o identified electrons

8.3 The Proton

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once it became apparent that electrons could be separated,

researchers assumed the existence of proton
intact atoms have no apparent change
Thomson conducted further experiments containing hydrogen gas at
ver low pressure
o hydrogen moved towards anode
o new beam was positive
see chart on p 226 for what happened

8.4 Extension Physical Characteristics of Electrons and Protons

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once existence of E and P was established, scientists wanted to know

more about characteristics
mass was impossible for early atomic scientists
used ratios of the size of the charge to the mass, calculated based on
voltage needed to return the deflected beam to its original path
Coulomb is one unit of electric charge
determined e/m ratio for hydrogen ion
o when compared to electrons e/m ratio, ratio of electron was
2000x value
o either charge of electron was very large or mass was very small
o mass was small!
American physicist Robert Millikan added substantially to the growing
knowledge about electrons
o measured charge on electron using apparatus, oil drops ionized
either positively or negatively
o adjusted the electric field so that the drop would move slowly
upward in front of a gird in the telescope
o calculate drop on charge
o combine info with results obtained by Thomson to calculate a
value for the mass of a single electron
e/m value for electrons was same for all gases
varying e/m ratios he obtained were the result of different numbers of
protons in the different gases
o more protons, more mass

8.5 Thomsons Model of the Atom

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1903 evidence was becoming quite clear that atoms were not solid
spheres
atoms were made of smaller subatomic components
Thomsons model incorporated the newly discovered evidence that
negatively charged and positively charged exists

accounted for electronic charge

like a blueberry muffin

8.6 Discovery of Radioactivity and the Gold Foil Experiment

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nature of atom was further revealed in an accidental discovery made

by the French scientist Henri Becquerei
o investigating the nature of X rays, ability to fog a photographic
plate even when the plate was covered by black paper
o when he put it away the uranium outline was there when I was
cloudy before
o rays when sunlight?
Radioactivity is a spontaneous process by which certain atoms emit
particles and very penetrating rays
Ernest Rutherford
o emission involved two kinds of particles
alpha high speed positively charged
Beta high speed electrons
(later, gamma, high speed RAYS not particles)
o discovered nucleus through gold foil
shot alpha beams through a gold foil, some were deflected
found nucleus

8.7 Rutherford Atom

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Atom contained densely packed nucleus

alpha particle would collide almost head-on with a nucleus
change direction dramatically through large angles
electrons would be like bees around a hive

8.8 Neutron
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Curies bombarded beryllium with alpha particles

found neutron
did not possess a charge, not affected by the rays

Atomic Number and Isotopes

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Instruments used by founders were primitive

elements differ from one another only by number of protons
masses of atoms are determined by number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus

8.9 Atomic Number and Mass Number

Need to know the number of protons, neutrons, electrons, in the atoms

that they investigate
understand the basic chemical physical properties of the elements
atomic number of an element is the number of protons
o defines an element
o electrons can be removed with enough energy, but to remove a
proton is to fundamentally change the element
almost all atoms contain neutrons in nuclei
neutrons add mass but do not change charge
number of protons and neutrons is called mass number

8.10 Isotopes
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Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain different numbers
of neutrons
many elements exist in isotopic form
atomic number is always the same for any one element so it is often
dropped when writing symbol
not all are radioactive, but many are
stability of isotope depends on the number of neutrons present

8.11 Extension Mass Spectrometer

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MS replaces CRT, separates heavier ions from lighter when injected

with ionized gas

CHAPTER 11 NOTES
11. 1 Organizing by Properties
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Dmitri Mendeleev, Russian scientist, published his classification

scheme for the elements in 1869
first periodic table is seen and listed the elements in order of
increasing molar mass
categorized by measuring similar characteristics
predicted properties of missing elements
surprisingly accurate
periodic law: properties of the elements recur periodically when the
elements are arranged in increasing order by their atomic numbers
used today is similar to his table

11.2 Periodic Table Today

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previous represents the first 21 elements and some of their physical

and chemical properties

helium, neon, argon are only elements shown that do not form
hydrides and fluorides
grouped by atomic mass
group 1: alkali metals react with water to form what is known as an
alkali or basic solution
group 2: alkaline earth metals
halogens, noble gases, transition metals
horizontal rows of elements: periods

11.3 Period Table and Electron Configurations

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electron configurations describe the orbital arrangement of electrons in

an atom and help to explain why we notice similarities in chemical
properties
presume each element is neutral, atomic number equals number of
electrons in the orbitals
orbital: 2, 8, 8, 18
outermost orbit: valence electrons
o noble gases: full = stable
each grouping has the same number of valence electrons
pattern exists for each group of representative elements

11.4 Electron Configuration

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Na and NE are isoelectronic because they have same electron

configuration (see above)
alkaline earth elements = 2 in valence
alkaline earth metals tend to form 2+ ions in chemical reactions
observe patterns in each family always same number of valence =
explains chemical similarities

11.5 Atomic and Ionic Radii

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how big is an tom?

atomic radius involves determining the distance between the nuclei of
metal atoms in a crystal
o using X-ray diffraction
for elements that exist in pure form as molecules, measurements can
be made of the distances between nuclei for two atoms bonded
together
ionic radius is a measure of the size of electron probability volume for
an ion
o decrease from left to right across a period of periodic table
o atomic and ionic radii increase from top to bottom

11.6 Ionization Energy

- energy needed to remove an electron from a neutral gaseous atom

ionization energies of many atoms were determined in the 20s by
bombarding gaseous samples of an element with high energy
ejected most weakly held electron to form positive ions
low ionization energy forms a positive ion
high ionization energy rarely from positive ions, may form negative
ions or no ions at all
low ionization energy for an atom means that the electron that is
removed is not held very tightly by nucleus
shielded form the effective attractive force of the nucleus by the inner
electrons in the first and second energy levels
outermost electron is easily removed (From Sodium)
IE decrease as molar mass increase